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advanced industrial nations, 93and Asian revolutionaries, 226and capitalism, 6, 240and China, 36, 75as civilizing less-developed economies,

27, 28as creating material foundations of

Socialism, 192and Deng Xiaoping, 206effect on less-developed economies,

23, 39as enemy of less-developed economies,

28, 31, 200of Europe, 241–2and Hobson, 190–1and humiliation of less-developed

economies, 32–4, 44, 235and imperialism, 135as inherited by proletariat, 124, 244and Korean War, 127and Lenin, 107–8, 135, 191–5,

243–4, 246and less-developed economies, 6, 35, 68,

189–95, 196, 197, 226, 240–1less-developed economies as dependent

on, 194, 203–4, 206, 207–8less-developed economies as prey to, 43–4and Mao Zedong, 202and nationalism of less-developed

economies, 57, 58people’s potential for, 41and post-Maoist reforms, 188–9and post-Maoist visits to Europe, 182predicted course of, 21, 22and prerequisite production forces, 20and revolution, 39, 44, 45, 68–9, 104,

240, 241and Sun Yat-sen, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80,

81, 82

welfare benefits of, 241see also industrial development; industry

Africa, 193, 208African Socialism, 223agrarian communities/economies

and advanced vs. less-developed economies, 6

and Bukharin and Preobrazhensky, 124and China’s dependency on Soviets, 125and Chinese Socialism, 36and commodity markets, 175and Deng Xiaoping, 212n6, 238and developmental bourgeoisie, 27and Engels, 36, 38, 59, 61and Great Leap Forward, 175and Hua Guofeng, 171and Japan, 249and Lenin, 102, 145, 146, 243and Mao Zedong, 88n47, 90, 99, 113,

121, 127, 128, 152, 173, 200, 212n6and Marx, 30, 36, 38, 61and Marxism, 109and reactive nationalism, 33in Russia, 30, 34, 59, 61and shift to industrial system, 26and Stalin, 108, 109transcendence of, 38and War of Resistance, 112wealth from, 5see also rural areas

agriculture, 2in Asia, 8, 10, 12, 14–15, 16, 23in China, 1, 2, 8, 35, 36, 58, 74, 76and collectivism, 20, 180, 187and Cultural Revolution, 163and Deng Xiaoping, 169, 180, 187,

213–14, 238and Engels, 8, 9, 12, 14–15, 16, 17,

58, 132

Index

274 ● Index

agriculture (continued )and family farm, 187and Great Britain and Ireland, 203and Great Leap Forward, 143–4, 152,

156, 172and Hegel, 3and Hua Guofeng, 172, 180in India, 61and Japan, 249, 250and Lenin, 86, 122, 146, 147, 194and Mao Zedong, 92, 96, 117, 120, 121,

126, 128, 139, 141–4, 152, 159, 163and Marx, 8, 9, 12, 14–15, 16, 58and Peng Dehuai, 156in Philippines, 65, 66and post-Maoist reforms, 187and Rizal, 66, 67in Russia, 17, 20and Sino-Soviet relations, 198and Soviet Union, 142and Stalin, 137and Sun Yat-sen, 74, 75, 86, 110,

126, 224see also peasants; rural areas

Albania, 208–9American Revolution, 73, 85, 106Angkar Padevat, 253anti-Semitism, 261artisans, 5, 32, 65, 147, 214, 216, 242Asia, 69, 258

agriculture in, 8, 10, 12, 14–15, 16, 23authoritarian regimes in, 252bureaucracy in, 8central government in, 12–13, 15despotism in, 4, 8–9, 11, 12, 13, 14–15,

16, 23, 36, 59dynasties in, 13eastern and southern, 68and Engels, 7–8, 12, 13–14, 48and European classes, 48Great Britain and change in, 23and Hegel, 3, 12infrastructure in, 10, 12irrigation in, 10, 15labor in, 8, 10less-developed economies in, 44, 57market supplements sought in, 31and Marx, 7–15, 17, 18, 21–2, 23, 48and Marxism, 4and Mazzini, 57nationalism in, 32–3, 48, 71–2peasants in, 17, 18political passivity in, 9, 10

and primitive Communism, 15production modes in, 7–15, 16, 17, 18,

19, 20–2property in, 8, 14public works in, 8–9, 10religion in, 10restiveness in, 48rivers in, 9–10and Russia, 16, 59stagnation in, 18unchanging life in, 11war in, 8, 10see also China; India

Austria, 46, 50Austria-Hungary, 43autarkic communities, 9, 11, 18, 35authoritarianism, 2, 17, 222–3, 224, 235,

237, 249see also dictatorship; totalitarianism

Axis powers, 116, 207, 208, 260Aztecs, 10n19, 15

Bakunin, Michail, 62Bandung conference, 202barbarism, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18Bauer, Otto, 43Belgium, 242Bellamy, Edward, 81

Looking Backward, 73Bessarabia, 258Bolshevik Revolution, 89, 101, 106, 107,

116, 200, 244, 250Bolsheviks, 81, 84, 85, 87, 124,

244, 245and Chinese Communist Party, 89–90and Lenin’s New Economic Policy, 122and Mao Zedong, 88and political action, 231and state control, 254transitional program of, 120

Bolshevism, 147and Khrushchev, 247and Mao Zedong, 149and Marxism, 144and Sun Yat-sen, 82

Borodin, Mikhail, 85bourgeoisie, 103and Asian revolutionaries, 226

and capitalism, 36and China, 35–6, 37, 58–9and Chinese Communist Party, 94,

107, 126and civilization, 41

Index ● 275

and class struggle, 47, 48and commercial and industrial growth, 41and Communist Party, 104and consciousness, 102and Cultural Revolution, 161, 163declassed elements of, 104and Deng Xiaoping, 169, 235and Engels, 7, 27, 41, 106, 132European, 18, 242and Great Leap Forward, 168and imperialism, 199and industrial economy, 37, 106in industrial environment, 28and Italian nationalism, 49in Java, 37and Lenin, 107, 122, 134, 135, 191,

200, 244and Mao Zedong, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,

106–11, 119, 120, 121, 126, 128, 153, 202, 225

and Marx, 7, 41, 104, 106, 132and Marxism, 57, 106–7, 109and Marxist revolution, 60and Mazzini, 51and national community, 42and nationalism, 42, 43and overproduction, 19and production, 48, 60and production modes, 17, 18and progress, 27proletarianized, 107and proletariat, 28and revolution, 106as revolutionary vanguard, 104in Russia, 29and Socialism, 36, 102and Stalin, 108and state control, 254and Sun Yat-sen, 110, 126

Boxer Rebellion, 75–6Brunei, 259Buddhism, 2Bukharin, Nikolai, The Economics of the

Period of Transition, 123–4Bukharinites, 130Bulgaria, 40, 62Burma, 128, 258

Cambodia, 253capital

concentration of, 22, 39, 47, 57, 84, 241and Mao Zedong, 117, 125and Marx and Engels, 241

primitive socialist accumulation of, 124and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 184and Sun Yat-sen, 79, 80, 82, 84, 126and transfer from traditional to modern

sectors, 124and Western proletarian revolution, 39

capital accumulationand Europe, 242of Great Britain, 5in Ireland, 44and less-developed economies, 39and Mao Zedong, 138, 149and Marxism, 106and Mazzini, 52, 53primitive, 245in Russia, 34and Stalin, 109and Sun Yat-sen, 75

capitalism, 133abundance of, 142and advanced vs. less-developed

economies, 6, 240and anti-imperialism, 102–3and bourgeoisie, 36and colonialism, 189–90commodity, 102and criticism of Great Leap Forward, 175and demand, 189demise of, 190and Deng Xiaoping, 169, 216, 218, 221,

222, 236and economic abundance, 123and exhaustion of markets, 31and external market supplements, 31and Great Leap Forward, 168and Hobson, 190–1imminent collapse of, 192–3and imperialism, 101, 102, 135industrial, 7, 31, 116, 144–5, 236, 243in Italy, 52and Lenin, 86, 101, 102, 108, 122,

144–5, 192–3, 243, 244and less-developed economies, 31, 189and Maoism, 174and Mao Zedong, 89, 94, 110, 111, 116and Marx and Engels, 7, 63, 172–3,

189–90monopolized, cartelized, 102and Mussolini, 251and party-state, 256and post-Maoist Chinese visits to

Europe, 182

276 ● Index

capitalism (continued )and poverty, 31as precondition for Socialist

revolution, 123productive capacity inherited from,

56, 250proletarian assumption of control

over, 122–3and reactive, nationalist revolutions, 194and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 186and revolution, 26and Romanovs, 20and Russia, 30–1and Soviet Union, 174, 246–7and Stalin, 103, 195and subsistence wages, 189and Sun Yat-sen, 80, 126, 224and underconsumption, 31and urban proletariat, 241

capitalism, finance, 107, 151n35, 244and Lenin, 102–3, 108, 135and Mao Zedong, 116and Marx and Engels, 172

capitalist countriesand Mao Zedong, 195–6, 202and Stalin, 195

capital transfer, 182, 184from agrarian to manufacturing

economy, 124to less-developed economies, 39, 44, 189,

193, 194and Mao Zedong, 126, 202between Soviet Union and

imperialists, 207Carbonari, 50Castro, Fidel, 261Castroism, 256Celts, 10n19, 16, 38Central Bank of China, 91charismatic leader, 46, 54, 204, 252

Deng Xiaoping as, 238and Fascism, 256, 257Mussolini as, 251–2Pol Pot as, 253Sun Yat-sen as, 79, 224, 238

Cheka, 148Chen Boda, 161, 165Chen Yun, 175, 176, 184–5Chiang Kai-shek, 86, 112, 159, 261

and Chinese Communist Party, 90communist betrayal of, 114and corruption, 114and Germany, 97

and industry, 257and Kuomintang, 86, 252, 257and labor, 257and Mao Zedong, 114–15, 119and party, 257–8and property, 257–8single-party, authoritarian rule of, 239and Soviet Union, 100, 114and Stalin, 113, 208and state, 257and Sun Yat-sen, 86, 115, 238and Taiwan, 115and United States, 113, 116, 160and war with Japan, 90, 97, 100see also Nanking government

Chinaagriculture in, 1, 2, 8, 35, 36, 58, 74, 76and Asiatic mode of production, 22autocratic paternalism of, 2bourgeoisie in, 35–6, 37, 61centralized bureaucracy in, 35, 58, 72and Christianity, 72class in, 48and colonialism, 190despotism in, 8–9, 14–15, 36economic development of, 35–8, 44,

58–9, 74, 75economy as less-developed in, 22, 31, 43economy of, 2, 4, 58education in, 72and Engels, 6, 14, 23, 25, 27, 32, 35–8,

57–9, 190, 192, 225–6, 242and Europe, 72, 75and first Sino-Japanese War, 36, 37government in, 8–9, 76and Great Britain, 32, 35, 38and Hegel, 1–4, 6–7and Hobson, 191humiliation of, 32, 35, 58, 72, 74, 75, 76imperial system in, 2, 3–4, 35, 36, 58,

75, 76and industrial development, 35–8, 44,

58–9, 61, 74, 75and industrial powers, 36, 75and Industrial Revolution, 4infrastructure in, 8, 37–8, 44, 72, 76irrigation in, 8, 12, 16, 35, 74, 76,

119, 143and Japan, 36, 75, 105law in, 76and Lenin, 193market supplements in, 31, 76, 79and Marx, 4, 6, 23, 27, 32, 35–8, 57–9,

192, 225–6, 242

Index ● 277

and Marxism, 84May Fourth Movement in, 107and military, 72, 74–5, 77, 79nationalism in, 33, 40, 48, 49, 62, 69,

71–2and Opium wars, 72peasants in, 35property in, 15and religion, 2, 35, 72revolutionary as prototypic, 44and revolutionary bourgeoisie, 58–9revolutionary vanguard in, 103revolution in, 44, 48, 49, 57–8and revolution of 1911-1912, 72–3, 75,

78, 196rivers of, 1, 2, 3rural inhabitants of, 35, 72and Russia, 16, 59Socialism in, 37and Taiping Revolution, 72taxation in, 72and technology, 72and trade, 72unrest and rebellion in, 32, 35, 57, 58,

63, 72, 192violence in, 48see also Asia; People’s Republic of China;

