Security in MySQL

Abstract

This is the MySQL Security Guide extract from the MySQL 5.6 Reference Manual.

For legal information, see the Legal Notices.

For help with using MySQL, please visit either the MySQL Forums or MySQL Mailing Lists, where you can discussyour issues with other MySQL users.

Document generated on: 2019-03-16 (revision: 61266)

iii

Table of ContentsPreface and Legal Notices .................................................................................................................. v1 Security .......................................................................................................................................... 12 General Security Issues .................................................................................................................. 3

2.1 Security Guidelines ............................................................................................................... 32.2 Keeping Passwords Secure .................................................................................................. 5

2.2.1 End-User Guidelines for Password Security ................................................................ 52.2.2 Administrator Guidelines for Password Security ........................................................... 62.2.3 Passwords and Logging ............................................................................................. 72.2.4 Password Hashing in MySQL ..................................................................................... 72.2.5 Implications of Password Hashing Changes in MySQL 4.1 for Application Programs ..... 13

2.3 Making MySQL Secure Against Attackers ............................................................................ 132.4 Security-Related mysqld Options and Variables ................................................................... 152.5 How to Run MySQL as a Normal User ................................................................................ 162.6 Security Issues with LOAD DATA LOCAL ............................................................................ 172.7 Client Programming Security Guidelines .............................................................................. 18

3 Postinstallation Setup and Testing ................................................................................................. 213.1 Initializing the Data Directory ............................................................................................... 21

3.1.1 Problems Running mysql_install_db .......................................................................... 233.2 Starting the Server ............................................................................................................. 25

3.2.1 Troubleshooting Problems Starting the MySQL Server ............................................... 253.3 Testing the Server .............................................................................................................. 273.4 Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts ................................................................................... 293.5 Starting and Stopping MySQL Automatically ........................................................................ 34

4 The MySQL Access Privilege System ............................................................................................ 374.1 Privileges Provided by MySQL ............................................................................................ 384.2 Grant Tables ...................................................................................................................... 444.3 Specifying Account Names ................................................................................................. 504.4 Access Control, Stage 1: Connection Verification ................................................................. 524.5 Access Control, Stage 2: Request Verification ..................................................................... 554.6 When Privilege Changes Take Effect .................................................................................. 564.7 Troubleshooting Problems Connecting to MySQL ................................................................. 57

5 MySQL User Account Management ............................................................................................... 635.1 User Names and Passwords ............................................................................................... 635.2 Adding User Accounts ........................................................................................................ 655.3 Removing User Accounts .................................................................................................... 675.4 Setting Account Resource Limits ......................................................................................... 675.5 Assigning Account Passwords ............................................................................................. 695.6 Password Expiration and Sandbox Mode ............................................................................. 705.7 Pluggable Authentication ..................................................................................................... 735.8 Proxy Users ....................................................................................................................... 755.9 SQL-Based MySQL Account Activity Auditing ...................................................................... 81

6 Using Encrypted Connections ........................................................................................................ 836.1 Configuring MySQL to Use Encrypted Connections .............................................................. 846.2 Command Options for Encrypted Connections ..................................................................... 866.3 Creating SSL and RSA Certificates and Keys ...................................................................... 90

6.3.1 Creating SSL Certificates and Keys Using openssl .................................................... 906.3.2 Creating RSA Keys Using openssl ............................................................................ 95

6.4 SSL Library-Dependent Capabilities .................................................................................... 956.5 Building MySQL with Support for Encrypted Connections ..................................................... 966.6 Encrypted Connection Protocols and Ciphers ....................................................................... 976.7 Connecting to MySQL Remotely from Windows with SSH ..................................................... 99

Security in MySQL

iv

7 Security Plugins .......................................................................................................................... 1017.1 Authentication Plugins ....................................................................................................... 102

7.1.1 Native Pluggable Authentication .............................................................................. 1027.1.2 Old Native Pluggable Authentication ....................................................................... 1037.1.3 Migrating Away from Pre-4.1 Password Hashing and the mysql_old_password Plugin 1047.1.4 SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication .......................................................................... 1087.1.5 Client-Side Cleartext Pluggable Authentication ........................................................ 1127.1.6 PAM Pluggable Authentication ................................................................................ 1137.1.7 Windows Pluggable Authentication .......................................................................... 1217.1.8 Socket Peer-Credential Pluggable Authentication ..................................................... 1267.1.9 Test Pluggable Authentication ................................................................................ 128

7.2 The Connection-Control Plugins ........................................................................................ 1307.2.1 Connection-Control Plugin Installation ..................................................................... 1317.2.2 Connection-Control System and Status Variables .................................................... 135

7.3 The Password Validation Plugin ........................................................................................ 1377.3.1 Password Validation Plugin Installation ................................................................... 1387.3.2 Password Validation Plugin Options and Variables .................................................. 139

7.4 MySQL Enterprise Audit .................................................................................................... 1437.4.1 Installing MySQL Enterprise Audit ........................................................................... 1457.4.2 MySQL Enterprise Audit Security Considerations ..................................................... 1467.4.3 Audit Log File Formats ........................................................................................... 1467.4.4 Audit Log Logging Control ...................................................................................... 1577.4.5 Audit Log Filtering .................................................................................................. 1607.4.6 Audit Log Reference .............................................................................................. 1627.4.7 Audit Log Restrictions ............................................................................................ 170

7.5 MySQL Enterprise Firewall ................................................................................................ 1717.5.1 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Components ................................................................. 1717.5.2 Installing or Uninstalling MySQL Enterprise Firewall ................................................. 1727.5.3 Using MySQL Enterprise Firewall ........................................................................... 1747.5.4 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Reference ..................................................................... 178

A MySQL 5.6 FAQ: Security ........................................................................................................... 185

v

Preface and Legal NoticesThis is the MySQL Security Guide extract from the MySQL 5.6 Reference Manual.

Licensing information—MySQL 5.6. This product may include third-party software, used underlicense. If you are using a Commercial release of MySQL 5.6, see the MySQL 5.6 Commercial ReleaseLicense Information User Manual for licensing information, including licensing information relating to third-party software that may be included in this Commercial release. If you are using a Community releaseof MySQL 5.6, see the MySQL 5.6 Community Release License Information User Manual for licensinginformation, including licensing information relating to third-party software that may be included in thisCommunity release.

Licensing information—MySQL NDB Cluster 7.3. This product may include third-party software, usedunder license. If you are using a Commercial release of NDB Cluster 7.3, see the MySQL NDB Cluster7.3 Commercial Release License Information User Manual for licensing information relating to third-partysoftware that may be included in this Commercial release. If you are using a Community release of NDBCluster 7.3, see the MySQL NDB Cluster 7.3 Community Release License Information User Manual forlicensing information relating to third-party software that may be included in this Community release.

Licensing information—MySQL NDB Cluster 7.4. This product may include third-party software, usedunder license. If you are using a Commercial release of NDB Cluster 7.4, see the MySQL NDB Cluster7.4 Commercial Release License Information User Manual for licensing information relating to third-partysoftware that may be included in this Commercial release. If you are using a Community release of NDBCluster 7.4, see the MySQL NDB Cluster 7.4 Community Release License Information User Manual forlicensing information relating to third-party software that may be included in this Community release.

Legal Notices

Copyright © 1997, 2019, Oracle and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved.

This software and related documentation are provided under a license agreement containing restrictionson use and disclosure and are protected by intellectual property laws. Except as expressly permittedin your license agreement or allowed by law, you may not use, copy, reproduce, translate, broadcast,modify, license, transmit, distribute, exhibit, perform, publish, or display any part, in any form, or by anymeans. Reverse engineering, disassembly, or decompilation of this software, unless required by law forinteroperability, is prohibited.

The information contained herein is subject to change without notice and is not warranted to be error-free.If you find any errors, please report them to us in writing.

If this is software or related documentation that is delivered to the U.S. Government or anyone licensing iton behalf of the U.S. Government, then the following notice is applicable:

U.S. GOVERNMENT END USERS: Oracle programs, including any operating system, integrated software,any programs installed on the hardware, and/or documentation, delivered to U.S. Government end usersare "commercial computer software" pursuant to the applicable Federal Acquisition Regulation and agency-specific supplemental regulations. As such, use, duplication, disclosure, modification, and adaptation of theprograms, including any operating system, integrated software, any programs installed on the hardware,and/or documentation, shall be subject to license terms and license restrictions applicable to the programs.No other rights are granted to the U.S. Government.

