selection
TRANSCRIPT
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Selection
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Introduction
Selection is the process by which an organization chooses the person(s) who best meets the selection criteria for the position available Decisions must be made efficiently
and within the boundaries of EEO lawsSelection programs try to identify applicants with the
best chance of meeting or exceeding the organization’s standards of performance
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Introduction
Performance refers to more than quantity of output It can also mean quality of output, good attendance,
and honesty
Successful selection doesn’t always mean finding someone with the most of a given qualityThe goal is an optimal match between the job and
the characteristics an applicant possessesIdentify which characteristics are the most important
for the circumstances
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Internal Environmental Influences
Organizational characteristics can influence the selection process: SizeComplexityTechnological volatility
An organization’s attitude abouthiring from within is also a determinant
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Internal Environmental Influences
Development and implementation of large-scale selection efforts can be costlyComplex systems are found at larger organizations To recover the development costs, there must be a
sufficient number of jobs to be filled
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External Environmental Influences
Employment laws/regulations affect what an organization can do in its selection system Federal and state laws both have an impactSome states have tighter limits on drug testing Others offer protection to employers who provide
feedback during reference checks
When unemployment rates are low, it may be hard to attract and hire the number of people needed When there is an oversupply of qualified applicants,
selection strategies differ
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External Environmental Influences
Human resource specialists evaluate the effects of the labor market on selection by using a selection ratio: Selection ratio =
Number of applicants hired ·\· Total applicants
When the selection ratio is close to 1:1, it is a high selection ratioThe lower the selection ratio, the more detailed the
selection processThe organization can be more selective, but the
selection decision will require more time and money
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Selection Criteria
Understanding the characteristics essential for high performance The characteristics are identified during job analysis They must be reflected in the job specification
The goal of any selection system is to:Determine which applicants possess the knowledge,
skills, abilities, and KSAOs dictated by the job
The system must distinguish between characteristics that are: Needed at the time of hiring, acquired during
training, and developed on the job
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Categories of Criteria
Criteria for making selection decisions fall into these broad categories: EducationExperiencePhysical characteristicsOther personal characteristics
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Formal Education
Many cognitive, motor, physical, and interpersonal attributes are present because of:Genetic predispositions and learning
Educational accomplishment is a common, cost-effective way to screen for these abilities Education may be required in a particular area of
expertise To be legal, educational standards must be related to
successful performance of the job Do not set standards higher than required by the job
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Experience and Past Performance
Many believe that past performance on a similar job is the best indicator of future performance Employers also consider experience a good indicator
of ability and work-related attitudes
Studies prove that experience is related to job performanceHowever, the organization must have a rational basis
for defining what “relevant experience” means
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Physical Characteristics
In the past, many employers used physical characteristics as a criterionEmployers were more likely to hire
and pay better wages to taller menFlight attendants and receptionists
were hired on the basis of beauty Such practices discriminated against
ethnic groups, women, and the handicapped
These practices are now illegal unless a physical characteristic is directly related to work effectiveness
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Personal Characteristics and Personality
The personal characteristics and personality types category includes marital status, sex, age, and so onSome employers prefer married employees because
they are assumed to be “stable” and have a lower turnover rate
Other employers prefer single employees, who may be more open to a transfer or lengthy overseas assignment
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Personal Characteristics and Personality
Age has also been used as a criterionIt is illegal to discriminate against those over 40No law addresses this for younger people Age restrictions can only be used if job-related
This issue will become more important by 2010, when the median age in the U.S. will be 40.6 years
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Personal Characteristics and Personality
Certain aptitudes and skills can also be included in this category Example: The military uses spatial-relations aptitude
as one criterion for selecting potential pilots
Many employers prefer employees with certain personality types Example: Having an outgoing personality may be
useful to salespeople
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Personal Characteristics and Personality
Personality tests have been more positive since validation of the Big Five personality factors: Emotional stability ExtroversionOpenness to experienceAgreeablenessConscientiousness
The Big Five traits explain up to 75 percent of an individual’s personality Conscientiousness and emotional stability predict
performance across most occupations
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Personal Characteristics and Personality
Selection using personality should be based on whether it is necessary for high performance Personality measures run a greater risk of being
legally challenged as an invasion of privacy You must be certain that successful and unsuccessful
employees can be distinguished by personality
It is unwise to use personality as a general criterion for screening out “undesirable” applicantsThe personality characteristic that leads to failure in
one job might lead to success in another
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Reliability & Validity of Selection Criteria