Republic of ChinaChinese Civil War, 156Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 156, 225

and Bolsheviks, 89–90and bourgeoisie, 94, 107, 126Central Committee, 163, 181Central Cultural Revolution Group,

161, 167Central Party Work Conference, 213and Chiang Kai-shek, 90and civil war, 111–12, 114and class consciousness, 139and Communist Party of the Soviet

Union, 198and corruption, 255, 261and Cultural Revolution, 161,

164, 181declassed bourgeois leadership of, 104and Deng Xiaoping, 183, 217–18, 219,

234, 235, 236, 237, 238and economy, 149, 175, 219and Fascism, 254and Four Modernizations, 181Fourteenth Party Congress, 238as instilling consciousness, 154–5and international community, 219and Japanese imperialism, 107

and Kuomintang, 81, 90, 98, 99, 100, 110, 111–12

leadership of, 104, 111, 128, 184and Lenin, 89and Manchuria, 112, 114and Mao Zedong, 87–8, 119Mao Zedong criticized in, 156–9Mao Zedong on revisionists within,

158–9, 160Mao Zedong’s enemies in, 161Mao Zedong’s preeminence in, 92and Mao Zedong Thought, 130, 186and markets, 175and Marxism, 89–90and Marxist-Leninist theory, 90minimum program of, 111and nationalism, 94, 262and nonproletarian masses, 104and one party, developmental

dictatorship, 181and party-state, 258and peasants, 107, 131people as inspired by, 130–1Politburo, 163, 170post-Mao dominance of, 183postwar territorial gains by, 112and proletarian revolution, 107and proletariat, 104and property, 138and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 184revisionists in, 162, 163revolutionary leadership of, 92–3rightists in, 163rural-based guerrilla operations of, 99and second Sino-Japanese War, 98Sixth Plenum of Eleventh Central

Committee Meeting of, 183and Socialist developmental reform, 220and Soviet economic development, 227and Soviet Union, 89–90, 113, 121State Council, 182and Sun Yat-sen, 81, 90, 239and Theory of Three Worlds, 207Third Plenary of Eleventh Central

Committee Congress, 181, 185, 187, 219

and Three Principles of the People, 93, 94, 111

and truth, 181unitary, minoritarian rule of, 186and United States, 113, 114–16

Chinese Eastern Railway, 86Chinese Revolution, 86, 89, 93, 220, 231

278 ● Index

Chin Shih Huang, 157Christianity, 50–1, 72, 73class, 19, 60

and Asia, 48in Austria-Hungary, 43in China, 48and developmental nationalism, 67and Engels, 13, 50, 52, 227and evolutionary theory, 42identification with, 47and imperialism, 199in India, 48and intellectual production, 133and Mao Zedong, 88, 92, 95, 110, 117,

128and Marx, 50, 52, 227and Marxism, 57and Marxist revolution, 48and Mazzini, 51, 52, 53, 56and Stalin, 136

class conflictbetween bourgeoisie and proletariat,

47, 48and Chinese Communist Party, 181and Deng Xiaoping, 169, 216, 221,

236, 238and developmental nationalism, 67, 68and Great Leap Forward, 185and Hua Guofeng, 180and Lenin, 250and less-developed vs. advanced

countries, 200and Lin Biao, 200and Mao Zedong, 168, 225, 226, 233and Marx, 47and Mazzini, 56and Mussolini, 251and nationalism, 42and Socialism, 223and Sun Yat-sen, 80, 82–3, 224

class consciousness, 71, 101n8, 104, 131, 133, 139

and Lenin, 134, 144–5see also consciousness

collectivesand agriculture, 20, 30, 171, 180, 187and Mao Zedong, 138and peasants, 138in Russia, 18, 29, 30and Soviet Union, 125

collectivity, 4, 52, 53, 54, 57, 88n47, 104, 124, 225

and Mao Zedong, 117, 138, 149colonialism, 32, 33, 37, 64–7, 241

and capitalism, 189–90and China, 190and Deng Xiaoping, 206and Ireland, 203and Lenin, 193and Mao Zedong, 95and Stalin, 137and Sun Yat-sen, 79

commodities, 5, 13, 173and advanced vs. less-advanced

economies, 189, 240cheap prices of, 6and Chinese Communist Party, 175and Deng Xiaoping, 175, 214, 217, 221and Engels, 6, 14, 173, 227and Great Britain, 5, 35and Lenin, 245machine production of, 10and Mao Zedong, 94, 95, 175and Marx, 6, 173, 189, 227overproduction of, 18–19and post-Maoist reforms, 188protected market for, 106and Republic of China, 91and revolution, 26and Sun Yat-sen, 79, 82, 224

Communism, 104, 247and Chinese Revolution, 86and Deng Xiaoping, 220, 225evolution of primitive, 17–18and Fascism, 254and Great Leap Forward, 168and Lenin, 122and Mao Zedong, 111, 116and Marx and Engels, 220and peasant communities of Russia, 21primitive, 15primitive agrarian, 36and Russia, 15and Sun Yat-sen, 81, 82, 85village, 30

Communist International (Comintern), 81, 84, 87, 89, 110

see also Third InternationalCommunist League, 46Communist Party of the Soviet Union

(CPSU), 85, 136, 146, 147, 150, 198Communist Youth League, 164Confucius, 2, 225consciousness

and Cultural Revolution, 179and Deng Xiaoping, 179and economy, 153, 154, 176–7false revolutionary, 158

Index ● 279

and historical materialism, 177and Lenin, 101, 147, 150, 177and Mao Zedong, 107, 139, 149, 152–6,

158, 159, 161, 162, 178–9and Marx, 151–2, 176and Marxism, 152–3, 178and material conditions, 12, 133, 139and productive forces and relations, 153proletarian, 200and Stalin, 177of urban proletariat, 47see also class consciousness

Corradini, Enrico, 251Corridoni, Filippo, 251Crimean War, 20, 28, 30, 33–4, 37, 61, 243Croats, 27, 40, 62, 192Croce, Benedetto, 251Cuba, 159, 261Cultural Revolution

see Great Proletarian Cultural RevolutionCzechoslovakia, 248Czechs, 27, 40, 62, 192

Dalmatians, 27, 192Damansky (Chenpao) Island, 205Daoism, 2Darwinism, 41–2defense, 67, 248, 254, 259, 260, 261

and Chiang, 97of China after first Sino-Japanese war, 36and China’s lack of machine economy, 4and Communism, 220and Deng Xiaoping, 222and Hua Guofeng, 172and industry, 38and infrastructure, 38and Japan, 250and Kuomintang, 98, 99and Mao Zedong, 98, 99, 119, 127, 137,

141, 160, 196and Mussolini, 251and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 184and Russian Far East, 258and Stalin, 137, 142and Sun Yat-sen, 74, 75, 77, 85, 86see also military

democracyaccountability in, 255classless, 247and Deng Xiaoping, 181, 183, 235, 253and Fascism, 253and Mao Zedong, 92, 93, 96, 107, 110,

119, 121, 225

and Marx and Engels, 106and Marxism, 55and maturation of industrial

economy, 106and Mazzini, 54, 55, 56and People’s Republic of China, 262and Sun Yat-sen, 77, 253, 262and Taiwanese Republic of China, 261

Democratic Kampuchea, 253, 258Deng Xiaoping, 179–86, 238, 260

and academic philosophy, 230and agrarian communities, 212n6, 238and agriculture, 169, 180, 187,

213–14, 238and authoritarianism, 235authority of, 237–8and bourgeoisie, 169, 235and capitalism, 169, 216, 218, 221,

222, 236as capitalist roader, 168, 171and Central Party Work Conference, 213and Chinese Communist Party, 183,

217–18, 219, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238and class conflict, 169, 216, 221,

236, 238and commodities, 175, 217, 221and Communism, 220, 225and contradiction, 233and Cultural Revolution, 168–70, 183,

207, 211, 215death of, 237and democracy, 181, 183, 235, 253and dialectical logic, 233and dialectical materialism, 219,

231–2, 234and dictatorship, 236, 238and dictatorship of the proletariat, 181,

218, 235and direct foreign investment, 214and economy, 183–6, 187–9, 214, 215,

219–20, 221, 225, 227, 229, 235–6and Engels, 217, 219, 227, 229–30and exports, 169, 214and Fascism, 252, 253and foreign investment, 169, 215, 216,

217, 222and foreign policy, 205–7and Four Cardinal Principles, 217, 218,

235–6and Gang of Four, 183and Great Leap Forward, 179–80,

185, 215and historical materialism, 219and Hua Guofeng, 171, 172, 180, 183

280 ● Index

Deng Xiaoping (continued )on humiliation and economic

exploitation, 235and industrial capitalism, 236and industry, 159, 169, 180, 214, 215,

216, 221, 227, 229, 235and Japan, 216and leftist policies, 183, 211–12, 214–16and Lenin, 219, 234and Maoism, 212, 238, 253and Mao Yuanxin, 170and Mao Zedong, 159, 165, 168, 170,

180, 183–6, 211, 219, 234and Mao Zedong Thought, 211, 217, 218and market, 169, 175, 179, 214, 215,

217, 218, 221and Marx, 217, 219, 227, 229–30and Marxism, 180, 189, 212, 213, 215,

216, 217, 219, 222, 226–35, 238and Marxism-Leninism, 212, 217,

218, 234and Marxism-Leninism-Mao

Zedongism, 183and Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong

Thought, 181and military, 235and minority rule, 181, 183and nationalism, 236, 238, 248, 253and neo-authoritarianism, 237and New China, 186, 236, 239and one-party state, 236and peasants, 214political offices of, 180pragmatism of, 212, 229, 230and productive forces, 179, 186, 213,

216, 217, 220–1, 229, 234recall of, 165, 213and Resolution on Certain Questions,

183–6and revisionism, 170, 179and revolution, 169, 186, 216, 230and revolutionary action, 230revolutionary theory of, 235–6and rural areas, 213–14, 221and Socialism, 216, 217, 218, 219–26,

234, 236, 238and Soviet intellectuals, 227, 228and Soviet Union, 206, 228and Stalin, 234and state, 236, 238and steel and mining industries, 169and Sun Yat-sen, 225, 239, 253and Theory of the Differentiation of the

Three Worlds, 206–7, 208, 209

and United States, 216and whateverism, 180

dependency theory, 203–4, 206, 207, 208, 215

despotism, 4, 8–9, 11, 12–13, 14–15, 16–17, 20, 23, 35, 36, 59

see also authoritarianism; dictatorshipdialectical materialism, 219, 231–4Diaoyutai (Sengaku) Islands, 258dictatorship

and Cambodia, 253and Chinese Communist Party, 181and Deng Xiaoping, 186, 236, 238developmental, 85and Stalin, 150, 177see also authoritarianism; despotism;

proletariat, dictatorship of thedirect foreign investment

and Deng Xiaoping, 214and Mao Zedong, 125and post-Maoist reforms, 188–9and post-Maoist visits to Europe, 182and Stalin, 195see also foreign investment

Duhring, Eugen, 12Dutch colonialism, 37

East Asia, 9–10, 192, 241Eastern Europe, 67–8, 128, 193, 246East Germany, 248economy, 19, 42, 188

in Asia, 14–15and bourgeois governments, 37and bourgeoisie, 41and Bukharin, 123–4central control of, 222–3of China, 2, 4, 22, 31, 35–8, 43, 44,

58–9, 74, 75and Chinese Communist Party, 175,

181, 219and class struggle, 47command, 174, 175and consciousness, 153, 154, 176–7corporative, 121and Deng Xiaoping, 169, 170, 183–6,

187–9, 206, 213–17, 219–20, 221, 222–3, 225, 227, 229, 235–6

and Engels, 172–3, 227European vs. Asiatic, 18and Fascism, 252of Great Britain, 5and Great Leap Forward, 168, 172,

197, 239and history, 47, 176

Index ● 281

hydro-agricultural, 14–15in India, 37, 44, 59of Ireland, 44and Japan, 249, 250and Kuomintang, 112and Lenin, 89, 122, 134, 146, 147–8,

173, 194, 244–5, 246, 250and less-developed countries, 22, 31, 43,

58, 194, 241, 242, 249and Lushan conference, 157and Maoism, 172at Mao’s death, 172, 173–4and Mao Zedong, 119, 121, 128, 129,