This software or hardware is developed for general use in a variety of information managementapplications. It is not developed or intended for use in any inherently dangerous applications, includingapplications that may create a risk of personal injury. If you use this software or hardware in dangerous

Documentation Accessibility

vi

applications, then you shall be responsible to take all appropriate fail-safe, backup, redundancy, and othermeasures to ensure its safe use. Oracle Corporation and its affiliates disclaim any liability for any damagescaused by use of this software or hardware in dangerous applications.

Oracle and Java are registered trademarks of Oracle and/or its affiliates. Other names may be trademarksof their respective owners.

Intel and Intel Xeon are trademarks or registered trademarks of Intel Corporation. All SPARC trademarksare used under license and are trademarks or registered trademarks of SPARC International, Inc. AMD,Opteron, the AMD logo, and the AMD Opteron logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of AdvancedMicro Devices. UNIX is a registered trademark of The Open Group.

This software or hardware and documentation may provide access to or information about content,products, and services from third parties. Oracle Corporation and its affiliates are not responsible for andexpressly disclaim all warranties of any kind with respect to third-party content, products, and servicesunless otherwise set forth in an applicable agreement between you and Oracle. Oracle Corporation and itsaffiliates will not be responsible for any loss, costs, or damages incurred due to your access to or use ofthird-party content, products, or services, except as set forth in an applicable agreement between you andOracle.

This documentation is NOT distributed under a GPL license. Use of this documentation is subject to thefollowing terms:

You may create a printed copy of this documentation solely for your own personal use. Conversion to otherformats is allowed as long as the actual content is not altered or edited in any way. You shall not publishor distribute this documentation in any form or on any media, except if you distribute the documentation ina manner similar to how Oracle disseminates it (that is, electronically for download on a Web site with thesoftware) or on a CD-ROM or similar medium, provided however that the documentation is disseminatedtogether with the software on the same medium. Any other use, such as any dissemination of printedcopies or use of this documentation, in whole or in part, in another publication, requires the prior writtenconsent from an authorized representative of Oracle. Oracle and/or its affiliates reserve any and all rightsto this documentation not expressly granted above.

Documentation Accessibility

For information about Oracle's commitment to accessibility, visit the Oracle Accessibility Program websiteathttp://www.oracle.com/pls/topic/lookup?ctx=acc&id=docacc.

Access to Oracle Support

Oracle customers that have purchased support have access to electronic support through My OracleSupport. For information, visithttp://www.oracle.com/pls/topic/lookup?ctx=acc&id=info or visit http://www.oracle.com/pls/topic/lookup?ctx=acc&id=trs if you are hearing impaired.

1

Chapter 1 SecurityWhen thinking about security within a MySQL installation, you should consider a wide range of possibletopics and how they affect the security of your MySQL server and related applications:

• General factors that affect security. These include choosing good passwords, not granting unnecessaryprivileges to users, ensuring application security by preventing SQL injections and data corruption, andothers. See Chapter 2, General Security Issues.

• Security of the installation itself. The data files, log files, and the all the application files of yourinstallation should be protected to ensure that they are not readable or writable by unauthorized parties.For more information, see Chapter 3, Postinstallation Setup and Testing.

• Access control and security within the database system itself, including the users and databasesgranted with access to the databases, views and stored programs in use within the database. For moreinformation, see Chapter 4, The MySQL Access Privilege System, and Chapter 5, MySQL User AccountManagement.

• The features offered by security-related plugins. See Chapter 7, Security Plugins.

• Network security of MySQL and your system. The security is related to the grants for individual users,but you may also wish to restrict MySQL so that it is available only locally on the MySQL server host, orto a limited set of other hosts.

• Ensure that you have adequate and appropriate backups of your database files, configuration and logfiles. Also be sure that you have a recovery solution in place and test that you are able to successfullyrecover the information from your backups. See Backup and Recovery.

2

3

Chapter 2 General Security Issues

Table of Contents2.1 Security Guidelines ....................................................................................................................... 32.2 Keeping Passwords Secure .......................................................................................................... 5

2.2.1 End-User Guidelines for Password Security ........................................................................ 52.2.2 Administrator Guidelines for Password Security ................................................................... 62.2.3 Passwords and Logging ..................................................................................................... 72.2.4 Password Hashing in MySQL ............................................................................................. 72.2.5 Implications of Password Hashing Changes in MySQL 4.1 for Application Programs ............ 13

2.3 Making MySQL Secure Against Attackers .................................................................................... 132.4 Security-Related mysqld Options and Variables ........................................................................... 152.5 How to Run MySQL as a Normal User ........................................................................................ 162.6 Security Issues with LOAD DATA LOCAL .................................................................................... 172.7 Client Programming Security Guidelines ...................................................................................... 18

This section describes general security issues to be aware of and what you can do to make your MySQLinstallation more secure against attack or misuse. For information specifically about the access controlsystem that MySQL uses for setting up user accounts and checking database access, see Chapter 3,Postinstallation Setup and Testing.

For answers to some questions that are often asked about MySQL Server security issues, see Appendix A,MySQL 5.6 FAQ: Security.

2.1 Security GuidelinesAnyone using MySQL on a computer connected to the Internet should read this section to avoid the mostcommon security mistakes.

In discussing security, it is necessary to consider fully protecting the entire server host (not just the MySQLserver) against all types of applicable attacks: eavesdropping, altering, playback, and denial of service. Wedo not cover all aspects of availability and fault tolerance here.

MySQL uses security based on Access Control Lists (ACLs) for all connections, queries, and otheroperations that users can attempt to perform. There is also support for SSL-encrypted connectionsbetween MySQL clients and servers. Many of the concepts discussed here are not specific to MySQL atall; the same general ideas apply to almost all applications.

When running MySQL, follow these guidelines:

• Do not ever give anyone (except MySQL root accounts) access to the user table in the mysqlsystem database! This is critical.

• Learn how the MySQL access privilege system works (see Chapter 4, The MySQL Access PrivilegeSystem). Use the GRANT and REVOKE statements to control access to MySQL. Do not grant moreprivileges than necessary. Never grant privileges to all hosts.

Checklist:

• Try mysql -u root. If you are able to connect successfully to the server without being asked for apassword, anyone can connect to your MySQL server as the MySQL root user with full privileges!Review the MySQL installation instructions, paying particular attention to the information about settinga root password. See Section 3.4, “Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts”.

Security Guidelines

4

• Use the SHOW GRANTS statement to check which accounts have access to what. Then use theREVOKE statement to remove those privileges that are not necessary.

• Do not store cleartext passwords in your database. If your computer becomes compromised, the intrudercan take the full list of passwords and use them. Instead, use SHA2() or some other one-way hashingfunction and store the hash value.

To prevent password recovery using rainbow tables, do not use these functions on a plain password;instead, choose some string to be used as a salt, and use hash(hash(password)+salt) values.

• Do not choose passwords from dictionaries. Special programs exist to break passwords. Evenpasswords like “xfish98” are very bad. Much better is “duag98” which contains the same word “fish” buttyped one key to the left on a standard QWERTY keyboard. Another method is to use a password thatis taken from the first characters of each word in a sentence (for example, “Four score and seven yearsago” results in a password of “Fsasya”). The password is easy to remember and type, but difficult toguess for someone who does not know the sentence. In this case, you can additionally substitute digitsfor the number words to obtain the phrase “4 score and 7 years ago”, yielding the password “4sa7ya”which is even more difficult to guess.

• Invest in a firewall. This protects you from at least 50% of all types of exploits in any software. PutMySQL behind the firewall or in a demilitarized zone (DMZ).