Once a set of criteria has been decided on, a technique for assessing them must be chosen Application blanks and biodata forms Interviews Psychological tests of aptitude and personality Work sample tests Physical and medical testing Reference checks
Regardless of the method chosen, be certain that the information is both reliable and valid
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Reliability
The main goal of selection is to make accurate predictions about people Selection techniques must yield reliable information
Reliability refers to how stable or repeatable a measurement is over a variety of testing conditions A somewhat unreliable tool can still be useful Measurements that are too inconsistent are useless
Test-retest is a common way to assess reliability Reliability is also determined by using interrater
reliability
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Validity
To be useful, measures must also be valid Validity addresses what a test measures and
how well it has measured it The primary concern is whether the assessment
results in accurate predictions about the future success or failure of an applicant
Three types of validity HR specialists should be familiar with: Content Construct Criterion-related
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Content Validity
Content validity is the degree to which a test, interview, or performance evaluation measures skill, knowledge, or ability to perform a job Content validity is not appropriate for abstract job
behaviors
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Construct Validity
Construct validity is a trait that is not typically observable, such as leadership A test has construct validity when it actually
measures the unobservable trait that it claims to measure
Construct validity can be assumed to exist if a large body of empirical work yields consistent results
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Construct Validity
The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures established three requirements for construct validity: A job analysis must systematically define:
The work behaviors involved in the job The constructs that are important to job
performance The test must measure one of those constructs The construct must be related to the performance of a
critical work behavior
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Criterion-related Validity
Criterion-related validity is the extent to which a selection technique can accurately predict one or more important elements of job behavior Scores on a test or performance in a simulated
exercise are correlated with measures of actual on-the-job performance The test is a predictorThe performance score is a criterion
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Criterion-related Validity
Criteria relevant to personnel selection include measures such as: Quality or quantity Supervisory ratings Absenteeism Accidents Sales
The criterion determines if a selection system is legal Choose a measure that reflects the contributions of
employees to the effectiveness of the organization
Two popular types of criterion-related validity are predictive and concurrent
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Predictive Validity
Predictive validity is determined by using the scores from a sample of applicants for a job Administer the test to a large sample of applicants Select individuals for the job Wait an appropriate amount of time and then collect
measures of job performance Assess the strength of the predictor-criterion
relationship
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Predictive Validity
The drawback of predictive validity: The employer must wait until it has hired a large
number of people for whom it has predictor scoresIt must then wait until it can measure the job
performance of the people hired
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Concurrent Validity
Concurrent validity is also used to determine whether a selection test can predict job performance The test is administered to present employees
performing the job At the same time, performance measures for these
employees are collected Test scores are then correlated with the performance
measures
The biggest advantage of concurrent validation:It can be conducted relatively quickly, which makes it
less expensive than predictive validation
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Validity Problems
Potential problems with predictive validation: Uses experienced employees, which can bias
validation in favor of applicants with experience Present employees often balk at completing tests There is a self-selection bias that restricts the range of
test scores (the least skilled workers have been terminated, demoted, or transferred)
Concurrent validation should not be used as an alternative to predictive validation simply because it can be done more quickly
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The Selection Process
In the past, hiring decisions were based on the subjective likes and dislikes of the boss Selection tools were designed to aid this gut reaction Today, selection is viewed as more than intuition
The selection decision is a series of steps through which applicants pass At each step, more applicants
are screened out
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The Selection Process
Insert Exhibit 8-1
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Step 1: Preliminary Screening
The first step in most selection processes involves completing an application form Application blanks vary in length and sophisticationNearly all ask for enough information to determine
minimal qualifications The application eliminates the need for interviewers
to gather basic information Application blanks are subject to the same legal
standards as any other selection method They generally limit questions that imply something
about the applicant’s physical health
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Step 1: Preliminary Screening
Many organizations add clauses at the beginning or end of their application blanks that help to: Protect the organization against unjustified lawsuits Ensure that applicants and employees understand the
terms of their employment
Three of the more common clauses cover: Applicant’s rights as they relate to the organization The scope of the employment contract Grievances
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Step 1: Preliminary Screening
The biographical information blank (BIB):Contains more items than typical application blanksAsks for information related to a wider array of
attitudes and experiences
BIB items are based on an assumption that prior experiences are related to future behaviorExample: People who preferred English in school
will perform differently on a given job than people who preferred science or math
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Step 1: Preliminary Screening
The weighted application blank is designed to be scored more systematically and is more like the BIB Current high and low performers are compared on a