130–1, 138–9, 141–4, 149, 155, 157, 164, 167, 168, 173–4, 182, 197–8, 225, 227

and Marx, 172–3, 226, 227and Marxism, 172maturation of, 106and Mazzini, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57and nationalism, 39and peasantry, 131peri-capitalist, 61planned market, 215post-Maoist, 180–5, 187–9postrevolutionary Marxist, 172–3precapitalist, 19, 31, 60, 61, 63, 68and Preobrazhensky, 124proletariat inheritance of developed, 123,

124, 142, 146, 172, 244public ownership of, 221and Republic of China, 90, 91, 112,

113n46, 114and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 184and revolution, 47of Russia, 101, 243and Socialism, 154, 173, 223and Soviet Union, 122–5, 172,

174, 248and Stalin, 109, 142, 143, 148, 150, 173,

174, 176, 177, 225, 231and Stalinism, 250at Stalin’s death, 174and state, 37and Sun Yat-sen, 74, 75, 77, 78–9, 80,

82, 83, 84, 223–4and Sun Yefang, 174–5, 176of Taiwan, 239urban, 187see also advanced industrial nations;

agrarian communities/economies; capital; capitalism; Communism; less-developed economies; Socialism

Egypt, 14Egyptian Philosophy of the Revolution, 249Engels, Friedrich, 141

and agrarian communities, 36, 38, 59, 61and agriculture, 8, 9, 12, 14–15, 16, 17,

58, 132Anti-Duhring, 12, 13, 17and Asia, 7–8, 12, 13–14, 17, 18, 35, 48and Asiatic mode of production, 12,

13–15, 17, 18, 19and bourgeoisie, 7, 27, 41, 106, 132and capital concentration, 241and capitalism, 7, 63, 172–3, 189–90and China, 6, 14, 23, 25, 27, 32, 35–8,

57–9, 190, 192, 225–6, 242and class, 50and commodities, 6, 14, 173, 227and communal ownership, 15and Communism, 220The Communist Manifesto, 6–7, 11, 13,

26, 29, 49, 104, 132–3, 135, 243correspondence with August Bebel,

10n17correspondence with Karl Kautsky,

10n17, 26n5correspondence with Russian

revolutionaries, 26and cult of personality, 155and Darwinism, 41–2death of, 26, 39, 133and Deng Xiaoping, 217, 219, 227,

229–30and despotism, 14–15, 16, 17, 35and dialectical materialism, 231–2doctrinal shortcomings of, 26and economy, 227and Europe, 19, 45–8, 241–2and family and state, 42and Great Britain, 33–4and Hegel, 1, 6, 8and historical materialism, 21and history, 7, 12, 17–18, 152on ideas as reflecting life, 154and ideology and material life conditions,

151–2and imperialism, 242and India, 6, 18, 23, 34, 57–8, 59,

225–6, 242and industry, 6, 19–20, 21, 23, 26, 152,

227, 241interpretation of, 25, 39and Ireland, 203and Italy, 251and Jews and Slavs, 243

282 ● Index

Engels, Friedrich (continued )and Kautsky, 44and Lenin, 102, 151, 192, 193, 228, 229and less-developed economies, 18, 22–3,

26–34, 36–9, 43–4, 57–64, 242and less-developed vs. advanced

economies, 6, 189–90, 196, 226, 241and Mao Zedong, 95, 100, 149, 182,

196, 227and Marxist revolutionary theory, 151on materialist conception of history, 14and maturation of industrial

economy, 106and Mazzini, 49, 50, 51, 56–7, 63,

64, 226on Mexicans, 62–3and nationalism, 28, 32–4, 40–3, 47, 48,

50, 51–2, 56, 63–4, 68, 71–2, 192, 225–6, 241

and national Socialism, 55and New-York Daily Tribune, 8, 58and noncapitalist development, 22and nonindustrial societies, 21The Origins of the Family, Private Property,

and the State, 13–14and peasants, 18, 131, 132, 192and postrevolutionary economy, 172–3and preconditions for Socialist revolution,

19–20, 123n14and productive forces, 89, 152and proletariat, 132–3, 134–5, 200, 241and property, 8, 14, 15and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 185and revolution, 13, 17, 19–20, 21, 23,

26–34, 45–9, 50, 57–64, 104, 106, 151–2, 190, 241

and Revolutions of 1848, 45, 48and Russia, 15–16, 17, 19–20, 21, 23,

28–30, 33–4, 37, 59–61, 243on Slavic peoples, 61–3and Socialist revolution, 26“Social Revolution in Russia,” 60and Soviet intellectuals, 233and Stalin, 229and Sun Yat-sen, 73, 75, 81, 84and urban proletariat, 32and village communism, 10

Enlightenment, 77, 247Erfurt Program of the German Social

Democratic Party, 133Estonia, 258Europe, 73

and advanced industrial nations vs. less-developed nations, 226

advanced stage of development of, 241–2

and Asia, 48and China, 72in Communist Manifesto, 7developmental nationalism in, 71–2eastern, 41, 44, 68and economically less-developed world, 5and Engels, 7, 45and exploration of China, 2knowledge of China in, 1and Lenin, 243–4less-developed, 22, 44and Marx, 7, 45–8, 241–2and Mazzini, 55and military, 72, 75modes of production in, 7–8, 11, 18–19nationalism in, 49periphery of, 69post-Maoist visits to, 182and private property, 8reactive nationalism in, 32–3religious faith in, 49and revolution, 45–8social democratic parties of, 135Socialist parties of, 101southeastern, 41, 58southern, 44, 58, 68, 242and Sun Yat-sen, 73, 82and trade with less-developed world, 4water availability in, 8

evolution, theory of, 41–2exports, 143–4, 169, 182, 191, 214

Fascism, 240, 247and democracy, 253and Deng Xiaoping, 253in Italy, 195, 249, 254–5, 258, 259,

261, 262and Lenin, 256and Maoism, 255and Marxism, 256, 257and Matossian, 249and Mussolini, 251–2, 253and party, 256–7and party-state, 256, 258post-war views of, 253–4and proletarian dictatorship, 253and state control, 254–5

feudalism, 7, 10, 11, 14, 17, 106, 110, 163, 184, 185

Index ● 283

Finland, 258foreign investment

after Mao, 182, 188–9and Deng Xiaoping, 169, 214, 215, 216,

217, 222and Lenin, 102, 195, 245and Mao Zedong, 125in Republic of China, 91and Soviet Union, 174and Sun Yat-sen, 224see also direct foreign investment

foreign loansand Deng Xiaoping, 206–7and Lenin, 85for Republic of China, 91and Sun Yat-sen, 80, 126

Formosa, 258Four Modernizations, 172, 180, 181, 182France, 46, 59, 242French Revolution, 51, 85, 106

Gang of Four, 167, 170, 171, 175, 183, 217

see also Jiang QingGentile, Giovanni, 251, 252George, Henry, 81

Progress and Poverty, 73German Democratic Republic, 128German Socialism, 223Germany, 41, 207, 260, 261

and Chiang Kai-shek, 97and civilization, 41and Hobson, 191National Socialist, 196, 261and Revolutions of 1848, 46Social Democrats of, 135and Soviet Union, 99, 100wartime defeat of, 111

glasnost, 248Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich, 247–8Great Britain, 21

and Asia, 23and China, 32, 35, 38commercial crisis of 1847 in, 47economic growth in, 5educated urban proletariat of, 132and Engels, 242and Fascist Italy, 259and foreign trade, 5and Glorious Revolution, 4and Hobson, 191imperialism of, 207and India, 27n10, 32, 34, 38, 59, 67

and Industrial Revolution, 4, 5and Ireland, 32, 38, 203and Irish nationalism, 41, 49and Italian irredentism, 258and less-developed and advanced

industrial economies, 190and lure of unlimited markets, 6and Marx, 23, 27n10, 32, 33–4, 242proletarian revolutionaries in, 41and Russia, 33–4and Sun Yat-sen, 73, 77, 85and Test Ban Treaty, 160

Greater Sunda Islands, 259Great Leap Forward, 129, 138–9, 141–4,

155, 168, 175, 225and Deng Xiaoping, 179–80, 185, 215destructiveness of, 143–4, 155, 156and economy, 172, 239and Left, 184–5Mao’s rationale for, 144, 152–6, 157party criticisms of, 156–9, 161and Resolution on Certain Questions,

184–5and Sino-Soviet relations, 197and Soviet aid to China, 197

Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, 156–65, 167–8, 201, 202, 225

and consciousness, 179and death of Mao, 171and Deng Xiaoping, 168–70, 183, 207,

211, 215elimination of supporters of, 181and Hua Guofeng, 171and Lin Biao, 199and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 185and self-reliance, 205and Sino-Soviet relations, 198, 205

Great Wall of China, 157Greece, ancient, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17Guam, 259Guangdong, 86, 163, 214Gu Mu, 182

Hai Rui Dismissed from Office (play), 161Han dynasty, 2Hawaii, 73Hegel, G. W. F., 1–4, 6–7, 8, 9, 12, 39, 50,

232, 233Hegelianism, 36, 52Hilferding, Rudolf, 191historical materialism, 21, 39, 41, 178, 185,

219

284 ● Index

history, 190and Asian despotism, 9and China, 6–7and class struggle, 47and economic factors, 47and economy, 176and Engels, 7, 12, 13–14, 152and Hegel, 3, 6, 7lack of, 40and Lenin, 191and Mao Zedong, 153, 178and Marx, 7, 12, 17–18, 152and Marxism, 150, 153, 178materialist conception of, 13–14, 18,

176n23and Mazzini, 50–1periodization of, 7

Hitler, Adolf, 252, 253, 261Hobson, J. A., 193, 194, 203

Imperialism, 190–1Ho Chi Minh, 127Hong Kong, 73, 169, 182, 214, 221Hoxha, Enver, 208–9Hua Guofeng, 170–2, 180, 181, 183, 213Hu Jintao, 238Hume, David, 5Hungary, 46, 128, 248Hu Yaobang, 213

imperialism, 127alliances of convenience with, 208and capitalism, 101, 102, 135and Deng Xiaoping, 206as highest stage of capitalism, 101and Hobson, 190–1and Japan, 250and Lenin, 102, 107, 108, 135, 144–5,

151, 152, 191, 192, 193–4, 195and less-developed economies, 89, 135and less-developed vs. advanced

economies, 240and Lin Biao, 200, 201and Maoism, 174and Mao Zedong, 89, 92, 95, 96, 116,

119, 138, 159, 195–7, 199, 202, 226and Marx and Engels, 242and Resolution on Certain Questions, 184and Socialism and World War I, 102and Soviet Union, 174, 201, 207–8and Stalin, 102, 103, 104, 195and suborning of ruling class in colonial

countries, 95and suborning of working class, 102, 107,

135, 191, 194

and world stage, 194Incas, 10n19, 15India, 58

and Asiatic mode of production, 22China’s border conflict with, 159, 160,

197, 258class in, 48communication and transportation in, 34despotism in, 14–15economic development of, 36, 37, 44, 59educational and financial system in, 59and Great Britain, 27n10, 32, 34, 38,

59, 67humiliation of, 58industrialization in, 38, 44, 59and Industrial Revolution, 4industry in, 27n10infrastructure in, 44lack of history in, 34legal framework in, 59and Lenin, 193less-developed economy of, 43and Lin Biao, 201machine industry in, 27n10Mao’s disputes with, 159, 160markets in, 6market supplements sought in, 31and Marx and Engels, 6, 18, 23, 27, 34,

57–8, 59, 192, 225–6, 242and modernity, 33nationalism in, 33, 40, 48, 49, 61,

62, 71–2and national liberation movement, 103peasants in, 18, 58, 192political consolidation of, 34private property in, 8railways in, 38, 59revolution in, 48, 49, 57–8, 103and Russia, 16, 59science and technology in, 34unrest in, 44, 57, 58, 63, 192village communism in, 59, 61violence in, 48see also Asia

Indios, 64, 65, 66n59see also Philippines

Indo-Germanic peoples, 15Indonesia, 160, 259Indonesian Communist Party, 128, 160industrial development

and authoritarian revolutions, 225and bourgeoisie, 41and China, 35–8, 44, 58–9, 61, 74, 75and Chinese Communist Party rule, 181

Index ● 285

and Deng Xiaoping, 159, 180and developmental nationalism, 68and dislocation of populations, 38and India, 44, 59and Ireland, 44, 203and Lenin, 89, 147, 194, 250and less-developed economies, 22, 38, 39,