Checklist:

• Try to scan your ports from the Internet using a tool such as nmap. MySQL uses port 3306 by default.This port should not be accessible from untrusted hosts. As a simple way to check whether yourMySQL port is open, try the following command from some remote machine, where server_host isthe host name or IP address of the host on which your MySQL server runs:

shell> telnet server_host 3306

If telnet hangs or the connection is refused, the port is blocked, which is how you want it to be. Ifyou get a connection and some garbage characters, the port is open, and should be closed on yourfirewall or router, unless you really have a good reason to keep it open.

• Applications that access MySQL should not trust any data entered by users, and should be written usingproper defensive programming techniques. See Section 2.7, “Client Programming Security Guidelines”.

• Do not transmit plain (unencrypted) data over the Internet. This information is accessible to everyonewho has the time and ability to intercept it and use it for their own purposes. Instead, use an encryptedprotocol such as SSL or SSH. MySQL supports internal SSL connections. Another technique is to useSSH port-forwarding to create an encrypted (and compressed) tunnel for the communication.

• Learn to use the tcpdump and strings utilities. In most cases, you can check whether MySQL datastreams are unencrypted by issuing a command like the following:

shell> tcpdump -l -i eth0 -w - src or dst port 3306 | strings

This works under Linux and should work with small modifications under other systems.

Warning

If you do not see cleartext data, this does not always mean that the informationactually is encrypted. If you need high security, consult with a security expert.

Keeping Passwords Secure

5

2.2 Keeping Passwords Secure

Passwords occur in several contexts within MySQL. The following sections provide guidelines that enableend users and administrators to keep these passwords secure and avoid exposing them. There is also adiscussion of how MySQL uses password hashing internally and of a plugin that you can use to enforcestricter passwords.

2.2.1 End-User Guidelines for Password Security

MySQL users should use the following guidelines to keep passwords secure.

When you run a client program to connect to the MySQL server, it is inadvisable to specify your passwordin a way that exposes it to discovery by other users. The methods you can use to specify your passwordwhen you run client programs are listed here, along with an assessment of the risks of each method.In short, the safest methods are to have the client program prompt for the password or to specify thepassword in a properly protected option file.

• Use the mysql_config_editor utility, which enables you to store authentication credentials in anencrypted login path file named .mylogin.cnf. The file can be read later by MySQL client programsto obtain authentication credentials for connecting to MySQL Server. See mysql_config_editor —MySQL Configuration Utility.

• Use a -pyour_pass or --password=your_pass option on the command line. For example:

shell> mysql -u francis -pfrank db_name

Warning

This is convenient but insecure. On some systems, your password becomesvisible to system status programs such as ps that may be invoked by other usersto display command lines. MySQL clients typically overwrite the command-linepassword argument with zeros during their initialization sequence. However,there is still a brief interval during which the value is visible. Also, on somesystems this overwriting strategy is ineffective and the password remains visibleto ps. (SystemV Unix systems and perhaps others are subject to this problem.)

If your operating environment is set up to display your current command in the title bar of your terminalwindow, the password remains visible as long as the command is running, even if the command hasscrolled out of view in the window content area.

• Use the -p or --password option on the command line with no password value specified. In this case,the client program solicits the password interactively:

shell> mysql -u francis -p db_nameEnter password: ********

The * characters indicate where you enter your password. The password is not displayed as you enter it.

It is more secure to enter your password this way than to specify it on the command line because it isnot visible to other users. However, this method of entering a password is suitable only for programs thatyou run interactively. If you want to invoke a client from a script that runs noninteractively, there is noopportunity to enter the password from the keyboard. On some systems, you may even find that the firstline of your script is read and interpreted (incorrectly) as your password.

Administrator Guidelines for Password Security

6

• Store your password in an option file. For example, on Unix, you can list your password in the [client]section of the .my.cnf file in your home directory:

[client]password=your_pass

To keep the password safe, the file should not be accessible to anyone but yourself. To ensure this, setthe file access mode to 400 or 600. For example:

shell> chmod 600 .my.cnf

To name from the command line a specific option file containing the password, use the --defaults-file=file_name option, where file_name is the full path name to the file. For example:

shell> mysql --defaults-file=/home/francis/mysql-opts

Using Option Files, discusses option files in more detail.

• Store your password in the MYSQL_PWD environment variable. See MySQL Program EnvironmentVariables.

This method of specifying your MySQL password must be considered extremely insecure and shouldnot be used. Some versions of ps include an option to display the environment of running processes.On some systems, if you set MYSQL_PWD, your password is exposed to any other user who runs ps.Even on systems without such a version of ps, it is unwise to assume that there are no other methods bywhich users can examine process environments.

On Unix, the mysql client writes a record of executed statements to a history file (see mysql ClientLogging). By default, this file is named .mysql_history and is created in your home directory.Passwords can be written as plain text in SQL statements such as CREATE USER, GRANT, and SETPASSWORD, so if you use these statements, they are logged in the history file. To keep this file safe, use arestrictive access mode, the same way as described earlier for the .my.cnf file.

If your command interpreter is configured to maintain a history, any file in which the commandsare saved will contain MySQL passwords entered on the command line. For example, bash uses~/.bash_history. Any such file should have a restrictive access mode.

2.2.2 Administrator Guidelines for Password Security

Database administrators should use the following guidelines to keep passwords secure.

MySQL stores passwords for user accounts in the mysql.user system table. Access to this table shouldnever be granted to any nonadministrative accounts.

Account passwords can be expired so that users must reset them. See Section 5.6, “Password Expirationand Sandbox Mode”.

The validate_password plugin can be used to enforce a policy on acceptable password. SeeSection 7.3, “The Password Validation Plugin”.

A user who has access to modify the plugin directory (the value of the plugin_dir system variable) orthe my.cnf file that specifies the plugin directory location can replace plugins and modify the capabilitiesprovided by plugins, including authentication plugins.

Passwords and Logging

7

Files such as log files to which passwords might be written should be protected. See Section 2.2.3,“Passwords and Logging”.

2.2.3 Passwords and Logging

Passwords can be written as plain text in SQL statements such as CREATE USER, GRANT, SETPASSWORD, and statements that invoke the PASSWORD() function. If such statements are logged by theMySQL server as written, passwords in them become visible to anyone with access to the logs.

Statement logging avoids writing passwords in cleartext for the following statements:

CREATE USER ... IDENTIFIED BY ...GRANT ... IDENTIFIED BY ...SET PASSWORD ...SLAVE START ... PASSWORD = ...CREATE SERVER ... OPTIONS(... PASSWORD ...)ALTER SERVER ... OPTIONS(... PASSWORD ...)

Passwords in those statements are rewritten to not appear literally in statement text written to the generalquery log, slow query log, and binary log. Rewriting does not apply to other statements. In particular,INSERT or UPDATE statements for the mysql.user system table that refer to literal passwords are loggedas is, so you should avoid such statements. (Direct modification of grant tables is discouraged, anyway.)

For the general query log, password rewriting can be suppressed by starting the server with the --log-raw option. For security reasons, this option is not recommended for production use. For diagnosticpurposes, it may be useful to see the exact text of statements as received by the server.

Contents of the audit log file produced by the audit log plugin are not encrypted. For security reasons, thisfile should be written to a directory accessible only to the MySQL server and users with a legitimate reasonto view the log. See Section 7.4.2, “MySQL Enterprise Audit Security Considerations”.

To guard log files against unwarranted exposure, locate them in a directory that restricts access to theserver and the database administrator. If the server logs to tables in the mysql database, grant access tothose tables only to the database administrator.

Replication slaves store the password for the replication master in the master info repository, which can beeither a file or a table (see Replication Relay and Status Logs). Ensure that the repository can be accessedonly by the database administrator. An alternative to storing the password in a file is to use the STARTSLAVE statement to specify credentials for connecting to the master.

Use a restricted access mode to protect database backups that include log tables or log files containingpasswords.

2.2.4 Password Hashing in MySQL

Note

The information in this section applies only for accounts that use themysql_native_password or mysql_old_password authentication plugins.

MySQL lists user accounts in the user table of the mysql database. Each MySQL account can beassigned a password, although the user table does not store the cleartext version of the password, but ahash value computed from it.

MySQL uses passwords in two phases of client/server communication:

Password Hashing in MySQL

8

• When a client attempts to connect to the server, there is an initial authentication step in which the clientmust present a password that has a hash value matching the hash value stored in the user table for theaccount the client wants to use.