variety of characteristics that were known at the time they applied for the job
Weights are then assigned to the degree of difference on each characteristic
The weights are totaled for each applicant, and the one with the highest score is the preferred choice
Applicants who are judged minimally qualified proceed to the next phase of the selection process
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Step 2: Employment Interview
The interview is the selection technique most often encountered by persons applying for jobs in the U.S. Structure the interview to be reliable and valid Train managers to use good interviewing
techniques
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Types of Interviews
Interviews vary along two important dimensions: How structured it is Whether it focuses on historical information or
hypothetical situations
An unstructured interview has no predetermined script or protocol Structured interviews are more reliable and valid than
unstructured interviews Standardization lowers the possibility that biases
have been introduced by the interviewer
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Types of Interviews
Two types of structured interviews have gained popularity in the U.S.: Behavioral interview—applicants are asked to relate
actual incidents from their past work experience to the job for which they are applying
Situational interview—seeks to identify whether an applicant possesses relevant job knowledge and motivation by asking hypothetical questions
Questions about past experience have higher validity than future-oriented hypothetical questions
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Training for Interviewing
Training programs can reduce many of the errors found in traditional, unstructured interviews This is especially true when the training is used in
conjunction with a structured interview format Validity is enhanced when a trained interviewer takes
behaviorally oriented notes during the interview
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Step 3: Employment Tests
An employment test attempts to measure certain characteristics, such as: Aptitudes Manual dexterity IntelligencePersonality
It can be expensive to develop an employment test, so many employers purchase existing tests Some tests cost as little as $1 per applicant The Mental Measurements Yearbook summarizes
many of the tests and their effectiveness
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Step 3: Employment Tests
Any testing device should be validated before it is used to make hiring decisions Validation studies are expensive; even more so if
questions of discrimination arise Despite the cost, tests can more than pay for
themselves through increased efficiency in selection
The type of test ultimately used depends on: Budgetary constraints The complexity and difficulty of the job The size and quality of applicant populations The KSOAs required by the job
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Job Sample Performance Tests
This test requires the applicant to do a sample of the work that the job involves in a controlled situation Programming for computer programmers Driving course for delivery persons Auditions at an orchestra or ballet company
Applicants are often asked to run the machines they would run on the job The quantity and quality of their
work is compared with the work of other applicants
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Job Sample Performance Tests
Job sample performance tests have some of the highest validities of all selection tests Their superiority lies in the direct relationship with
performance on the job
Face validity should not be confused with actual validity Face validity is how good a test looks for a given
situation Many tests that are valid also look valid, but that is
not always the case
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Cognitive Ability Tests
The best known cognitive abilities are math and verbal These form the basis the Scholastic Aptitude Test
(SAT) and the Graduate Record Examination (GRE)
Verbal and math abilities are also measured by tests developed specifically human resource use: Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale Wonderlic Personnel Test California Test of Mental Maturity (adult level)
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Cognitive Ability Tests
The Minnesota Paper Form Board Test (MPFB) measures spatial relations Clerical aptitude can be determined with the
Minnesota Clerical Test
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Psychomotor Ability Simulations
Psychomotor ability tests are not as popular as they once were; they include:
Choice reaction time Speed of limb movement Finger dexterity
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Personality Inventories & Temperament
The least reliable of the employment tests attempt to measure personality or temperament Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory California Psychological InventoryEdwards Personal Preference Schedule
Some disappointing results are due to a mismatch between the test and the situation in which it was used
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Personality Inventories & Temperament
A different approach utilizes projective techniques to vague stimuli Reactions provide data on which psychologists base
assumptions and interpretations of personality The stimuli are purposely vague to reach unconscious
aspects of the personality The most common are the
Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test
Insert Exhibit 8-8 here
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Polygraph and Honesty Tests
The polygraph is erroneously called a lie detector It records changes in breathing, blood pressure, pulse,
and skin response, then plots the reactions on paper It was a popular selection tool by the mid-1980s
because on-the-job crime had increased tremendously
In recent years, objections have been raised May be an invasion of privacyCan lead to self-incrimination May not be reliable and valid
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Polygraph and Honesty Tests
The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 made it illegal for most private organizations to use the polygraph as a selection device
Exemptions:Government agenciesCertain Dept. of Defense and Dept. of Energy
contractorsPrivate employers whose business involves security
and controlled substances
It is legal to use the polygraph during an ongoing investigation of dishonesty if the employee’s rights are safe-guarded
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Polygraph and Honesty Tests
Organizations searching for an alternative to the polygraph are turning to paper-and-pencil tests Overt integrity tests ask direct questions and gather a
history of theft and other illegal activities Personality-based integrity tests assess a
predisposition toward deviant and disruptive behavior
Honesty tests have acceptable levels of validity and reliabilityThey can also be used to predict future job