57, 58, 194, 204and Mao Zedong, 110, 117, 126, 128,

129, 138–9, 141–4, 149, 152, 157, 196

and Marxism, 109and Mazzini, 52, 53, 55and post-Maoist reforms, 189and Republic of China, 91and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 184and revolution, 19–20, 26in Russia, 19–20, 29, 30, 34, 37–8and Stalin, 109, 124–5, 128, 137, 142,

246and Sun Yat-sen, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80,

82, 91and Taiwan, 239and Western proletarian revolution, 39

Industrial Revolution, 4, 5industry

and Asia, 10and Chiang Kai-shek, 257China’s lack of, 4and classical economics, 5and crises of plethora, 123and Deng Xiaoping, 159, 169, 180, 214,

215, 216, 221, 227, 229, 235dispersal of, 160and economic abundance, 137and Engels, 6, 14, 19–20, 21, 23, 26,

152, 227, 241and Europe, 45, 242and feudalism, 11and Great Britain, 5and Hobson, 190–1and Hua Guofeng, 172in India, 27n10and Industrial Revolution, 4and inheritance of mature capabilities

from capitalism, 250investment of financial and human capital

in, 39and Japan, 221, 249and Lenin, 86, 101, 108, 122, 134,

146, 250and less-developed and advanced

industrial economies, 189

and less-developed countries, 36, 249less-developed economies stimulated

by, 18management of post-revolutionary by

proletariat, 244and Mao Zedong, 94, 109, 110,

111, 119, 120, 121, 129, 160, 173, 226, 227

and Marx and Engels, 6, 132, 152, 227, 241

and Marxism, 108and maturation of economy, 106and Mazzini, 52national defense through, 38and nationalism, 33overproduction in, 18–19and People’s Republic of China, 248, 261and post-Mao exports, 182and post-Maoist reforms, 187–8and proletariat, 18proletariat’s post-revolutionary control of,

200, 244and reactive nationalist revolutions, 137and Republic of China, 91, 98and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 184and revolution, 23, 29, 47, 225and Russia, 20, 29, 30, 61, 84and Soviet Union, 248and Stalin, 103, 108, 109and Sun Yat-sen, 74, 75, 76, 83, 84, 126transfer to less-developed economies, 193and wealth of nations, 5see also advanced industrial nations

infrastructureand Deng Xiaoping, 214and Europe, 242and Mao Zedong, 117and national defense, 38and post-Maoist reforms, 188and Sun Yat-sen, 75, 224

infrastructure, communicationsand Japan, 250and Mazzini, 52and national defense, 38in Russia, 34, 37–8and Sun Yat-sen, 76, 78–9, 83

infrastructure, transportationand Japan, 250and Mao Zedong, 111, 142and national defense, 38and Republic of China, 91in Russia, 34, 37–8and Sun Yat-sen, 83

286 ● Index

Iran, 258Iraq, 258Ireland

capital accumulation and protective tariffs in, 44

economic development of, 36, 44and Great Britain, 32, 38, 203and industrialization, 38, 44, 203local consumer and export industries

in, 44nationalism in, 33, 38, 40, 41, 48, 49,

62, 241peasants in, 15, 38private ownership in land in, 38protective tariffs in, 38

irredentism, 56, 235, 258, 259, 262Italy, 58, 207, 242, 260

bourgeoisie in, 49capitalism in, 52Fascist, 195, 249, 254–5, 258, 259, 261,

262humiliation of, 49–50, 53and irredentism, 258, 259, 262and Marx and Engels, 52, 251and Mazzini, 49–50, 52, 53, 54, 251nationalism in, 49oppression of, 49, 52pre-war military of, 260and Revolutions of 1848, 46and Socialism, 223

Japan, 207, 249–50, 258, 260, 261and Chinese Communist Party, 107and Chinese irredentism, 259defeat of, 111, 112, 114and Deng Xiaoping, 216and first Sino-Japanese War, 36, 37humiliation of China by, 36incursions against Manchuria, 87, 90incursions in Republic of China, 97–8and Manchuria, 90, 111, 112and Mao Zedong, 93, 98–100, 110, 111,

112, 195, 196Meiji, 250and Meiji restoration, 249, 251and military, 75, 260, 349Ministry of International Trade and

Industry (MITI), 216postwar industrial base of, 221and second Sino-Japanese War, 91, 92,

98–100and Shanghai, 87, 90and Soviet irredentism, 258and Soviet Union, 99–100, 113

and Sun Yat-sen, 73, 77Tokugawa, 249, 250, 251and United States, 259War of Resistance against, 156Western intrusion into, 249

Japanese Communist party, 128Japan External Trade Organization, 216Java, 37Jews, 40, 62Jiang Qing, 160, 161, 165, 167, 168, 170,

171, 183, 205see also Gang of Four

Jiang Zemin, 238

Kaminev, Lev, 130Kang Sheng, 161, 165, 170Kautsky, Karl, 44, 123, 130, 134, 176

The Class Struggle, 133Kemalism, 249Khrushchev, Nikita, 128, 129, 159, 197,

204, 247Kim Il Sung, 127, 256Korea, 258

see also North Korea; South KoreaKorean peninsula, 127, 252Korean War, 127–8, 156, 197, 202Kossuth, Lajos, 46Kuomintang (Nationalist Party, KMT), 79

and Borodin, 85and Chiang Kai-shek, 86, 252, 257and Chinese Communist Party, 81, 90,

98, 99, 100, 110, 111–12and collaboration with Japan, 98Communist sympathizers in, 114corruption of, 112, 113, 114defeat of, 125and Deng Xiaoping, 221and Fascism, 254and Japanese surrender, 112and Manchuria, 115and Mao Zedong, 87, 88, 92, 105, 195,

208, 225and military, 97–8and northern expedition, 86and party-state, 258and postwar agrarian economy, 112purge of, 257and reorganization of national

government, 86and second Sino-Japanese War, 98,

99, 100and Soviet Communism, 87and Sun Yat-sen, 78, 224and Taiwan, 115

Index ● 287

and taxation, 112tutelary control of, 80and United States, 112–13, 114, 116, 195see also Nanking government

laborin Asia, 8and Chiang Kai-shek, 257and commodity production, 26common organization of, 10and communitarian societies, 15and Deng Xiaoping, 222and developmental nationalism, 68and Europe, 242and European mode of production, 18exploitation of, 173and Great Britain, 5and Hobson, 191and Marx, 175and Mazzini, 53, 54organized, 12in People’s Republic of China, 262and post-Maoist reforms, 187as sole source of value, 82–3and Sun Yat-sen, 80, 82–3urbanization of agricultural, 10see also workers

Labriola, Antonio and Arturo, 251Lassalle, Ferdinand, 46Latin America, 44, 68, 73, 193, 242Latvia, 258Lenin, V. I., 87

and advanced industrial nations, 107–8, 135, 191–5, 243–4, 246

and agrarian communities/economies, 102, 145, 146, 243

and agriculture, 86, 122, 146, 147, 194and bourgeoisie, 104, 107, 122, 134,

135, 191, 200, 244and capitalism, 86, 101, 102, 108, 122,

144–5, 192–3, 243, 244and China, 147and Chinese Communist Party, 89and class consciousness, 134, 144–5and class struggle, 250and commodities, 245and consciousness, 134, 147, 150, 177and cult of personality, 155death of, 148, 245and Deng Xiaoping, 219, 234The Development of Capitalism in Russia,

134, 243and dictatorship of the proletariat,

147, 245

and doctrinal conformity, 145–7, 150, 151

and economic development, 134, 146, 147–8

and economy, 89, 122, 134, 146, 147–8, 173, 194, 244–5, 246, 250

and Engels, 102, 151, 192, 193, 228, 229essay on Sun Yat-sen, 110and Europe, 243–4and European social democratic

parties, 135and Fascism, 256and foreign investments, 102, 195, 245and foreign loans and foreign talent, 85and foreign technology, 250and Hobson, 191, 194and imperialism, 102, 107, 108,

135, 144–5, 151, 152, 191, 192, 193–4, 195

and industrial capitalism, 243and industrial development, 89, 147,

194, 250and industry, 86, 108, 122, 134,

146, 250and infrastructure, 250and inheritance of mature industrial

capabilities from capitalism, 250and Japan, 250and Kautsky, 134and less-developed economies, 89, 102,

107–8, 123, 135–6, 145, 147–8, 244–5, 246

and less-developed vs. advanced economies, 191–5

and Mao Zedong, 95, 105, 121–2, 125, 149, 152

and market, 102, 245and market supplements, 102–3, 135and Marx, 102, 134, 151, 192, 193, 228and Marxism, 100–3, 104, 107–8, 122,

135, 144, 145, 226, 227–8, 244, 250and masses, 145, 147, 151Materialism and Empirio-Criticism, 228and Mussolini, 251and nationalism, 102–3, 193and national liberation, 191, 193–4and New Economic Policy (NEP), 122,

125, 195, 245, 255and objective conditions, 150–1and one-man authority in factories, 245and party leadership, 134, 145, 146, 147,

150, 151and peasants, 107–8, 122, 123, 131,

135–6, 145, 193, 243

288 ● Index

Lenin, V. I. (continued )and professional revolutionary party, 246and profits, 101, 102, 107, 108, 191and proletarian consciousness, 101and proletariat, 101, 107, 108, 134,

135–6, 144–5, 191, 194, 200, 246, 250

and property, 85, 245and purge of Communist Party, 146and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 185and revolution, 89, 101, 102, 103,

107–8, 122, 134, 135, 193, 194–5, 243–5, 246, 250

and revolutionary leadership, 134, 135and Socialism, 101, 108, 122, 191and Stalin, 108, 148and state, 86, 254and state capitalism, 122and Sun Yat-sen, 80–1, 82, 84, 85, 110and technology transfers, 195and territorial unity, 250and Theory of Three Worlds, 207transitional program of, 120and transition to Socialism, 125and urban proletariat, 246and working class, 101, 102, 104, 107,

151, 191, 243and World War I, 101, 135, 191,

243–4, 250Leninism, 130

and Mao Zedong, 88, 107, 120, 152and New Left, 204Soviet return to, 247and Stalin, 136–7, 150

less-developed economies, 61, 93and advanced economies, 6, 32–4,

35, 57, 58, 68, 189–95, 196, 197, 226, 240–1

advanced economies as civilizing, 27, 28advanced economies as enemy of, 28, 31,

43–4, 200advanced economies’ effect on, 23, 39and anti-imperialism, 102–4in Asia, 23, 57and Asiatic despotism, 17and Bukharin, 123–4and capital accumulation, 39and capitalism, 6, 31, 189, 240China as, 22, 31, 43and commodity capitalism, 102community communism in, 37and Deng Xiaoping, 206–7

as dependent on advanced economies, 194, 203–4, 206, 207–8

development of, 44, 58, 242and Europe, 4, 242and Fascism, 252and historical materialism, 22humiliation of, 32–4, 44, 58and industrial development, 22, 38, 39,

57, 58, 194, 204and industry, 189, 249industry as stimulus to, 18investment in, 31as kept underdeveloped, 203–4and Lenin, 89, 102, 107–8, 123,

135–6, 145, 147–8, 191–5, 244–5, 246

and Lin Biao, 201and List, 242and Mao Zedong, 96, 106, 201, 202as market, 5market supplements sought in, 31and Marx and Engels, 6, 18, 22–3,

26–34, 36–9, 43–4, 57–64, 189–90, 196, 226, 241, 242

and Marxism, 22, 48, 203, 248and mature capitalist economies, 189and Mazzini, 57and nationalism, 28, 32–4, 58, 63–4,

67–8, 117, 137and national Socialism, 55, 86and peasantry, 131and preconditions for Socialism, 19–20proletarian revolutions expected

in, 200–3and resistance against foreigners, 192and revolution, 20, 26–34, 44, 45,

48, 57–64, 68–9, 89, 104, 135, 200–3, 240

Russia as, 28seen as inferior, 44Soviet Union as exploiting, 198, 207and Stalin, 103, 104, 108–9, 136, 137and Sun Yat-sen, 77, 79and Theory of Three Worlds, 206–7and trade and capital transfers, 189and Western proletarian revolution, 39as world’s countryside, 201

liberalism, 55, 83, 240Li Dazhao, 130Li Hongzhang, 74, 75Lin Biao, 158, 161, 164, 165, 198, 205