• After the client connects, it can (if it has sufficient privileges) set or change the password hash foraccounts listed in the user table. The client can do this by using the PASSWORD() function to generatea password hash, or by using a password-generating statement (CREATE USER, GRANT, or SETPASSWORD).

In other words, the server checks hash values during authentication when a client first attempts to connect.The server generates hash values if a connected client invokes the PASSWORD() function or uses apassword-generating statement to set or change a password.

Password hashing methods in MySQL have the history described following. These changes are illustratedby changes in the result from the PASSWORD() function that computes password hash values and in thestructure of the user table where passwords are stored.

The Original (Pre-4.1) Hashing Method

The original hashing method produced a 16-byte string. Such hashes look like this:

mysql> SELECT PASSWORD('mypass');+--------------------+| PASSWORD('mypass') |+--------------------+| 6f8c114b58f2ce9e |+--------------------+

To store account passwords, the Password column of the user table was at this point 16 bytes long.

The 4.1 Hashing Method

MySQL 4.1 introduced password hashing that provided better security and reduced the risk of passwordsbeing intercepted. There were several aspects to this change:

• Different format of password values produced by the PASSWORD() function

• Widening of the Password column

• Control over the default hashing method

• Control over the permitted hashing methods for clients attempting to connect to the server

The changes in MySQL 4.1 took place in two stages:

• MySQL 4.1.0 used a preliminary version of the 4.1 hashing method. This method was short lived and thefollowing discussion says nothing more about it.

• In MySQL 4.1.1, the hashing method was modified to produce a longer 41-byte hash value:

mysql> SELECT PASSWORD('mypass');+-------------------------------------------+| PASSWORD('mypass') |+-------------------------------------------+| *6C8989366EAF75BB670AD8EA7A7FC1176A95CEF4 |+-------------------------------------------+

The longer password hash format has better cryptographic properties, and client authentication based onlong hashes is more secure than that based on the older short hashes.

Password Hashing in MySQL

9

To accommodate longer password hashes, the Password column in the user table was changed at thispoint to be 41 bytes, its current length.

A widened Password column can store password hashes in both the pre-4.1 and 4.1 formats. Theformat of any given hash value can be determined two ways:

• The length: 4.1 and pre-4.1 hashes are 41 and 16 bytes, respectively.

• Password hashes in the 4.1 format always begin with a * character, whereas passwords in the pre-4.1format never do.

To permit explicit generation of pre-4.1 password hashes, two additional changes were made:

• The OLD_PASSWORD() function was added, which returns hash values in the 16-byte format.

• For compatibility purposes, the old_passwords system variable was added, to enable DBAs andapplications control over the hashing method. The default old_passwords value of 0 causes hashingto use the 4.1 method (41-byte hash values), but setting old_passwords=1 causes hashing touse the pre-4.1 method. In this case, PASSWORD() produces 16-byte values and is equivalent toOLD_PASSWORD()

To permit DBAs control over how clients are permitted to connect, the secure_auth system variablewas added. Starting the server with this variable disabled or enabled permits or prohibits clients toconnect using the older pre-4.1 password hashing method. Before MySQL 5.6.5, secure_auth isdisabled by default. As of 5.6.5, secure_auth is enabled by default to promote a more secure defaultconfiguration DBAs can disable it at their discretion, but this is not recommended, and pre-4.1 passwordhashes are deprecated and should be avoided. (For account upgrade instructions, see Section 7.1.3,“Migrating Away from Pre-4.1 Password Hashing and the mysql_old_password Plugin”.)

In addition, the mysql client supports a --secure-auth option that is analogous to secure_auth,but from the client side. It can be used to prevent connections to less secure accounts that use pre-4.1password hashing. This option is disabled by default before MySQL 5.6.7, enabled thereafter.

Compatibility Issues Related to Hashing Methods

The widening of the Password column in MySQL 4.1 from 16 bytes to 41 bytes affects installation orupgrade operations as follows:

• If you perform a new installation of MySQL, the Password column is made 41 bytes long automatically.

• Upgrades from MySQL 4.1 or later to current versions of MySQL should not give rise to any issues inregard to the Password column because both versions use the same column length and passwordhashing method.

• For upgrades from a pre-4.1 release to 4.1 or later, you must upgrade the system tables after upgrading.(See mysql_upgrade — Check and Upgrade MySQL Tables.)

The 4.1 hashing method is understood only by MySQL 4.1 (and higher) servers and clients, which canresult in some compatibility problems. A 4.1 or higher client can connect to a pre-4.1 server, because theclient understands both the pre-4.1 and 4.1 password hashing methods. However, a pre-4.1 client thatattempts to connect to a 4.1 or higher server may run into difficulties. For example, a 4.0 mysql client mayfail with the following error message:

shell> mysql -h localhost -u rootClient does not support authentication protocol requestedby server; consider upgrading MySQL client

Password Hashing in MySQL

10

This phenomenon also occurs for attempts to use the older PHP mysql extension after upgrading toMySQL 4.1 or higher. (See Common Problems with MySQL and PHP.)

The following discussion describes the differences between the pre-4.1 and 4.1 hashing methods, andwhat you should do if you upgrade your server but need to maintain backward compatibility with pre-4.1clients. (However, permitting connections by old clients is not recommended and should be avoided ifpossible.) Additional information can be found in Client does not support authentication protocol. Thisinformation is of particular importance to PHP programmers migrating MySQL databases from versionsolder than 4.1 to 4.1 or higher.

The differences between short and long password hashes are relevant both for how the server usespasswords during authentication and for how it generates password hashes for connected clients thatperform password-changing operations.

The way in which the server uses password hashes during authentication is affected by the width of thePassword column:

• If the column is short, only short-hash authentication is used.

• If the column is long, it can hold either short or long hashes, and the server can use either format:

• Pre-4.1 clients can connect, but because they know only about the pre-4.1 hashing method, they canauthenticate only using accounts that have short hashes.

• 4.1 and later clients can authenticate using accounts that have short or long hashes.

Even for short-hash accounts, the authentication process is actually a bit more secure for 4.1 and laterclients than for older clients. In terms of security, the gradient from least to most secure is:

• Pre-4.1 client authenticating with short password hash

• 4.1 or later client authenticating with short password hash

• 4.1 or later client authenticating with long password hash

The way in which the server generates password hashes for connected clients is affected by the width ofthe Password column and by the old_passwords system variable. A 4.1 or later server generates longhashes only if certain conditions are met: The Password column must be wide enough to hold long valuesand old_passwords must not be set to 1.

Those conditions apply as follows:

• The Password column must be wide enough to hold long hashes (41 bytes). If the column has notbeen updated and still has the pre-4.1 width of 16 bytes, the server notices that long hashes cannot fitinto it and generates only short hashes when a client performs password-changing operations usingthe PASSWORD() function or a password-generating statement. This is the behavior that occurs ifyou have upgraded from a version of MySQL older than 4.1 to 4.1 or later but have not yet run themysql_upgrade program to widen the Password column.

• If the Password column is wide, it can store either short or long password hashes. In this case, thePASSWORD() function and password-generating statements generate long hashes unless the server wasstarted with the old_passwords system variable set to 1 to force the server to generate short passwordhashes instead.

The purpose of the old_passwords system variable is to permit backward compatibility with pre-4.1clients under circumstances where the server would otherwise generate long password hashes. The optiondoes not affect authentication (4.1 and later clients can still use accounts that have long password hashes),

Password Hashing in MySQL

11

but it does prevent creation of a long password hash in the user table as the result of a password-changing operation. Were that permitted to occur, the account could no longer be used by pre-4.1 clients.With old_passwords disabled, the following undesirable scenario is possible:

• An old pre-4.1 client connects to an account that has a short password hash.

• The client changes its own password. With old_passwords disabled, this results in the account havinga long password hash.

• The next time the old client attempts to connect to the account, it cannot, because the account has along password hash that requires the 4.1 hashing method during authentication. (Once an account hasa long password hash in the user table, only 4.1 and later clients can authenticate for it because pre-4.1clients do not understand long hashes.)

