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Semantics
LING 200Spring 2006
Overview• Semantic competence• Lexical semantics
– Some meaning relationships– Cross-linguistic variation
• Reference– iconicity– protypes– sense vs. reference
• “semantics”
• Phrasal semantics
Semantic competence• Semantics
– overlaps with morphology, syntax– an important part of linguistics
• What native speakers know about:– meanings of individual morphemes– meanings of heteromorphemic words and
sentences– relationships between meanings
• Challenge of studying semantics– knowing what morphemes, words and sentences
mean
Lexical semantics
• = meanings of morphemes (and words)• Some meaning relations
– Synonymy– Ambiguity– Antonymy– Hyponymy and hypernymy
Synonymy
• If A is synonymous with B, – A and B mean the same thing, A can be
paraphrased by B• (Fairly) synonymous lexical items
– couch = sofa– get = receive– throw up = vomit– put off = postpone
• cf. procrastinate (‘put off due to laziness’)
Ambiguity
• Polysemy vs. homophony• Polysemous morpheme
– meaning1 meaning2– e.g. hard
• “durable, solid”• “difficult”
• Single lexical entry in a dictionary
Homophony
• Homophones– morpheme1 morpheme2
meaning1 meaning2
– e.g. pass (‘I’m going to pass’)• ‘abstain’• ‘succeed’
• Distinct lexical entries in a dictionary
Hyponymy and hypernymy
• If B is a hyponym of A, then– the meaning of B is a special case of A
• If A is a hypernym of B, then– the meaning of A is a more general instance of B
B A
Hyponyms: nouns
Hyponymy: adjectivescolored (‘contains color’)
red green black purple blue yellow
turquoise royal blue
Hyponymy: verbs
cutslice
motatedrive
movedance
hypernymhyponym
Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (p. 184): ‘clarinet, guitar, horn, marimba, piano, trumpet, and violinare hyponyms because they are “musical instruments” but there isn’t a single word meaning “musical instrument” that has these words as its hyponyms.’
Still, piano is a hyponym of musical instrument; etc.
(Generally) productive ways of forming hyponyms
adverbial modification
compounding
adjectival/ sentential modification
strategy
dill pickleroad rage
picklerage
incredibly interestinginteresting
carflower
Japanese carthe flower I picked last night
hyponym
Caveats re adjectival modification• Anti-intersection adjectives
the president (i.e. current)the former president
offerphony offer
$100 billfake $100 bill
is not a hyponym of:
phony offer offer
• ‘Non-intersection’ adjectives
thiefalleged thief
solutionpossible solution
is not necessarily a hyponym of:
thiefalleged thief
alleged thief
?? ??
Caveat re compounding• “Exocentric” compounds
TV showoperasoap opera
carwagonstation wagon
sound systemboxboombox
instead hyponym of:is not a hyponym of:
Cross-linguistic variation in lexicalsemantics
1. How many morphemes are required to express a concept?– ‘conifer branch’
• English: 2 morphemes• Witsuwit’en
– 1 morpheme: [l] ‘branch of conifer’ – cf. -[jischm] ‘branch of deciduous tree’
2. How general is the concept expressed by a morpheme? (How many semantic features does it take to describe the concept?) How are concepts morphologically encoded?
• Witsuwit’en– [tstl’s] ‘paper, letter, book’– [nxw]- ‘our, your (pl.)’, [nj]- ‘your (sg.)’
Cross-linguistic variation in the encoding of kinship concepts
• e.g. ‘parent’s sibling’– Other possible concepts that might also be encoded in a
single morpheme:• sex: not specified, male, female• side of family: not specified, maternal, paternal• 3 x 3 = 9 possible distinct concepts (in addition to ‘parent’s sibling’)
‘parent’s sibling’
paternalmale9maternalmale8not specifiedmale7paternalfemale6maternalfemale5not specifiedfemale4paternalnot specified3maternalnot specified2not specifiednot specified1side of familysex of parent’s sibling
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
ma-thaj--‘father’s brother’
káka-z--‘mother’s brother’
----uncle‘parent’s brother’
pišíš-pits--‘father’s sister’
--
aunt------English
paá-aq’j/-eq’j‘mother’s sister’
----‘parent’s sister’
----‘father’s sibling’
----‘mother’s sibling
----‘parent’s sibling’
SahaptinWitsuwit’en
Reference
• Iconic vs. non-iconic reference• Does the form of a sign (expression)
resemble what it refers to?– spoken languages, rarely– sign languages, more often
Iconic vs. non-iconic reference
BANANA ENGLAND
Prototypical reference• For many common
nouns, the set of possible referents are clustered around a prototype.