Long Live the Victory of People’s War!, 199–201, 202

Index ● 289

Lincoln, Abraham, 73List, Friedrich, 242Lithuania, 258Liu Shaoqi, 121, 159, 160, 163, 164, 165,

175, 184–5Long Live Leninism, 159, 197–8Long March, The, 92Lukacs, Georg, 230, 232Lushan conference, 156, 157–8

MacArthur, Douglas, 112, 115Magyars, 41Malaya, 128Malaysia, 259Manchuria, 87, 90, 111, 112, 113,

114, 115Manchu rulers, 75Maoism, 248

and capitalism, 174and Deng Xiaoping, 212, 238, 253dismantling of, 182and economy, 172and Fascism, 255and Hua Guofeng, 171and less-developed countries as dependent

on advanced countries, 203and Marxism, 129, 130, 204and Marxism-Leninism, 130and New Left, 204and self-reliance, 204–5and Theory of Three Worlds, 207unraveling of, 167

Maoist Thought, 168Maoist voluntarism, 139, 168, 172, 173,

178, 182Mao Yuanxin, 170Mao Zedong, 71

and academic philosophy, 230adulation of, 183and agrarian communities/economies,

88n47, 90, 99, 113, 121, 127, 128, 152, 173, 200, 212n6

and agriculture, 92, 96, 117, 120, 121, 126, 128, 139, 141–4, 152, 159, 163, 173

“Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society,” 88

and Anti-Japanese United Front, 98–100and Bolsheviks, 88, 149and bourgeoisie, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,

106–11, 119, 120, 121, 126, 128, 153, 202, 225

and capital accumulation, 138, 149

and capitalism, 89, 94, 110, 116and capitalist countries, 195–6, 202and capitalist roaders, 167, 168and capital transfers, 126, 202and Chiang Kai-shek, 114–15, 119and Chinese Communist Party, 87–8,

92, 119and Chinese Revolution, 93and civil war, 111–12, 126, 195, 225and class, 88, 92, 95, 110, 117and class collaboration in transitional

period, 128and class conflict, 168, 225, 226, 233and commodity markets, 175and communes, 213and communism, 111and consciousness, 107, 139, 149, 152–6,

158, 159, 161, 162, 178–9and contradiction, 233and corporative economy, 121and cult of personality, 155, 172,

178, 185and Cultural Revolution, 161–4,

165, 167–8death of, 156, 173–4, 180, 207, 213,

219, 247and defense, 98, 99, 119, 127, 137, 141,

160, 196and democracy, 92, 93, 96, 107, 110,

119, 121, 225and Deng Xiaoping, 159, 165, 168, 170,

180, 183–6, 211, 219, 234developmental plan of, 125–7, 130–1and dialectical logic, 233and dialectical materialism, 231–2and dictatorship, 121and dictatorship of the proletariat, 111,

155, 178, 225and domestic enemies, 156–9, 160–1on domestic rightists, 158–9and economic development, 128, 129,

138–9, 141–4, 157and economy, 119, 130–1, 149, 155,

157, 164, 167, 168, 173–4, 182, 197–8, 225, 227

on false revolutionary consciousness, 158and fascism, 116, 254and finance capital, 116and foreign investment, 125and foreign policy, 205–7and foreign trade, 196and Great Leap Forward, 129, 138–9,

141–4, 155, 185, 197

290 ● Index

Mao Zedong (continued )and Great Leap Forward criticisms,

157–9, 161, 175and Great Leap Forward rationale, 144,

152–6, 157and Great Leaps, 131, 158, 164guerrilla forces led by, 90and history, 153, 178and Ho Chi Minh, 127and Hua Guofeng, 171and humiliation, 119and ideas, 153and imperialism, 89, 92, 95, 96, 116,

119, 138, 159, 195–7, 199, 202, 226and India, 159, 160and Indonesia, 160and industrial development, 110, 117,

126, 128, 129, 138–9, 141–4, 149, 152, 157, 196

and industry, 94, 109, 110, 111, 119, 120, 121, 129, 160, 173, 226, 227

and international proletarian obligations, 127, 128

and international trade and financial arrangements, 202

and Japan, 93, 98–100, 110, 111, 112, 195, 196

and Khrushchev, 129, 159and Kim Il Sung, 127and Kuomintang, 87, 88, 92, 105, 195,

208, 225and landlords, 89, 93, 120and latent power of people, 130–1and leadership, 178and Lenin, 95, 105, 121–2, 125,

149, 152and Leninism, 88, 107, 120, 152and less-developed economies, 96, 106,

201, 202and Lin Biao, 158, 161, 164, 165, 198,

199, 205and Long March, 92and Lushan conference, 156, 157–8and Manchuria, 114, 115and market, 175, 182and Marx and Engels, 95, 100, 149, 182,

196, 227and Marxism, 87–8, 93, 94–6, 100,

105–6, 121, 129, 139, 144, 152–3, 178, 179, 180, 183, 185, 186, 226, 228, 230, 231, 232

and Marxism-Leninism, 92, 116, 127, 129, 139, 144, 162, 165, 199, 202, 207

and Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism, 139and masses, 139, 142, 149, 158, 161, 162and nationalism, 89, 92, 93, 95, 106–11,

117, 121and National Socialist Germany, 196and New China, 119and New Democracy, 111and nonproletarian masses, 104and nuclear weapons, 160“On Contradiction,” 94–6, 233and one-party system, 111“On Practice,” 230and party leadership, 139, 149, 154–5peasant family of, 93n63and peasants, 88–9, 90, 92, 93, 95,

96, 105–6, 109, 131, 138, 139, 149, 157, 184

and people’s democratic dictatorship, 119People’s Republic of China proclaimed by,

119, 120poor health of, 170and postwar government, 110–11power struggle at death of, 171and productive forces, 125and productive forces and relations, 94,

95, 153, 178, 182and proletarian revolution, 149and proletarian uplift, 105and proletariat, 88, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,

111, 119, 121, 184, 199, 200and property, 111Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong,

The Little Red Book, 162, 164, 199“Report on an Investigation of the

Peasant Movement in Hunan,” 88, 90and Resolution on Certain Questions,

183–6and revisionists, 158–9, 160, 162, 168and revolution, 88, 89, 92, 93, 94, 95–6,

100, 105–11, 120, 128, 149, 152, 154, 155–6, 158, 161, 184, 201, 225, 226

and rightists, 165, 168and rural areas, 184and rural capitalism, 111rural guerrillas of, 99, 100and second Sino-Japanese War, 98–9, 100Selected Works, 164and Socialism, 95, 109, 110, 111, 116,

121–9, 138, 182on Soviet controlled revisionists, 158–9and Soviet economic and technical aid,

197–8and Soviet intellectuals, 228, 232and Soviet loans and assistance, 196, 197

Index ● 291

and Soviet Union, 99, 100, 116, 119, 121, 125, 156, 158–9, 160, 196, 202, 225, 227, 239

and Stalin, 95, 100, 105, 110, 112, 121, 127, 128, 130, 137–8, 139, 142, 143, 148–50, 152, 225, 246

and Stalinism, 106, 137–8, 148–50, 226and state, 111and state control, 254–5and Sun Yat-sen, 89, 109, 110–11, 117,

119, 120, 121, 125–6, 128, 129, 148, 225, 226, 238–9, 246

and Test Ban Treaty, 160and Theory of the Differentiation of the

Three Worlds, 206–7, 208and Third International, 105, 184and Three Principles of the People,

71, 89, 93, 109, 110, 111, 117, 120, 148

and transition to Socialism, 120, 121–9and transport infrastructure, 142and Truth, 155, 161and United States, 114–16, 164–5,

195–6, 202, 205and working class, 92, 93and World War II, 195

Mao Zedong Thought, 130, 131, 137–9, 155, 181

and Chinese Communist Party, 186and Cultural Revolution, 162, 163and Deng Xiaoping, 211, 217, 218Four Cardinal Principles of, 183and Marxism-Leninism, 183and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 186Marco Polo Bridge, 98markets

and advanced economies vs. less-advanced economies, 240

after Mao, 182in China, 6and Chinese Communist Party, 175for commodities, 106as constantly expanding, 6and Cultural Revolution, 179and Deng Xiaoping, 169, 175, 179, 214,

215, 217, 218, 221exhaustion of, 31foreign commodity, 5global, 5and Great Britain, 6and Hobson, 190and Hua Guofeng, 180in India, 6, 31

and Lenin, 102–3, 135, 245in less-developed countries, 5, 31and machine production, 6and Maoist economy, 173–4and Mao Zedong, 175, 182and Marx and Engels, 6, 173and Marxist economic theory, 172and Mazzini, 52and party control, 175–6and post-Maoist reforms, 187, 188price-driven, 172self-regulating mechanisms of, 5Soviet experimentation with, 246–7and Soviet Union, 174and Sun Yat-sen, 76, 77, 79, 82, 126and Sun Yefang, 174–5supplementary, 102

market supplements, 190–1and capitalism, 31denial of, 107, 135and Hobson, 190and Lenin, 102–3, 135in less-developed countries, 31and Marx and Engels, 6, 189and Sun Yat-sen, 76, 79

Martí, José, 68, 117Marx, Karl

“Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League,” 47

advice to urban proletariat, 32and agrarian communities/economies, 30,

36, 38, 61and agriculture, 8, 9, 12, 14–15, 16, 58and archaic social life, 9, 10and Asia, 7–15, 17, 18, 21–2, 23, 35, 48in Belgium, 46and bourgeoisie, 7, 41, 106, 132and capital concentration, 241and capitalism, 7, 63, 172–3, 189–90and centralized ownership of plant, 241and China, 4, 6, 23, 23n56, 27, 32,

35–8, 57–9, 225–6, 242on Chinese Socialism, 36and class, 50, 52, 227and commodities, 6, 173, 189, 227and Communism, 220and Communist League, 46The Communist Manifesto, 6–7, 11, 13,

26, 29, 30, 46, 47, 49, 60, 104, 132–3, 135, 243

and consciousness, 151–2, 176A Contribution to the Critique of Political

Economy, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13and cult of personality, 155

292 ● Index

Marx, Karl (continued )and Darwinism, 41–2Das Kapital, 9n16, 17, 21, 30, 41, 148,

243death of, 39and Deng Xiaoping, 217, 219, 227,

229–30and despotism, 14–15, 16–17, 23and dialectical materialism, 232doctrinal shortcomings of, 26in England, 46and Europe, 45–8, 241–2expelled from France, 46and Glorious Revolution, 4n6and Great Britain, 23, 27n10, 32,

33–4, 242and Hegel, 1, 3, 4, 6, 9and historical materialism, 21and history, 7, 12, 17–18, 152and ideas as reflecting life, 154and ideology and material life conditions,

151–2and imperialism, 242and India, 6, 18, 23, 27, 34, 57–8, 59,

192, 225–6, 242on industrialization and Socialist

revolution, 26and industrial nations, 21, 23and industry, 6, 132, 152, 227, 241interpretation of, 25, 39and Ireland, 203and Italy, 52, 251and labor theory of value, 175and Lenin, 102, 134, 151, 192, 193, 228and less-developed economies, 6, 18,

22–3, 26–34, 36–9, 43–4, 57–64, 241, 242

and less-developed vs. advanced economies, 6, 189–90, 196, 226, 241

on machine production and expanding market, 6

and Mao Zedong, 95, 100, 149, 182, 196, 227

and markets, 6, 173and market supplements, 6, 189and maturation of industrial economy,

106and Mazzini, 49, 50, 51, 56–7, 63, 64,

226and nationalism, 28, 32–4, 40–3, 47, 48,

50, 51–2, 56, 63–4, 68, 71–2, 192, 225, 241

and national Socialism, 55and Neue Rheinische Zeitung, 46

and New-York Daily Tribune, 4n6, 7n10, 8, 58

and noncapitalist development, 22and nonindustrial societies, 21and objective conditions of life, 9in Paris, 46and peasants, 18, 131, 132, 192and postrevolutionary economy, 172–3and predicted course of industrialized

nations, 22and productive forces, 89and profit, 241and proletariat, 132–3, 134–5, 200, 241and property, 4, 8, 9, 14, 15rejection of opponents by, 145and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 185and revolution, 17, 21, 23, 26–34, 45–9,