This scenario illustrates that, if you must support older pre-4.1 clients, it is problematic to run a 4.1or higher server without old_passwords set to 1. By running the server with old_passwords=1,password-changing operations do not generate long password hashes and thus do not cause accounts tobecome inaccessible to older clients. (Those clients cannot inadvertently lock themselves out by changingtheir password and ending up with a long password hash.)

The downside of old_passwords=1 is that any passwords created or changed use short hashes, evenfor 4.1 or later clients. Thus, you lose the additional security provided by long password hashes. To createan account that has a long hash (for example, for use by 4.1 clients) or to change an existing account touse a long password hash, an administrator can set the session value of old_passwords set to 0 whileleaving the global value set to 1:

mysql> SET @@SESSION.old_passwords = 0;Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)mysql> SELECT @@SESSION.old_passwords, @@GLOBAL.old_passwords;+-------------------------+------------------------+| @@SESSION.old_passwords | @@GLOBAL.old_passwords |+-------------------------+------------------------+| 0 | 1 |+-------------------------+------------------------+1 row in set (0.00 sec)mysql> CREATE USER 'newuser'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'newpass';Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.03 sec)mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR 'existinguser'@'localhost' = PASSWORD('existingpass');Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)

The following scenarios are possible in MySQL 4.1 or later. The factors are whether the Password columnis short or long, and, if long, whether the server is started with old_passwords enabled or disabled.

Scenario 1: Short Password column in user table:

• Only short hashes can be stored in the Password column.

• The server uses only short hashes during client authentication.

• For connected clients, password hash-generating operations involving the PASSWORD() function orpassword-generating statements use short hashes exclusively. Any change to an account's passwordresults in that account having a short password hash.

• The value of old_passwords is irrelevant because with a short Password column, the servergenerates only short password hashes anyway.

This scenario occurs when a pre-4.1 MySQL installation has been upgraded to 4.1 or later butmysql_upgrade has not been run to upgrade the system tables in the mysql database. (This is not arecommended configuration because it does not permit use of more secure 4.1 password hashing.)

Password Hashing in MySQL

12

Scenario 2: Long Password column; server started with old_passwords=1:

• Short or long hashes can be stored in the Password column.

• 4.1 and later clients can authenticate for accounts that have short or long hashes.

• Pre-4.1 clients can authenticate only for accounts that have short hashes.

• For connected clients, password hash-generating operations involving the PASSWORD() function orpassword-generating statements use short hashes exclusively. Any change to an account's passwordresults in that account having a short password hash.

In this scenario, newly created accounts have short password hashes because old_passwords=1prevents generation of long hashes. Also, if you create an account with a long hash before settingold_passwords to 1, changing the account's password while old_passwords=1 results in the accountbeing given a short password, causing it to lose the security benefits of a longer hash.

To create a new account that has a long password hash, or to change the password of any existingaccount to use a long hash, first set the session value of old_passwords set to 0 while leaving the globalvalue set to 1, as described previously.

In this scenario, the server has an up to date Password column, but is running with the default passwordhashing method set to generate pre-4.1 hash values. This is not a recommended configuration butmay be useful during a transitional period in which pre-4.1 clients and passwords are upgraded to4.1 or later. When that has been done, it is preferable to run the server with old_passwords=0 andsecure_auth=1.

Scenario 3: Long Password column; server started with old_passwords=0:

• Short or long hashes can be stored in the Password column.

• 4.1 and later clients can authenticate using accounts that have short or long hashes.

• Pre-4.1 clients can authenticate only using accounts that have short hashes.

• For connected clients, password hash-generating operations involving the PASSWORD() function orpassword-generating statements use long hashes exclusively. A change to an account's passwordresults in that account having a long password hash.

As indicated earlier, a danger in this scenario is that it is possible for accounts that have a short passwordhash to become inaccessible to pre-4.1 clients. A change to such an account's password made usingthe PASSWORD() function or a password-generating statement results in the account being given a longpassword hash. From that point on, no pre-4.1 client can connect to the server using that account. Theclient must upgrade to 4.1 or later.

If this is a problem, you can change a password in a special way. For example, normally you use SETPASSWORD as follows to change an account password:

SET PASSWORD FOR 'some_user'@'some_host' = PASSWORD('password');

To change the password but create a short hash, use the OLD_PASSWORD() function instead:

SET PASSWORD FOR 'some_user'@'some_host' = OLD_PASSWORD('password');

OLD_PASSWORD() is useful for situations in which you explicitly want to generate a short hash.

Implications of Password Hashing Changes in MySQL 4.1 for Application Programs

13

The disadvantages for each of the preceding scenarios may be summarized as follows:

In scenario 1, you cannot take advantage of longer hashes that provide more secure authentication.

In scenario 2, old_passwords=1 prevents accounts with short hashes from becoming inaccessible, butpassword-changing operations cause accounts with long hashes to revert to short hashes unless you takecare to change the session value of old_passwords to 0 first.

In scenario 3, accounts with short hashes become inaccessible to pre-4.1 clients if you change theirpasswords without explicitly using OLD_PASSWORD().

The best way to avoid compatibility problems related to short password hashes is to not use them:

• Upgrade all client programs to MySQL 4.1 or later.

• Run the server with old_passwords=0.

• Reset the password for any account with a short password hash to use a long password hash.

• For additional security, run the server with secure_auth=1.

2.2.5 Implications of Password Hashing Changes in MySQL 4.1 for ApplicationPrograms

An upgrade to MySQL version 4.1 or later can cause compatibility issues for applications that usePASSWORD() to generate passwords for their own purposes. Applications really should not do this,because PASSWORD() should be used only to manage passwords for MySQL accounts. But someapplications use PASSWORD() for their own purposes anyway.

If you upgrade to 4.1 or later from a pre-4.1 version of MySQL and run the server under conditions whereit generates long password hashes, an application using PASSWORD() for its own passwords breaks.The recommended course of action in such cases is to modify the application to use another function,such as SHA2(), SHA1(), or MD5(), to produce hashed values. If that is not possible, you can use theOLD_PASSWORD() function, which is provided for generate short hashes in the old format. However, youshould note that OLD_PASSWORD() may one day no longer be supported.

If the server is running with old_passwords=1, it generates short hashes and OLD_PASSWORD() isequivalent to PASSWORD().

PHP programmers migrating their MySQL databases from version 4.0 or lower to version 4.1 or highershould see MySQL and PHP.

2.3 Making MySQL Secure Against AttackersWhen you connect to a MySQL server, you should use a password. The password is not transmitted inclear text over the connection. Password handling during the client connection sequence was upgraded inMySQL 4.1.1 to be very secure. If you are still using pre-4.1.1-style passwords, the encryption algorithm isnot as strong as the newer algorithm. With some effort, a clever attacker who can sniff the traffic betweenthe client and the server can crack the password. (See Section 2.2.4, “Password Hashing in MySQL”, for adiscussion of the different password handling methods.)

All other information is transferred as text, and can be read by anyone who is able to watch the connection.If the connection between the client and the server goes through an untrusted network, and you areconcerned about this, you can use the compressed protocol to make traffic much more difficult todecipher. You can also use MySQL's internal SSL support to make the connection even more secure.See Chapter 6, Using Encrypted Connections. Alternatively, use SSH to get an encrypted TCP/IP

Making MySQL Secure Against Attackers

14

connection between a MySQL server and a MySQL client. You can find an Open Source SSH client athttp://www.openssh.org/, and a comparison of both Open Source and Commercial SSH clients at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_SSH_clients.

To make a MySQL system secure, you should strongly consider the following suggestions:

• Require all MySQL accounts to have a password. A client program does not necessarily know theidentity of the person running it. It is common for client/server applications that the user can specifyany user name to the client program. For example, anyone can use the mysql program to connect asany other person simply by invoking it as mysql -u other_user db_name if other_user has nopassword. If all accounts have a password, connecting using another user's account becomes muchmore difficult.

For a discussion of methods for setting passwords, see Section 5.5, “Assigning Account Passwords”.

• Make sure that the only Unix user account with read or write privileges in the database directories is theaccount that is used for running mysqld.