• E.g. ‘bird’• Prototypical exemplars
of a category are more readily (quickly, reliably) processed than atypical exemplars.
Reference and prototypes• Prototypes vs. set of possible referents:
– some set overlap possible:• ‘bowl’ vs. ‘cup’
• ‘a few’ vs. ‘several’• ‘blue’ vs. ‘green’
Reference and prototypes
Coreference• Grammatical encoding of reference
– syntax overlaps with semantics• Pronoun form. Reflexive pronouns:
themselveshimself, herself, itself3
yourselvesyourself2
ourselvesmyself1
pluralsingular
Coreference• Joyce burped.
Julia asked if Joyce could excuse herself.• Julia burped.
Julia asked if Joyce could excuse her.
‘herself’ must be coreferential with another NP in the same sentence
‘her’ must not be coreferential with another NP in the same sentence
Sense vs. reference--‘What does [hawláak] mean?’
--‘Let’s ask Virginia Beavert.’vs. ‘Let’s ask someone who speaks Sahaptin.’
Sense vs. reference• Reference (‘extension’): identity of real
world object• Sense (‘intension’): (compositionally
determined) meaning• Same referent, unequal sense
– ‘Toshiyuki Ogihara’ • has no sense (to an English speaker, other than
“Japanese name”)– ‘the semanticist on the faculty in the Dept. of
Linguistics, UW’– Proper names characteristically have a referent
but no sense
Sense vs. reference
• Sense without reference is possible– ‘the first female president of the United States’– ‘the B wing elevator in Padelford Hall’
“Semantics”• To non-linguist native speakers of English, if
two expressions differ in “semantics”, the expressions have the same referent but differ in sense (as pointed out to me by Prof. Ogihara)
– "One of my pet peeves is when people say the school district, instead of our school district. Maybe it's just semantics, but it makes the community sound powerless, and we're not."
Russ Wood, president of the Mountain View-Whisman School Board (example from the internet)
The Seattle Times, 11-1-2005
Sentence (phrasal) semantics
• How do the meanings of lexical items combine? – Metonyms, metaphor– Compositionality and lack thereof (idioms)– Anomaly
• Entailment
Metonyms and metaphor
• Metonym: ‘substitutes for the object that is meant, the name of an attribute or concept associated with that object.’ (Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams p. 184)
– redcoat: ‘a British soldier in a uniform with a red coat, as during the American Revolution’ (New World Dict. of the Amer. Lg.)
– soap opera: ‘a daytime radio or television serial drama of a highly melodramatic, sentimental nature: so called since many original sponsors were soap companies’ (New World Dict. of the Amer. Lg.)
– redneck: ‘Exceptions [to lexical category predictability] are compounds like redneck, which is a type of person not a type of neck. Their meaning cannot be predicted by rule.’ (Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams p. 184)
• [Slang] a poor, white, rural resident of the South: often, a somewhat derogatory term [from the characteristic sunburned neck acquired in the fields by farm laborers] (New World Dict. of the Amer. Lg.)
• redneck a metonym; meaning not entirelypredictable by rule
Metaphor
• ‘an expression that ordinarily designates one concept---its literal meaning---but is used to designate another concept, thus creating an implicit comparison.’– ‘Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee.’
Idioms/proverbs• Institutionalized metaphors
– When does a metaphor become so widespread as to become an idiom?
• Have two (or more) meanings– literal (compositional) meaning– figurative (noncompositional) meaning, a.k.a. ‘free
translation’
Some English idioms and proverbs
‘to say something stupid, regrettable and/or insensitive’
VPto put one’s foot in one’s mouth
‘to insist on minute, possibly unimportant detail’
VPto split hairs
VP
phrasal category
‘to become zealously convinced (about something)’
to get religion
noncompositional meaning
idiom
‘an easy, straightforward time with future endeavors’
NPfair winds and following seas
‘Don’t ask questions/raise issues that could create more problems than would be solved by the original question.’
SLet sleeping dogs lie.