50, 57–64, 104, 106, 151–2, 190, 241and Revolutions of 1848, 45–8Rohentwurf of A Contribution to the

Critique of Political Economy, 9, 10, 11, 17

and Russia, 16–17, 21, 23, 28–30, 33–4, 37, 59–61, 241, 243

on Slavic peoples, 61–3and Sun Yat-sen, 73, 75, 81, 82, 84,

86, 226and Truth, 155and value of commodities, 175on Western societies, 21and Zasulich, 30

Marxism, 68, 133, 247and Asian cultures, 4and bourgeoisie, 57, 106–7, 109and China, 84and Chinese Communist Party, 89–90and Chinese Communists, 88and Chinese Revolution, 86confusion in, 40and consciousness, 152–3, 154, 178and Deng Xiaoping, 180, 189, 212, 213,

215, 216, 217, 219, 222, 226–35, 238and despotism, 4and dialectical materialism, 232and economic abundance, 142effective solutions through, 212and Fascism, 256, 257and Gorbachev, 247–8and history, 150, 153, 178and humanism, 132and ideology, 150–1and industrialization, 109and industrial proletariat, 103

Index ● 293

and industry, 108interpretations of, 25, 129–30, 134and labor theory of value, 82and Lenin, 100–3, 104, 107–8, 122, 135,

144, 145, 226, 227–8, 244, 250and less-developed economies, 22, 48,

203, 248and Maoism, 129, 130, 204and Mao Zedong, 87–8, 93, 94–6, 100,

105–6, 121, 129, 139, 144, 152–3, 178, 179, 180, 183, 185, 186, 196, 226, 228, 230, 231, 232

and Mao Zedong Thought, 131and market supplements, 102and maturation of industrial

economy, 106and Mazzini, 51, 56, 231and Mussolini, 251and national Socialism, 55and nineteenth and twentieth century

revolutionary movements, 230, 231and objective conditions, 150–1and preconditions for Socialism, 124and productive forces, 89and proletarian assumption of control

over late capitalist system, 122–3and purges, 147and religion, 147, 250and Resolution on Certain Questions, 183and revolution, 173, 230, 231and Russia, 15, 84, 85, 101, 251and Soviet intellectuals, 227and Soviet Union, 247, 248and Stalin, 107, 108, 109, 136–7, 142,

227, 229, 231and Sun Yat-sen, 73, 81, 82–6, 89, 224,

230, 231and true science of society, 177–8and underconsumption, 102variants of, 130and West, 48and World War I, 135

Marxism-Leninismand Chinese Communist Party, 90and Deng Xiaoping, 212, 217, 218, 234and Lin Biao, 201and Maoism, 130and Mao Zedong, 92, 116, 127, 129,

139, 144, 162, 165, 199, 202, 207and Mao Zedong Thought, 183and Matossian, 249as similar to religion, 147and Sun Yat-sen, 224and World War II, 202

Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought, 181

Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism, 130Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism-Maoism, 238masses

and Cultural Revolution, 163, 179and Hua Guofeng, 180and imperialism, 199and Lenin, 145, 147, 151and Lin Biao, 200and Little Red Book, 199and Mao Zedong, 139, 142, 149, 158,

161, 162as multi-class, 200and Stalin, 136, 139, 150

Matossian, Mary, 249May Fourth Movement, 107Mazzini, Giuseppe, 49–57, 58, 71, 117,

223, 251and Engels, 51, 56–7, 226“Faith and the Future,” 50and Fascism, 252and Marx, 49, 50, 51, 56–7, 63, 64, 226and Marxism, 51, 56, 231and Mussolini, 251and nationalism, 49–57, 63, 64, 137,

241, 251and New Age, 51, 55, 56and New Italy, 54and political action, 230and Revolutions of 1848, 46and Rizal, 65, 66, 67and Sun Yat-sen, 74, 226

Mazzinism, 61Mencius, 2Mensheviks, 145Mentzel, Peter, 45Mexicans, 27, 40, 41, 49, 62–3, 192Middle East, 14, 197, 208Mikoyan, Anastas, 121military

and China, 72, 74–5, 77, 79and Cultural Revolution, 163and Deng Xiaoping, 235and Europe, 72, 75of Fascist Italy, 260and Great Britain vs. Russia, 33–4and industrial development, 38and Japan, 75, 249, 250and Kuomintang, 97–8less-developed economies as prey to

advanced, 43–4and Mao Zedong, 138and memory of humiliation, 260, 261

294 ● Index

military (continued )and Mussolini, 251and People’s Republic of China, 127, 128,

205, 248, 260, 262of pre-war Japan, 260and Republic of China, 86–7, 90, 97, 98and revolutionary party, 257and Soviet Union, 248and Sun Yat-sen, 76, 77, 79, 80, 224, 257and United States, 260see also defense

Ming dynasty, 4Minogue, K. R., 45Misra, Kalpana, 187Molotov, V. M., 113n45morality, 44, 47, 50, 55, 56, 132n47, 222,

226–7Moravians, 27, 192Mukden incident, 90Mussolini, Benito, 223, 240, 251–2,

253, 258

Nanchang, 86Nanking, 86Nanking government, 111, 112, 113, 114

see also Chiang Kai-shek; Kuomintang (Nationalist Party, KMT); Republic of China

Narodniks, 59, 243Nasser, Gamal Abdul, 249National Assembly, 78nationalism, 62, 92

and anti-imperialism, 102–3in Asia, 32–3, 48in Asia vs. Europe, 71–2and Bauer, 43and bourgeoisie, 42, 43and Cambodia, 253in China, 33, 40, 48, 49, 62, 69, 71–2and Chinese Communist Party, 94, 107,

262and class, 67and colonialism, 241and community of destiny, 68and culture, 43and Deng Xiaoping, 236, 238, 248, 253developmental, 49, 56, 57, 64, 66, 67,

82, 117, 137, 231, 241, 247, 248, 251in Europe, 49and Fascism, 252, 257and Gorbachev, 248and historical development, 40and humiliation, 241, 259in India, 48, 49, 61

and indigenous peoples, 32, 33and industry, 33and Ireland, 33, 38, 40, 41, 48, 49,

62, 241and irredentism, 258and Lenin, 102–3, 193and less-developed economies, 28, 32–4,

44, 58, 67–8, 117, 137, 194as lost by workers, 39and Mao Zedong, 89, 92, 93, 95,

106–11, 117, 121and Marx and Engels, 28, 32–4, 40–3,

47, 48, 50, 51–2, 56, 63–4, 68, 71–2, 192, 225–6, 241

and Marxist revolution, 48and maturation of industrial

economy, 106and Mazzini, 49–57, 63, 64, 137,

241, 251and Mexicans, 49and Mussolini, 251and nonelite populations, 43and peasants, 192and Poland, 48, 49, 241and political action, 230and proletarian revolution, 40, 41as reactionary, 40reactive, 28, 32–3, 38, 57, 58, 63, 65, 67,

68, 75, 80, 95, 117, 137, 192, 194, 222–3, 225–6, 230–1, 236, 237, 238, 240, 241, 247, 251, 258

and revolution, 43, 49, 57, 63–4and Rizal, 65, 66–7, 137and Russia, 85and Socialism, 223and Soviet Union, 261and Stalin, 104, 109, 137, 246and Sun Yat-sen, 74, 75, 78, 80, 82, 83,

85, 86, 117, 223, 224, 257national liberation, 102–4, 135, 137, 191,

193–4National Socialism, 196, 252, 253nation-state, 106neo-colonialism, 206neo-Marxism, 204, 206, 215Netherlands, 242New China, 253, 261, 262New Left, 204Nicaragua, 201Nixon, Richard Milhous, 165North Africa, 14, 27, 192North America, 48, 72North American colonies, 4Northern Ireland, 201

Index ● 295

North Korea, 127, 258, 261see also Korea

November Revolution, 244, 245

Okinawa, 258opium, 35Opium wars, 72, 75, 236

Pan-Slavists, 62Panunzio, Sergio, 251party

and Chiang Kai-shek, 257–8dominance of, 255and Fascism, 256–7hegemonic, 136, 255and Japan, 250providential leader of, 137–8and reactive nationalist revolutions, 137revolutionary, 256–7single, 80, 111, 186, 212, 224, 231, 236,

238, 239, 247, 252, 257and Stalin, 108–9and Stalinism, 137and Sun Yat-sen, 80, 83, 223–4, 257unitary, 80, 109, 137, 146, 186, 218,

223, 224, 244, 250, 251, 255party leadership

and Lenin, 134, 145, 146, 147, 150, 151and Mao Zedong, 139, 149, 154–5

party-state, 256, 258Pearl River region, 214peasants, 5, 35, 58, 88

in Asia, 17, 18and Chinese Communist Party, 107, 155and collectives, 138and Cultural Revolution, 164and Deng Xiaoping, 214and economic development, 131and Great Leap Forward, 138, 139, 143,

156, 157and imperialism, 199in India, 18, 58as inherently reactionary, 29and Japanese occupation, 98and Kautsky, 133and land, 29and Lenin, 107–8, 122, 123, 131, 135–6,

145, 193, 243and Leninism, 120and Lin Biao, 200, 201and Mao Zedong, 88–9, 90, 92, 93, 95,

96, 105–6, 109, 131, 138, 139, 149, 157, 184

and Marx and Engels, 18, 131, 132, 192

and national liberation movements, 103proletarianization of, 20proletarian revolution made by, 136as reactionary, 40and reactive nationalism, 192and revolution, 18, 19, 20, 131, 192as revolutionary vanguard, 104and Russia, 15–16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 29,

30, 243and Stalin, 108, 124–5, 142, 246starvation of Soviet, 124–5and Sun Yat-sen, 126and Three Principles of the People, 93see also agrarian communities/economies;

agriculture; rural areasPeking, 86, 115Peng Dehuai, 156, 158, 161People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 114, 115,

160, 164, 260see also People’s Republic of China, and

militaryPeople’s Republic of China

agriculture in, 128alliances of convenience with imperialists,

208and border conflict with India, 159, 160,

197, 258and border conflict with Soviets, 164, 205constitution of, 164cooperatives in, 128declining working population of, 262and democracy, 262developmental nationalism in, 248ethnic diversity in, 261and export of grain, 128and exports, 143–4famine in, 143–4, 159Five Year Plan, 128founding of, 121, 126gender imbalance in, 262growth rate of, 261–2human deaths in, 155and industry, 248, 261and irredentism, 258, 259, 262, 263n63malnutrition in, 128and military, 127, 128, 205, 248, 260,

262Ministry of Foreign Trade, 182mortality in, 144and North Korea, 127and nuclear weapons, 128, 129, 160, 197population density in, 261poverty in, 261, 262proclaimed by Mao Zedong, 119, 120

296 ● Index

People’s Republic of China (continued )public debt in, 261resource shortfall in, 261rural areas of, 261, 262and Russian Far East, 258and Soviet irredentism, 258and Soviet Union, 127, 128, 129,

158–9, 164, 188, 197–8, 205, 208, 239, 247

Soviet Union as mortal threat to, 158–9and Taiwan, 262and third world, 206and transport system, 143unemployment in, 261, 262uprisings in, 144see also Chinese Communist Party (CCP);

People’s Liberation Army (PLA)perestroika, 247–8Persia, 14Peru, 14, 201Philippines, 64–7, 77, 128, 201, 259Pinochet, Augusto, 208Poland, 33, 40, 41, 48, 49, 62, 128, 241,

248, 258Pol Potism, 256Pol Pot, 173, 253, 258poverty

in China, 32and commodity production, 26and Deng Xiaoping, 215and evolving commodity system, 5and imperialism, 206and industrial capitalism, 31and Lenin, 122and Mao Zedong, 95and Marxist theory, 173and Mazzini, 52and overproduction in industry, 19in People’s Republic of China, 261, 262and Russia, 142

precapitalist economies, 19, 31, 60, 61, 63, 68

Preobrazhensky, Evgeny, The New Economics, 124

primitive Socialist accumulation, 245, 246Principle of the People’s Livelihood, 71production

ancient mode of, 13Asiatic mode of, 7–15, 16, 17, 18, 19,

20–2bourgeois mode of, 17collective ownership of, 19control of means of, 48dynamic destabilization of, 16

and earliest history of humankind, 17Eastern vs. Western modes of, 16, 17and Engels, 14European modes of, 7–8, 11, 18–19, 20and human associations, 47instruments of, 18and Marx, 29material forces of, 11and materialist conception of history, 18means of, 29modes of, 133planned, 19, 26preindustrial, primeval forms of, 21–2and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 184Russian mode of, 29and Socialist revolution, 29social relations of, 11and Sun Yat-sen, 84

productive forces, 94, 182and consciousness, 153and Deng Xiaoping, 179, 186, 213, 216,