• Never run the MySQL server as the Unix root user. This is extremely dangerous, because anyuser with the FILE privilege is able to cause the server to create files as root (for example,~root/.bashrc). To prevent this, mysqld refuses to run as root unless that is specified explicitlyusing the --user=root option.

mysqld can (and should) be run as an ordinary, unprivileged user instead. You can create a separateUnix account named mysql to make everything even more secure. Use this account only foradministering MySQL. To start mysqld as a different Unix user, add a user option that specifies theuser name in the [mysqld] group of the my.cnf option file where you specify server options. Forexample:

[mysqld]user=mysql

This causes the server to start as the designated user whether you start it manually or by usingmysqld_safe or mysql.server. For more details, see Section 2.5, “How to Run MySQL as a NormalUser”.

Running mysqld as a Unix user other than root does not mean that you need to change the root username in the user table. User names for MySQL accounts have nothing to do with user names for Unixaccounts.

• Do not grant the FILE privilege to nonadministrative users. Any user that has this privilege can writea file anywhere in the file system with the privileges of the mysqld daemon. This includes the server'sdata directory containing the files that implement the privilege tables. To make FILE-privilege operationsa bit safer, files generated with SELECT ... INTO OUTFILE do not overwrite existing files and arewritable by everyone.

The FILE privilege may also be used to read any file that is world-readable or accessible to the Unixuser that the server runs as. With this privilege, you can read any file into a database table. This couldbe abused, for example, by using LOAD DATA to load /etc/passwd into a table, which then can bedisplayed with SELECT.

To limit the location in which files can be read and written, set the secure_file_priv system to aspecific directory. See Server System Variables.

• Do not grant the PROCESS or SUPER privilege to nonadministrative users. The output of mysqladminprocesslist and SHOW PROCESSLIST shows the text of any statements currently being executed, so

Security-Related mysqld Options and Variables

15

any user who is permitted to see the server process list might be able to see statements issued by otherusers such as UPDATE user SET password=PASSWORD('not_secure').

mysqld reserves an extra connection for users who have the SUPER privilege, so that a MySQL rootuser can log in and check server activity even if all normal connections are in use.

The SUPER privilege can be used to terminate client connections, change server operation by changingthe value of system variables, and control replication servers.

• Do not permit the use of symlinks to tables. (This capability can be disabled with the --skip-symbolic-links option.) This is especially important if you run mysqld as root, because anyonethat has write access to the server's data directory then could delete any file in the system! See UsingSymbolic Links for MyISAM Tables on Unix.

• Stored programs and views should be written using the security guidelines discussed in Access Controlfor Stored Programs and Views.

• If you do not trust your DNS, you should use IP addresses rather than host names in the grant tables.In any case, you should be very careful about creating grant table entries using host name values thatcontain wildcards.

• If you want to restrict the number of connections permitted to a single account, you can do so by settingthe max_user_connections variable in mysqld. The GRANT statement also supports resource controloptions for limiting the extent of server use permitted to an account. See GRANT Syntax.

• If the plugin directory is writable by the server, it may be possible for a user to write executable codeto a file in the directory using SELECT ... INTO DUMPFILE. This can be prevented by makingplugin_dir read only to the server or by setting --secure-file-priv to a directory where SELECTwrites can be made safely.

2.4 Security-Related mysqld Options and Variables

The following table shows mysqld options and system variables that affect security. For descriptions ofeach of these, see Server Command Options, and Server System Variables.

Table 2.1 Security Option and Variable Summary

Name Cmd-Line Option File System Var Status Var Var Scope Dynamic

allow-suspicious-udfs Yes Yes

automatic_sp_privileges Yes Global Yes

chroot Yes Yes

des-key-file Yes Yes

local_infile Yes Global Yes

old_passwords Yes Both Yes

safe-user-create Yes Yes

secure-auth Yes Yes Global Yes

- Variable:secure_auth

Yes Global Yes

secure-file-priv Yes Yes Global No

- Variable:secure_file_priv

Yes Global No

How to Run MySQL as a Normal User

16

Name Cmd-Line Option File System Var Status Var Var Scope Dynamic

skip-grant-tables Yes Yes

skip-name-resolve Yes Yes Global No

- Variable:skip_name_resolve

Yes Global No

skip-networking Yes Yes Global No

- Variable:skip_networking

Yes Global No

skip-show-database Yes Yes Global No

- Variable:skip_show_database

Yes Global No

2.5 How to Run MySQL as a Normal UserOn Windows, you can run the server as a Windows service using a normal user account.

On Linux, for installations performed using a MySQL repository, RPM packages, or Debian packages, theMySQL server mysqld should be started by the local mysql operating system user. Starting by anotheroperating system user is not supported by the init scripts that are included as part of the installation.

On Unix (or Linux for installations performed using tar or tar.gz packages) , the MySQL server mysqldcan be started and run by any user. However, you should avoid running the server as the Unix root userfor security reasons. To change mysqld to run as a normal unprivileged Unix user user_name, you mustdo the following:

1. Stop the server if it is running (use mysqladmin shutdown).

2. Change the database directories and files so that user_name has privileges to read and write files inthem (you might need to do this as the Unix root user):

shell> chown -R user_name /path/to/mysql/datadir

If you do not do this, the server will not be able to access databases or tables when it runs asuser_name.

If directories or files within the MySQL data directory are symbolic links, chown -R might not followsymbolic links for you. If it does not, you will also need to follow those links and change the directoriesand files they point to.

3. Start the server as user user_name. Another alternative is to start mysqld as the Unix root userand use the --user=user_name option. mysqld starts up, then switches to run as the Unix useruser_name before accepting any connections.

4. To start the server as the given user automatically at system startup time, specify the user name byadding a user option to the [mysqld] group of the /etc/my.cnf option file or the my.cnf option filein the server's data directory. For example:

[mysqld]user=user_name

If your Unix machine itself is not secured, you should assign passwords to the MySQL root accountsin the grant tables. Otherwise, any user with a login account on that machine can run the mysql client

Security Issues with LOAD DATA LOCAL

17

with a --user=root option and perform any operation. (It is a good idea to assign passwords toMySQL accounts in any case, but especially so when other login accounts exist on the server host.) SeeSection 3.4, “Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts”.

2.6 Security Issues with LOAD DATA LOCALThe LOAD DATA statement can load a file located on the server host, or, if the LOCAL keyword is specified,on the client host.

There are two potential security issues with the LOCAL version of LOAD DATA:

• The transfer of the file from the client host to the server host is initiated by the MySQL server. In theory,a patched server could be built that would tell the client program to transfer a file of the server's choosingrather than the file named by the client in the LOAD DATA statement. Such a server could access any fileon the client host to which the client user has read access. (A patched server could in fact reply with afile-transfer request to any statement, not just LOAD DATA LOCAL, so a more fundamental issue is thatclients should not connect to untrusted servers.)

• In a Web environment where the clients are connecting from a Web server, a user could use LOADDATA LOCAL to read any files that the Web server process has read access to (assuming that a usercould run any statement against the SQL server). In this environment, the client with respect to theMySQL server actually is the Web server, not a remote program being run by users who connect to theWeb server.

To avoid LOAD DATA issues, clients should avoid using LOCAL. To avoid connecting to untrusted servers,clients can establish a secure connection and verify the server identity by connecting using the --ssl-verify-server-cert option and the appropriate CA certificate.

To enable adminstrators and applications to manage the local data loading capability, LOCAL configurationworks like this:

• On the server side:

• The local_infile system variable controls server-side LOCAL capability. Depending on thelocal_infile setting, the server refuses or permits local data loading by clients that have LOCALenabled on the client side. By default, local_infile is enabled.

• To explicitly cause the server to refuse or permit LOAD DATA LOCAL statements (regardlessof how client programs and libraries are configured at build time or runtime), start mysqld withlocal_infile disabled or enabled, respectively. local_infile can also be set at runtime.

• On the client side:

• The ENABLED_LOCAL_INFILE CMake option controls the compiled-in default LOCAL capability forthe MySQL client library. Clients that make no explicit arrangements therefore have LOCAL capabilitydisabled or enabled according to the ENABLED_LOCAL_INFILE setting specified at MySQL buildtime.