performance
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Step 4: Reference Checks
When applying for a job, you may be asked for a list of references Rarely does someone knowingly include the name of
a reference who will give a negative impressionThis built-in bias is why references are criticized
Equally important are concerns over the legality of asking for, and providing, such informationGiving out confidential information could be a
violation of the employee’s right to privacyGiving a negative recommendation opens the
reference up to a defamation lawsuit
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Step 4: Reference Checks
Fears of being sued have led many managers to refuse to provide references for former employees Many organizations include statements in employee
handbooks about reference checking policiesManagers often give out only verifiable kinds of
information, such as date of employment and job title
Organizations must also be wary of any policy which suggests that all references should be neutral They could be sued for a “negligent referral”
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Step 4: Reference Checks
At present, the legal status surrounding reference-checking and providing recommendations is unclearAt least 32 states have passed laws giving managers
some immunity for providing good-faith, job-related information about their employees
Most laws are too new to determine if they will be effective
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Step 5: Physical Examinations
The Americans with Disabilities Act indicates that:Physical examinations can be used to screen out
unqualified individuals, but only after a conditional offer of employment is made
If an organization uses such examinations, everyone who is conditionally offered employment should be required to have one
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A Note on Drug Testing
No other selection practice elicits a more emotional reaction than a drug-testing program About 62 percent of U.S/ corporations use drug tests The Dept. of Transportation mandates drug and
alcohol testing for all employers who have truck/delivery drivers with commercial licenses
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A Note on Drug Testing
Statistics compiled by the U.S. Dept. of Labor: There are 14.8 million illicit drug users in the U.S.
and three-quarters of them are employed More than 14 percent of employed Americans report
being heavy drinkers More than 1 in 3 workers between 18 and 25 are
binge drinkers Alcohol abuse costs U.S. corporations 500 million
lost work days each year Losses of $120 billion annually are due to drug abuse
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A Note on Drug Testing
The reliability of drug tests is a major concern: The tests can yield a high number of false positives The personal consequences of being falsely labeled a
drug user are severe
The legality of drug-testing programs has not been establishedHowever, many have withstood challenges in court
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A Note on Drug Testing
Most good-faith drug testing programs will be legally acceptable if the organization has: Informed all job applicants of the drug-testing
screening program Established a high-quality testing procedure with a
reliable testing laboratory Performed tests in a professional,
non-threatening wayKept results confidential
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Selection of Managers
The employment tests used vary with the type of employee being hired Organizations frequently spend more time, effort,
and money hiring middle- to upper-level executives
One of the best-known multiple selection methods used for this purpose is the assessment centerFirst used by the German military in World War II Used by the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in the
U.S. in the 1940s Introduced to the business world in the 1950s by
AT&T
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Selection of Managers
An assessment center uses a variety of testing methods, including: Interviews Work samples and simulations Paper-and-pencil tests of abilities and attitudes
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Selection of Managers
Assessment centers are similar in a number of areas: Groups of approx. 12 individuals are evaluated Individual and group activities are observed and
evaluated Multiple methods of assessment are used Assessors are usually a panel of line managers for the
organization, consultants, or outsiders trained to conduct assessments
Assessment centers are relevant to the job
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Selection of Managers
Assessors then evaluate each individual on a number of dimensions, such as: Organizational and planning ability DecisivenessFlexibilityResistance to stressPoisePersonal style
Rater’s judgments are consolidated and developed into a final report
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Selection of Managers
Assessment center reports permit the organization to determine: Qualifications for particular positions PromotabilityHow individuals function in a group Type of training/development needed How good assessors are at observing, evaluating, and
reporting on the performance of others
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Selection of Managers
Assessment centers are a valid way to select managers, but they are not without disadvantages Relatively expensive Not a reasonable alternative for smaller organizations Less costly and administratively complicated
techniques may be just as effective
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Selection Cost-Benefit Analysis
Utility: the degree to which using a selection system improves the quality of the individuals being selected Statistical utility: the extent to which a selection
technique allows a company to predict who will be successful
Organizational utility: a matter of costs and benefits
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Selection Cost-Benefit Analysis
Whether a selection system should be developed and used depends on whether it saves more money than it costs A cost-vs-benefits analysis requires estimates of the
direct and indirect costs associated with the system Direct costs: the price of the tests, the salary paid
to an interviewer, the equipment used, and so on Indirect costs: such things as changes in public
image associated with implementing drug testing
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Selection Cost-Benefit Analysis
An organization must also estimate how much money it saves by hiring more qualified employees Higher levels of quality or quantity Reduced absenteeism Lower accident rates Less turnover
Valid selection procedures can yield huge benefitsThis is especially true where the
costs of hiring a poor performer are high
Putting more money into selection can reduce the amount that must be spent on training