217, 220–1, 229, 234and Engels, 152and Mao Zedong, 94, 95, 149,

153, 178and Marxism, 89as prerequisite for liberation, 20proletariat seizure of, 26and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 186and Stalin, 246

productive relationsand consciousness, 153and Lenin, 134and Mao Zedong, 94, 95, 153, 178

profit, 102, 190cost to general population of, 5and crises of plethora, 123and Deng Xiaoping, 206, 215, 221, 222and Hobson, 190and imperialism, 135and Lenin, 101, 102, 107, 108, 191and Mao Zedong, 94, 95and Marx and Engels, 241and Marxist theory, 173and post-Maoist reforms, 188and Soviet Union as oppressor

nation, 198and Sun Yat-sen, 126, 224

proletarian consciousnessand Mao Zedong, 107and revolutionary vanguard, 103and Stalin, 136

Index ● 297

proletarian revolution, 39, 50, 63, 247and Chinese Communist Party, 107and Great Britain, 41and List, 242and Mao Zedong, 149and Marx and Engels, 6and nationalism, 40, 41and productive forces, 89

proletariatas agents of revolutionary change, 32and bourgeoisie, 28and capitalism, 241capital saturation and concentration

by, 47and Chinese Communist Party, 90,

104, 107class conscious, 133, 134and class struggle, 47–8and developmental nationalism, 68education of, 18, 132and Europe, 45and European mode of production, 18exploitation of, 48and human liberation, 132and imperialism, 199, 200and industry, 18, 28, 29, 103,

200, 241inheritance of developed economy by,

123, 124, 142, 146, 172, 244intellectual life of, 133intervention in less-developed

economies, 26and Kautsky, 133leadership of, 107, 111, 119, 199and Lenin, 101, 107, 108, 134, 135–6,

144–5, 191, 194, 200, 246, 250and Leninism, 120and less-developed economies, 29, 44and Lin Biao, 200, 201management of post-revolutionary

industry by, 200, 244and Mao Zedong, 88, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,

111, 119, 121, 184, 199, 200and Marx and Engels, 132–3, 134–5,

200, 241and Marxism, 57, 103, 133and Marxist revolution, 60middle classes forced into, 32and planned production and rational

distribution, 19and productive abundance, 38and revolution, 50, 104, 200, 243–4and revolutionary vanguard, 104rise of, 190

and Russia, 19, 29, 84, 243and Russian peasantry, 20seizure of control by, 26, 48, 122–3and Socialist revolution, 123as sole progressive class, 47and Stalin, 108and Sun Yat-sen, 84and trade union consciousness, 134urban, 19, 47, 57, 84, 90, 92,

94, 95, 120, 123, 133, 190, 241, 246

and urban, industrial workers, 200in West, 20, 30

proletariat, dictatorship of the, 145, 155, 184, 218, 235

and Deng Xiaoping, 181, 218, 235and Fascism, 253and Lenin, 147, 245and Mao Zedong, 109, 111, 178, 225and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 184and Stalin, 109

propertyabolition of private, 19in Asia, 8, 14and bourgeoisie, 48and Chiang Kai-shek, 257–8in China, 8collective ownership of, 222collective vs. personal, 16communal, 15, 19and communitarian societies, 15and Deng Xiaoping, 222and Engels, 8, 13, 14, 15and Europe, 8in India, 8and Lenin, 85, 245and Mao Zedong, 110, 111, 138, 178and Marx, 4, 8, 9, 14, 15and maturation of industrial

economy, 106and Mazzini, 53, 56n39ownership of, 53and Philippines, 66private, 8, 56n39, 82, 138, 222and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 184in Russia, 16, 17Russian communal, 30and Socialism, 19and Sun Yat-sen, 73, 82and village communities, 19

property rights, 223purges, 144, 146, 147, 150, 161–4

298 ● Index

Qing dynasty, 69, 75, 76, 78, 79

Red Amy, 98Red Army, 98, 246Red Guards, 162, 163, 164, 205religion, 12, 43, 47, 48

and China, 72and developmental nationalism, 68in Europe, 49and Marx, 9Marxism-Leninism as similar to, 147and Mazzini, 50–1, 54, 55, 56political, 137–8, 252and Rizal, 67and Sun Yat-sen, 73

Republic of China, 82, 90–1and Central Plains War, 87civil war in, 111–12declared sovereign and united, 86economy of, 90, 91, 112, 114industry in, 91, 98Japanese incursions in, 87, 90, 97–8military of, 90, 97, 98Nanking government of, 86, 87, 91and proletarian vs. bourgeois democratic

revolution, 87and second Sino-Japanese War, 91,

92, 98Soviet military action against, 86–7on Taiwan, 261see also Kuomintang (Nationalist Party,

KMT)revolution, 103, 105

and advanced economies, 39, 44, 45, 68–9, 104, 240, 241

and Asiatic mode of production and despotism, 17

authoritarian, 225and bourgeoisie, 104, 106and capitalism, 26, 123, 194capitalist productive capacity inherited by,

56, 250in China, 44, 48, 49, 57–9, 72–3, 75, 78,

103, 196and Chinese Communist Party,

92–3, 181and commodity production, 26and Deng Xiaoping, 169, 186, 216, 230,

235–6developmental, 36, 95–6, 240and developmental nationalism,

64, 68and economic crises, 47

and Engels, 13, 17, 19–20, 21, 23, 26–34, 45–9, 50, 57–64, 104, 106, 123n14, 151–2, 190, 241

and Europe, 45–8and France, 51and Great Leap Forward, 185and imperialism, 192, 200in India, 48, 49, 57–8, 103and industry, 4, 19–20, 23, 26, 29, 47,

137, 200, 244inspiration to, 231as led by Maoist China, 201and Lenin, 89, 101, 102, 103, 107–8,

122, 134, 135, 193, 194–5, 243–5, 246, 250

and Leninism, 120and less-developed economies, 20, 26–34,

44, 45, 48, 57–64, 68–9, 89, 104, 135, 200–3, 240

and Lin Biao, 201and List, 242and machine capitalism, 26and Mao Zedong, 88, 89, 92, 93, 94,

95–6, 100, 105–11, 120, 128, 149, 152, 154, 155–6, 158, 184, 201, 225, 226

and Mao Zedong Thought, 186and Marx, 17, 21, 23, 26–34, 45–9, 50,

57–64, 104, 106, 151–2, 190, 241and Marxism, 173, 230, 231and Mazzini, 50, 51, 53, 54–5, 56, 57and Mussolini, 240, 251and nationalism, 43, 49, 57, 63–4nationalist, 137, 194and overproduction, 19and party-state, 256and peasants, 18, 19, 20, 104, 131, 192and planned production and rational

distribution, 19and precapitalist economies, 60preconditions for, 19–20, 60, 123n14and proletarianization, 26and proletariat, 50, 104, 200, 243–4proletariat control of industry after,

200, 244reactive, 58, 137, 194and Russia, 20–1, 28–30, 60–1, 243and Socialism, 223and Stalin, 103, 104, 108–9, 136and Stalinism, 137and state, 53sufficient conditions for, 26and Sun Yat-sen, 73, 75, 76–7, 78, 82,

224, 230, 240

Index ● 299

and trade, 47and true science of society, 177–8universal, 20, 39, 40, 41, 119, 135and urban population, 26urban proletariat as agents of, 32worldwide, 20, 39, 89, 106, 108, 160,

243–4, 247see also proletarian revolution

Revolutions of 1848, 45–8Rizal, José, 64–7, 77, 117, 137

El Filibusterismo, 64“La indolencia de los Filipinos,” 65Noli Me Tangere, 64

Rocco, Alfredo, 251Roman Catholic Church, 67Romania, 248Rome, ancient, 11, 13, 14, 17rural areas, 18, 92, 111, 131, 132, 184,

213–14, 221, 261, 262see also agrarian communities/economies;

agriculture; peasantsRussia

and agrarian communities/economies, 30, 34, 59, 61

agrarian populists in, 59agriculture in, 17antiestablishment and antiforeign

resentment in, 28and Asia, 16, 59and Asiatic mode of production, 16, 19,

20–1, 22authoritarian rule in, 17and bourgeoisie, 29and bureaucracy, 29, 34capital accumulation in, 34and capitalism, 30–1and China, 16, 59civil war in, 124communal property in, 30and Communism, 15communistic village communities of, 20and Crimean War, 20, 28, 30, 37, 61, 243and economic development, 36, 61, 243economy of, 101and Engels, 15–16, 23, 33–4, 37, 59–61,

241, 243and Great Britain, 33–4and India, 16, 59industrial development in, 19–20, 29, 30,

34, 37–8and industry, 29, 61, 84intelligentsia in, 30and Lenin, 101

as less-developed economy, 28and machine industry, 20manumission of serfs in, 34, 61, 243market supplements sought in, 31and Marx, 16–17, 21, 23, 28–30, 33–4,

37, 59–61, 241, 243and Marxism, 15, 84, 85, 101, 251and military, 61mode of production in, 29modernization and industrial

development of, 60and New Economic Policy, 85and Oriental despotism, 16–17, 59peasants in, 15–16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,

29, 30, 34and Polish nationalism, 41as precapitalist, 60primitive communistic features in, 59and proletariat, 19, 29, 84property in, 16, 17railways and industrialization in, 38reactive nationalism in, 33resistance to change in, 16and revolution, 20–1, 28–30, 60–1, 243and revolutionaries, 60and Socialism, 20–1, 29, 30state in, 37–8and transition from agrarian to industrial

economy, 61transportation and communications

infrastructure in, 34, 37–8village communities in, 30, 59–60wage labor in, 61see also Soviet Union

Russian Far East, 258Russian Revolution, 28, 84, 85, 107Ryukyu Islands, 259

Sautman, Barry, 237Second International, 102, 123, 130Serbia, 62Serbs, 40, 62Shah of Iran, 208Shanghai, 86, 87, 90, 160Shekou, 214Shenzhen, 182, 214Shintoism, 249Singapore, 169, 221, 259Sino-Japanese War (first), 36, 37Sino-Japanese War (second), 91, 92, 98–100Slavs, 15, 27, 41, 49, 61–3, 192, 242Slovaks, 40, 62Slovenes, 62

300 ● Index

Smith, Adam, 5Socialism

advanced economies as creating foundations of, 192

and bourgeoisie, 36, 102, 104in China, 37and communal property, 19and Deng Xiaoping, 216, 217, 218,

219–26, 234, 236, 238economic abundance in, 123and economic conditions, 154and economy, 223and Engels, 7, 106, 173and Fascism, 252and Great Leap Forward, 168and Lenin, 101, 108, 122, 191and less-developed economies, 22, 28and Mao Zedong, 95, 109, 110, 111,

116, 120, 121–9, 138, 182and Mao Zedong Thought, 186and Marx, 7, 106, 173and Mazzini, 51, 52, 55, 56and modern production and

distribution, 5national, 52, 55in nineteenth and twentieth century

movements, 223, 225postindustrial, 38and precapitalist economies, 60preconditions for, 19–20, 123, 124at preliminary stage of development,

225, 238and productive abundance and

proletarian masses, 38and productive forces, 220and reactive nationalist revolutions, 137and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 185and revolution, 223and Russia, 20, 60Soviet criticism of China’s, 247and Stalin, 108–9, 136state, 37and state control, 254and Sun Yat-sen, 80–1, 82, 83, 223–5universal, 39working-class, 39and World War I, 101, 102

Socialist Party, 101Socialist revolution, 26, 29, 30, 36, 45Society to Revive China, The, 73Sombart, Werner, 223Song dynasty, 4

Song Jiang, 170Sorel, Georges, 256South America, 44South Asia, 4, 9–10, 192, 241Southeast Asia, 73, 193, 252South Korea, 127, 169, 221, 259

see also KoreaSoviet intellectuals

and Deng Xiaoping, 227and dialectical materialism, 232–3and Mao Zedong, 228, 232

Soviet Unionalliance of convenience with imperialists,

207–8and anti-Axis powers, 195and capitalism, 174, 246–7and Chiang Kai-shek, 100, 114Chinese arrest of officials of, 86and Chinese Communist Party, 89–90,