By default, the client library in MySQL binary distributions is compiled with ENABLED_LOCAL_INFILEenabled. If you compile MySQL from source, configure it with ENABLED_LOCAL_INFILE disabled orenabled based on whether clients that make no explicit arrangements should have LOCAL capabilitydisabled or enabled, respectively.

• Client programs that use the C API can control load data loading explicitly by invokingmysql_options() to disable or enable the MYSQL_OPT_LOCAL_INFILE option. Seemysql_options().

Client Programming Security Guidelines

18

• For the mysql client, local data loading is disabled by default. To disable or enable it explicitly, use the--local-infile=0 or --local-infile[=1] option.

• For the mysqlimport client, local data loading is disabled by default. To disable or enable it explicitly,use the --local=0 or --local[=1] option.

• If you use LOAD DATA LOCAL in Perl scripts or other programs that read the [client] group fromoption files, you can add an local-infile option setting to that group. To prevent problems forprograms that do not understand this option, specify it using the loose- prefix:

[client]loose-local-infile=0

or:

[client]loose-local-infile=1

• In all cases, successful use of a LOCAL load operation by a client also requires that the server permitsit.

If LOCAL capability is disabled, on either the server or client side, a client that attempts to issue a LOADDATA LOCAL statement receives the following error message:

ERROR 1148: The used command is not allowed with this MySQL version

2.7 Client Programming Security GuidelinesApplications that access MySQL should not trust any data entered by users, who can try to trick yourcode by entering special or escaped character sequences in Web forms, URLs, or whatever applicationyou have built. Be sure that your application remains secure if a user enters something like ; DROPDATABASE mysql;. This is an extreme example, but large security leaks and data loss might occur as aresult of hackers using similar techniques, if you do not prepare for them.

A common mistake is to protect only string data values. Remember to check numeric data as well. If anapplication generates a query such as SELECT * FROM table WHERE ID=234 when a user entersthe value 234, the user can enter the value 234 OR 1=1 to cause the application to generate the querySELECT * FROM table WHERE ID=234 OR 1=1. As a result, the server retrieves every row in thetable. This exposes every row and causes excessive server load. The simplest way to protect fromthis type of attack is to use single quotation marks around the numeric constants: SELECT * FROMtable WHERE ID='234'. If the user enters extra information, it all becomes part of the string. In anumeric context, MySQL automatically converts this string to a number and strips any trailing nonnumericcharacters from it.

Sometimes people think that if a database contains only publicly available data, it need not be protected.This is incorrect. Even if it is permissible to display any row in the database, you should still protect againstdenial of service attacks (for example, those that are based on the technique in the preceding paragraphthat causes the server to waste resources). Otherwise, your server becomes unresponsive to legitimateusers.

Checklist:

• Enable strict SQL mode to tell the server to be more restrictive of what data values it accepts. SeeServer SQL Modes.

Client Programming Security Guidelines

19

• Try to enter single and double quotation marks (' and ") in all of your Web forms. If you get any kind ofMySQL error, investigate the problem right away.

• Try to modify dynamic URLs by adding %22 ("), %23 (#), and %27 (') to them.

• Try to modify data types in dynamic URLs from numeric to character types using the characters shown inthe previous examples. Your application should be safe against these and similar attacks.

• Try to enter characters, spaces, and special symbols rather than numbers in numeric fields. Yourapplication should remove them before passing them to MySQL or else generate an error. Passingunchecked values to MySQL is very dangerous!

• Check the size of data before passing it to MySQL.

• Have your application connect to the database using a user name different from the one you use foradministrative purposes. Do not give your applications any access privileges they do not need.

Many application programming interfaces provide a means of escaping special characters in data values.Properly used, this prevents application users from entering values that cause the application to generatestatements that have a different effect than you intend:

• MySQL C API: Use the mysql_real_escape_string() API call.

• MySQL++: Use the escape and quote modifiers for query streams.

• PHP: Use either the mysqli or pdo_mysql extensions, and not the older ext/mysql extension.The preferred API's support the improved MySQL authentication protocol and passwords, as well asprepared statements with placeholders. See also Choosing an API.

If the older ext/mysql extension must be used, then for escaping use themysql_real_escape_string() function and not mysql_escape_string() or addslashes()because only mysql_real_escape_string() is character set-aware; the other functions can be“bypassed” when using (invalid) multibyte character sets.

• Perl DBI: Use placeholders or the quote() method.

• Ruby DBI: Use placeholders or the quote() method.

• Java JDBC: Use a PreparedStatement object and placeholders.

Other programming interfaces might have similar capabilities.

20

21

Chapter 3 Postinstallation Setup and Testing

Table of Contents3.1 Initializing the Data Directory ....................................................................................................... 21

3.1.1 Problems Running mysql_install_db .................................................................................. 233.2 Starting the Server ..................................................................................................................... 25

3.2.1 Troubleshooting Problems Starting the MySQL Server ....................................................... 253.3 Testing the Server ...................................................................................................................... 273.4 Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts ........................................................................................... 293.5 Starting and Stopping MySQL Automatically ................................................................................ 34

This section discusses tasks that you should perform after installing MySQL:

• If necessary, initialize the data directory and create the MySQL grant tables. For some MySQLinstallation methods, data directory initialization may be done for you automatically:

• Installation on Windows

• Installation on Linux using a server RPM or Debian distribution from Oracle.

• Installation using the native packaging system on many platforms, including Debian Linux, UbuntuLinux, Gentoo Linux, and others.

• Installation on OS X using a DMG distribution.

For other platforms and installation types, you must initialize the data directory manually. These includeinstallation from generic binary and source distributions on Unix and Unix-like system, and installationfrom a ZIP Archive package on Windows. For instructions, see Section 3.1, “Initializing the DataDirectory”.

• For instructions, see Section 3.2, “Starting the Server”, and Section 3.3, “Testing the Server”.

• Assign passwords to any initial accounts in the grant tables, if that was not already done during datadirectory initialization. Passwords prevent unauthorized access to the MySQL server. You may alsowish to restrict access to test databases. For instructions, see Section 3.4, “Securing the Initial MySQLAccounts”.

• Optionally, arrange for the server to start and stop automatically when your system starts and stops. Forinstructions, see Section 3.5, “Starting and Stopping MySQL Automatically”.

• Optionally, populate time zone tables to enable recognition of named time zones. For instructions, seeMySQL Server Time Zone Support.

When you are ready to create additional user accounts, you can find information on the MySQL accesscontrol system and account management in Chapter 4, The MySQL Access Privilege System, andChapter 5, MySQL User Account Management.

3.1 Initializing the Data Directory

After MySQL is installed, the data directory must be initialized, including the tables in the mysql systemdatabase:

Initializing the Data Directory

22

• For some MySQL installation methods, data directory initialization is automatic, as described inChapter 3, Postinstallation Setup and Testing.

• For other installation methods, you must initialize the data directory manually. These include installationfrom generic binary and source distributions on Unix and Unix-like systems, and installation from a ZIPArchive package on Windows.

This section describes how to initialize the data directory manually for MySQL installation methods forwhich data directory initialization is not automatic. For some suggested commands that enable testingwhether the server is accessible and working properly, see Section 3.3, “Testing the Server”.

In the examples shown here, the server is intended to run under the user ID of the mysql login account.This assumes that such an account exists. Either create the account if it does not exist (see Create amysql User and Group), or substitute the name of a different existing login account that you plan to use forrunning the server.

1. Change location to the top-level directory of your MySQL installation, which is typically /usr/local/mysql (adjust the path name for your system as necessary):

cd /usr/local/mysql

You will find several files and subdirectories inside the directory, including the bin and scriptssubdirectories, which contain the server as well as client and utility programs.

2. Initialize the data directory, including the mysql database containing the initial MySQL grant tables thatdetermine how users are permitted to connect to the server. For example:

scripts/mysql_install_db --user=mysql

Typically, data directory initialization need be done only after you first install MySQL. (For upgrades toan existing installation, perform the upgrade procedure instead; see Upgrading MySQL.) However, thecommand that initializes the data directory does not overwrite any existing privilege tables, so it is safeto run in any circumstances.

It is important to make sure that the database directories and files are owned by the mysql loginaccount so that the server has read and write access to them when you run it later. To ensure this ifyou run mysql_install_db as root, include the --user option as shown.