‘not going to happen/come to fruition’
APdead in the water
NP
NP
‘illegal trading or exchange’black market
‘termination of street with no connection to another street’
dead end
Some Tsek’ene idioms
NP
VP
VP
phrasal category
‘slow, clumsy hands’
‘frog hand’[thehkhahče ilà]
‘he/she criticized me’
‘he/she put my head in the water’
[thìtshìsniõ]
‘he/she/it died’‘it wagged its tail’
[tche nikl]
noncompositional meaning
literal meaningidiom
Some Witsuwit’en idioms
S
NP
VP
VP
phrasal category
noncompositional meaning
literal meaning
idiom
‘there was a hail storm’‘the devil fought with his wife’
[ljap tat p jininje]
‘large wet snowflake’‘songbird backpack’
[c’t’xwts’j il]
‘he/she/it is used to you’‘he/she/it likes your smell’
[njzil utilj]
‘she is pregnant’‘he/she stays home’
[j ste]
Anomaly• Semantically ill-formed phrases
– meanings that cannot combine with each other– anomalous expression = ‘oxymoron’
• Sign in a London department store:Bargain basement upstairs
• On a church door:'This is the gate of Heaven. Enter Ye all by this door.' (This door is kept locked because of the draught. Please use side door.)
• Outside a disco:Smarts is the most exclusive disco in town. Everyone welcome.
– source of many of Jay Leno’s “Headlines”
• Semantic well-formedness independent of syntactic well-formedness – #Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
• # = semantically ill-formed
– Jabberwocky (see p. 202 of Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams)
Entailment• If X entails Y, then whenever X is true Y is
also true.– X: Last night I did the dishes and straightened
the living room. entails:• Y: Last night I did the dishes.
– X: A contestant was fired by Donald Trump.entails:• Y: Someone was fired by Donald Trump.
Entailment• Mutual entailment = complete synonymy• ‘Put off’ is synonymous with ‘postpone’
– If– They put off the wedding until June. entails– They postponed the wedding until June.
and– They postponed the wedding until June. entails– They put off the wedding until June.
– Then– They postponed the wedding until June.
is synonymous with– They put off the wedding until June.
Predicting entailment
1. Factive verbs: be sorry, regret, stop
Factive verbs entail the truth of their complements.
• I’m sorry that the Seahawks lost. entails• The Seahawks lost.
• I regret that I put my foot in my mouth. entails• I put my foot in my mouth.
• When did you stop beating your ___? entails• You were beating your ___.
• Complements of factive verbs cannot be ‘cancelled’– Julia is sorry the party is over (#but it’s actually
still in full swing).• Complements of non-factive verbs can be
cancelled– Julia said the party is over (but it’s actually still
in full swing).– Julia thinks the party is over (but it’s actually still
in full swing).
Predicting entailment
2. Dictum de OmniIf sentences X and Y differ only in that X
contains a hyponym (special case) of Y, then X generally entails Y.
Dictum de Omni
dill pickle is a hyponym of pickleX: Dave ate a dill pickle. entails
Y: Dave ate a pickle.
Japanese car is a hyponym of carX: Prof. Ogihara bought a Japanese car. entails
Y: Prof. Ogihara bought a car.
Predicting entailment3. Dictum de nulloIf sentences X and Y differ only in that X contains a
hypernym (general case) found in Y, then X generally entails Y.
And the sentences containing X and Y are (any of)– Negative sentences– Conditional sentences– Sentences containing ‘all’, ‘every’; habitual sentences
Negative sentences• Seattle is a hypernym of Ballard• X: ‘Bill Gates doesn't live in Seattle.’
entails• Y: ‘Bill Gates doesn't live in Ballard.’
Conditional sentences
• sports car is a hypernym of German sports car
• X: If Bill bought a sports car, then it must be a nice car. entails
• Y: If Bill bought a German sports car, then it must be a nice car.
Sentences with 'every'
• boxing match is a hypernym of celebrity boxing match
• X: Darva Conger watched every boxing match. entails
• Y: Darva Conger watched every celebrity boxing match.
Habitual sentences
• boxing is a hypernym of celebrity boxing• X: Darva Conger enjoys boxing. entails• Y: Darva Conger enjoys celebrity boxing.
Entailment summary
• Possible to predict when some sentences entail other sentences.
• Depends on– whether sentence contains a factive verb or not– which sentence contains hypernym vs.
hyponym– type of sentence
• positive• negative, conditional, ‘every’, habitual
Semantics summary• Semantics overlaps with morphology, syntax• Semantic competence • Lexical semantics
– Cross-linguistic variation in the number of morphemes to encode concepts
– Semantic relations: antonymy, synonymy, ambiguity, hyponymy, entailment
• Reference, coreference, reference vs. sense, “semantics”
• There are both compositional and non-compositional aspects of linguistic meaning
• Entailment