113, 121and Chinese Eastern Railway, 86and collective farms, 125command economy of, 174demands for self-determination in, 248and Deng Xiaoping, 206, 228and developmental nationalism, 247disintegration of, 248, 261dissident intellectuals in, 247Eastern Europen resistance to, 246and economy, 122–5, 172, 248experimentation with imports, 246–7as exploiting less-developed

countries, 207and Fascism in revolutionary China, 253and foreign direct investment, 174German invasion of, 246and Germany, 99, 100and Great Britain, 207–8and Great Leap Forward, 168hegemonism of, 206, 207and imperialism, 174as imperialist, 201, 207–8indecisiveness and involution within, 247and India, 160and industry, 248infrastructure of, 148intolerance of opposition in, 146and irredentism, 258and Japan, 99–100, 111, 113and Khrushchev’s foreign policy, 197and Korean War, 127, 197and Kuomintang, 87and Lin Biao, 201

Index ● 301

and Manchuria, 87, 113, 114, 115and Mao Zedong, 99, 100, 116, 119,

121, 125, 156, 158–9, 160, 196, 202, 225, 227, 239

and market, 174market experimentation in, 246–7and Marxism, 227, 247, 248and military, 248military action against Republic of

China, 86–7and nationalism, 261and New Economic Policy (NEP), 122and North Korea, 127and nuclear weapons, 129as oppressor of less-developed

nations, 198and party-state, 256, 258peasants in, 124–5and People’s Republic of China, 127,

128, 129People’s Republic of China criticized

by, 247People’s Republic of China given aid by,

197–8People’s Republic of China in border

conflict with, 164, 205People’s Republic of China in nuclear

cooperation agreement with, 197and People’s Republic of China’s border

conflict with India, 197and People’s Republic of China’s

debt, 188People’s Republic of China’s dependency

on, 197, 239People’s Republic of China threatened by,

158–9, 208and postwar Manchuria, 112and reactive nationalism, 247as revisionist, 159, 160, 200–1, 202, 207,

208, 247as social imperialism, 201and Sun Yat-sen, 80–2, 90, 94and technology, 174and Test Ban Treaty, 160and United States, 112, 113, 114, 160,

195, 207–8and Weimar Republic, 195and World War II, 195see also Russia

Spain, 64, 65, 66, 67Spanish-American war, 77Stakhanovites, 142, 143Stalin, Josef, 102–4

and agrarian communities/economies, 108, 109

and anti-imperialism, 103and bourgeoisie, 108and capitalism, 103, 195and Chiang Kai-shek, 113, 208and Chinese Communist Party, 107and consciousness, 177and cult of personality, 155, 178death of, 128, 156, 197, 246and Deng Xiaoping, 234developmental plan of, 130“Dialectical and Historical Materialism,”

228–9and dictatorship, 177and direct foreign investment, 195and economic development, 142,

143, 150and economy, 173, 174, 176, 177,

225, 231and Engels, 229failures of, 129and history, 150and imperialism, 195and industrial development, 109, 124–5,

128, 137, 142, 246and industry, 103, 108, 109and institutionalized organization of

labor, 148and Khrushchev, 128, 204and leadership, 177and Lenin, 108, 148and Leninism, 136–7, 150and Mao Zedong, 95, 100, 105, 110,

112, 121, 127, 128, 130, 137–8, 139, 142, 143, 148–50, 152, 225, 246

and market supplements, 102–3, 107and Marxism, 107, 108, 109, 136–7,

142, 227, 229, 231Marxism and Linguistics, 233n106and masses, 139and objective conditions, 103, 108, 150,

177, 178and party guidance, 136–7, 142and peasants, 142, 246pragmatism of, 229as preeminent leader, 246and productive forces, 246and purges, 124recognition by, 105and Resolution on Certain

Questions, 185and revolution, 103, 104, 108–9, 136

302 ● Index

Stalin, Josef (continued )and Socialist accumulation of investment

capital, 124and state control, 254and technology transfers, 195totalitarian control by, 246and trade, 195and Vietnam’s Ho Chi Minh, 127and voluntarism, 231and workers, 246

Stalinism, 130, 248and economic development, 250and Maoism, 204and Mao Zedong, 106, 137–8,

148–50, 226Soviet questions of adequacy of, 247

statebeginnings of power of, 12and bourgeoisie, 254and Chiang Kai-shek, 257and Deng Xiaoping, 236, 238and early China, 3–4and economic development, 37Engels on, 42and Fascism, 254–5, 256and Hegel, 3–4and Japan, 249–50and Lenin, 86, 254and Mao Zedong, 111, 254–5and Mazzini, 53, 55one-party, 236, 253, 255and revolution, 53in Russia, 37–8and Socialism, 37and Soviet Union, 256and Stalin, 254and Sun Yat-sen, 83, 223–5, 257as withering away, 241, 244, 246

state capitalism, 122, 124Sun Mei, 73Sun Yat-sen, 69, 71, 72, 73–80

and advanced industrial nations, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82

and agriculture, 74, 75, 86, 110, 126, 224

appeal to Great Britain, 76and bourgeoisie, 110, 126and capital, 79, 80, 82, 84, 126and capital accumulation, 75and capitalism, 80, 126, 224as charismatic Tsungli, 79, 224, 238and Chiang Kai-shek, 86, 115, 238and China’s market supplements,

76, 79

and Chinese Communist Party, 81, 87, 90, 239

and class conflict, 80, 82–3, 224and Communism, 81, 82, 85and Communist China, 81and Communist International, 87and Confucianism, 230death of, 86, 90and democracy, 77, 253, 262and Deng Xiaoping, 225, 239, 253and development, 91, 117, 125–6and economy, 74, 75, 77, 78–9, 80, 82,

83, 84, 223–4and Fascism, 256, 257French concession in Shanghai, 78as generalissimo, 78and humiliation of China, 74and industrial zones, 80, 224and industry, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82,

83, 84, 91, 126The International Development of

China, 78and Japan, 73, 77as leader, 224lectures of 1924 on People’s Livelihood,

81–4and Lenin, 80–1, 82, 84, 85, 110and Lenin’s New Economic

Policy, 122and Mao Zedong, 89, 109, 110–11, 117,

119, 120, 121, 125–6, 128, 129, 148, 225, 226, 238–9, 246

and Marx, 73, 75, 81, 82, 84, 86, 226and Marxism, 73, 81, 82–6, 89, 224,

230, 231and Matossian, 249and Mazzini, 74, 226and military, 76, 77, 79, 80, 224, 257minsheng (People’s Livelihood) program

of, 79, 81, 85, 91and Mussolini, 240and nationalism, 74, 75, 78, 80, 82, 83,

85, 86, 117, 223, 224, 257and national socialism, 80, 83, 86, 121,

223–5and party, 80and peasants, 126and political action, 230and profits, 126as provisional president of China, 78reform petition to Li Hongzhang,

74, 75and revolution, 73, 75, 76–7, 78, 82,

224, 230, 240

Index ● 303

and Rizal, 77Sanminchui, 257and Socialism, 80–1, 82, 83, 223–5and Soviet Union, 80–2, 90, 94and state, 83, 223–5, 257and taxes, 126“The True Solution of the Chinese

Question,” 77Three Great Policies, 94Three Principles of the People

(Sanminchui), 71, 74, 77–8, 79–80, 81–2, 83, 85, 86, 89, 93, 94, 109, 110, 117, 120, 122, 148, 224, 252

and twentieth century political systems, 239–40

Sun Yefang, 174–5, 176

Taiping Revolution, 35, 72Taiwan, 159, 160, 169, 221, 257, 259

economy of, 239industrialization of, 239and Kuomintang, 115Republic of China on, 261tensions with People’s Republic of

China, 262Taiwan Straits, 197technology, 5

and China, 72and Deng Xiaoping, 169, 207, 215and industrially advanced systems, 241and Japan, 249and Lenin, 250and less-developed countries, 249and Mao Zedong, 202and Mazzini, 52, 56and modes of production, 18and post-Maoist reforms, 188and Soviet Union, 174, 246–7and Sun Yat-sen, 82, 126

technology transferand Lenin, 195to less-developed economies, 39, 190, 193and Shenzhen, 182between Soviet Union and imperialists,

207and Stalin, 195

Test Ban Treaty, 160Thailand, 259Theory of the Differentiation of the Three

Worlds, 206–9Third International, 81, 85, 105, 107, 184,

246see also Communist International

(Comintern)

Tito, Josip Broz, 173totalitarianism, 109, 252, 254

see also authoritarianismtrade, 5, 72

and Deng Xiaoping, 206and Hobson, 191and less-developed and advanced

economies, 189and Mao Zedong, 196and Philippines, 65, 66and revolution, 47and Russia and Great Britain, 33–4and Stalin, 195and Sun Yat-sen, 74and wealth of nations, 5

trade unions, 101, 104, 134, 135Transylvania, 40Trotsky, Leon, 124, 245, 246Trotskyites, 130Truman administration, 113Turkey, 249

Ukraine, 258underconsumption, 22, 31, 102Unified State Political Directorate (OGPU),

148United Nations, 127, 206

General Assembly, 205United States, 73

alliance of convenience with, 208and Chiang Kai-shek, 113, 116, 160and Chinese Communist Party, 113,

114–16and Chinese irredentism, 259constitution of, 78and Deng Xiaoping, 216and Hobson, 191and imperialism, 199, 207and Japanese surrender, 112and Khrushchev, 159and Korean War, 127and Kuomintang, 112–13, 114, 116, 195and Lin Biao, 201and Mao Zedong, 114–16, 164–5,

195–6, 202, 205and military, 260and Rizal, 77and Soviet Union, 112, 113, 114, 195and Sun Yat-sen, 76–7, 78, 85and Test Ban Treaty, 160and Theory of Three Worlds, 207

urban areas, 5, 10, 26, 132, 242see also proletariat, urban

Ussuri River, 205

304 ● Index

Vietnam, 216, 258, 259Vietnam war, 202Vogel, Ezra F., 167

Wang Hongwen, 167Wang Ming, 130Wang Yang-ming, 230warlords, 86, 87, 98Warsaw Pact, 248Washington, George, 73Water Margin (novel), 170Weimar Republic, 195Wei Yuan, 75West

industrial proletariat in, 20and Mao Zedong’s Chinese Revolution,

121and Marxist revolution, 48Marx on, 21and Oriental despots, 16proletarian revolution in, 39revolution in, 20, 29socioeconomic developments in, 17and Sun Yat-sen, 73working class movement in, 20see also Europe; United States

White Sea–Baltic canal, 148Williams, Maurice, 84n35workers, 173

alienation of, 222alliance with peasants, 200and European mode of production, 18exploitation of, 5and labor theory of value, 173loss of nationalist sentiment by, 39and Mao Zedong, 94, 110, 121and Mazzini, 53and nationalism, 43and post-Maoist reforms, 187–8and revolution, 40and Stalin, 109, 246and Sun Yat-sen, 83and Western proletarian revolution, 39see also labor

working class

leadership of, 107, 111and Lenin, 101, 102, 104, 107, 151,

191, 243and Mao Zedong, 92, 93and Marx and Engels, 45and national liberation movements, 103peasantry as, 103and Socialism, 39subornation of, 102and trade union consciousness, 104urban, 45

World Bank, 216World War I, 43, 78, 79, 85, 121

and Lenin, 101, 191, 243–4, 250and Marxism, 135and Mussolini, 251and Socialism, 101, 102

World War II, 85, 203, 206, 221, 253allied victory in, 208China’s development after, 197destruction of Fascism in, 252end of, 116, 127German invasion in, 246and Mao Zedong, 195and Marxism-Leninism, 202and Republic of China, 91and second Sino-Japanese War, 98and Soviet irredentism, 258and Soviet Union, 195

Wuchang, 86

Yalta agreements, 113Yao Wenyuan, 167Yellow River basin, 1Young Italy, 50Young Pioneers, 164Yuan dynasty, 258Yuan Shikai, 78

Zaire, 208Zasulich, Vera, 16, 17, 30Zhang Chunqiao, 167Zhao Ziyang, 237Zhou Enlai, 184–5Zinoviev, Grigory, 130