The mysql_install_db command initializes the server's data directory. Under the data directory,it creates directories for the mysql database that holds the grant tables and the test database thatyou can use to test MySQL. The program also creates privilege table entries for the initial account oraccounts. test_. For a complete listing and description of the grant tables, see Chapter 4, The MySQLAccess Privilege System.

It might be necessary to specify other options such as --basedir or --datadir ifmysql_install_db cannot identify the correct locations for the installation directory or data directory.For example (enter the command on a single line):

scripts/mysql_install_db --user=mysql --basedir=/opt/mysql/mysql --datadir=/opt/mysql/mysql/data

For a more secure installation, invoke mysql_install_db with the --random-passwords option.This causes it to assign a random password to the MySQL root accounts, set the “password expired”flag for those accounts, and remove the anonymous-user MySQL accounts. For additional details,

Problems Running mysql_install_db

23

see mysql_install_db — Initialize MySQL Data Directory. (Install operations using RPMs forUnbreakable Linux Network are unaffected because they do not use mysql_install_db.)

If you do not want to have the test database, you can remove it after starting the server, using theinstructions in Section 3.4, “Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts”.

If you have trouble with mysql_install_db at this point, see Section 3.1.1, “Problems Runningmysql_install_db”.

3. In the absence of any option files, the server starts with its default settings. (See Server ConfigurationDefaults.) To specify options that the MySQL server should use at startup, put them in an option filesuch as /etc/my.cnf or /etc/mysql/my.cnf. (See Using Option Files.) For example, you can usean option file to set the secure_file_priv system variable.

4. To arrange for MySQL to start without manual intervention at system boot time, see Section 3.5,“Starting and Stopping MySQL Automatically”.

5. Data directory initialization creates time zone tables in the mysql database but does not populatethem. To do so, use the instructions in MySQL Server Time Zone Support.

3.1.1 Problems Running mysql_install_db

The purpose of the mysql_install_db program is to initialize the data directory, including the tables inthe mysql system database. It does not overwrite existing MySQL privilege tables, and it does not affectany other data.

To re-create your privilege tables, first stop the mysqld server if it is running. Then rename the mysqldirectory under the data directory to save it, and run mysql_install_db. Suppose that your currentdirectory is the MySQL installation directory and that mysql_install_db is located in the bin directoryand the data directory is named data. To rename the mysql database and re-run mysql_install_db,use these commands.

mv data/mysql data/mysql.oldscripts/mysql_install_db --user=mysql

When you run mysql_install_db, you might encounter the following problems:

• mysql_install_db fails to install the grant tables

You may find that mysql_install_db fails to install the grant tables and terminates after displaying thefollowing messages:

Starting mysqld daemon with databases from XXXXXXmysqld ended

In this case, you should examine the error log file very carefully. The log should be located in thedirectory XXXXXX named by the error message and should indicate why mysqld did not start. If you donot understand what happened, include the log when you post a bug report. See How to Report Bugs orProblems.

• There is a mysqld process running

This indicates that the server is running, in which case the grant tables have probably been createdalready. If so, there is no need to run mysql_install_db at all because it needs to be run only once,when you first install MySQL.

• Installing a second mysqld server does not work when one server is running

Problems Running mysql_install_db

24

This can happen when you have an existing MySQL installation, but want to put a new installation in adifferent location. For example, you might have a production installation, but you want to create a secondinstallation for testing purposes. Generally the problem that occurs when you try to run a second serveris that it tries to use a network interface that is in use by the first server. In this case, you should see oneof the following error messages:

Can't start server: Bind on TCP/IP port:Address already in useCan't start server: Bind on unix socket...

For instructions on setting up multiple servers, see Running Multiple MySQL Instances on One Machine.

• You do not have write access to the /tmp directory

If you do not have write access to create temporary files or a Unix socket file in the default location (the/tmp directory) or the TMPDIR environment variable, if it has been set, an error occurs when you runmysql_install_db or the mysqld server.

You can specify different locations for the temporary directory and Unix socket file by executing thesecommands prior to starting mysql_install_db or mysqld, where some_tmp_dir is the full pathname to some directory for which you have write permission:

TMPDIR=/some_tmp_dir/MYSQL_UNIX_PORT=/some_tmp_dir/mysql.sockexport TMPDIR MYSQL_UNIX_PORT

Then you should be able to run mysql_install_db and start the server with these commands:

scripts/mysql_install_db --user=mysqlbin/mysqld_safe --user=mysql &

If mysql_install_db is located in the scripts directory, modify the first command to scripts/mysql_install_db.

See How to Protect or Change the MySQL Unix Socket File, and MySQL Program EnvironmentVariables.

There are some alternatives to running the mysql_install_db program provided in the MySQLdistribution:

• If you want the initial privileges to differ from the standard defaults, use account-management statementssuch as CREATE USER, GRANT, and REVOKE to change the privileges after the grant tables have beenset up. In other words, run mysql_install_db, and then use mysql -u root mysql to connectto the server as the MySQL root user so that you can issue the necessary statements. (See AccountManagement Statements.)

To install MySQL on several machines with the same privileges, put the CREATE USER, GRANT,and REVOKE statements in a file and execute the file as a script using mysql after runningmysql_install_db. For example:

scripts/mysql_install_db --user=mysqlbin/mysql -u root < your_script_file

This enables you to avoid issuing the statements manually on each machine.

Starting the Server

25

• It is possible to re-create the grant tables completely after they have previously been created. You mightwant to do this if you are just learning how to use CREATE USER, GRANT, and REVOKE and have madeso many modifications after running mysql_install_db that you want to wipe out the tables and startover.

To re-create the grant tables, stop the server if it is running and remove the mysql database directory.Then run mysql_install_db again.

3.2 Starting the Server

This section describes how start the server on Unix and Unix-like systems. (For Windows, see Starting theServer for the First Time.) For some suggested commands that you can use to test whether the server isaccessible and working properly, see Section 3.3, “Testing the Server”.

Start the MySQL server like this:

shell> bin/mysqld_safe --user=mysql &

It is important that the MySQL server be run using an unprivileged (non-root) login account. To ensurethis if you run mysqld_safe as root, include the --user option as shown. Otherwise, execute theprogram while logged in as mysql, in which case you can omit the --user option from the command.

For further instructions for running MySQL as an unprivileged user, see Section 2.5, “How to Run MySQLas a Normal User”.

If the command fails immediately and prints mysqld ended, look for information in the error log (which bydefault is the host_name.err file in the data directory).

If the server is unable to access the data directory it starts or read the grant tables in the mysql database,it writes a message to its error log. Such problems can occur if you neglected to create the grant tables byinitializing the data directory before proceeding to this step, or if you ran the command that initializes thedata directory without the --user option. Remove the data directory and run the command with the --user option.

If you have other problems starting the server, see Section 3.2.1, “Troubleshooting Problems Starting theMySQL Server”. For more information about mysqld_safe, see mysqld_safe — MySQL Server StartupScript.

3.2.1 Troubleshooting Problems Starting the MySQL Server

This section provides troubleshooting suggestions for problems starting the server. For additionalsuggestions for Windows systems, see Troubleshooting a Microsoft Windows MySQL Server Installation.

If you have problems starting the server, here are some things to try:

• Check the error log to see why the server does not start. Log files are located in the data directory(typically C:\Program Files\MySQL\MySQL Server 5.6\data on Windows, /usr/local/mysql/data for a Unix/Linux binary distribution, and /usr/local/var for a Unix/Linux sourcedistribution). Look in the data directory for files with names of the form host_name.err andhost_name.log, where host_name is the name of your server host. Then examine the last few linesof these files. Use tail to display them:

shell> tail host_name.errshell> tail host_name.log

Troubleshooting Problems Starting the MySQL Server

26

• Specify any special options needed by the storage engines you are using. You can create a my.cnf fileand specify startup options for the engines that you plan to use. If you are going to use storage enginesthat support transactional tables (InnoDB, NDB), be sure that you have them configured the way youwant before starting the server. If you are using InnoDB tables, see InnoDB Configuration for guidelinesand InnoDB Startup Options and System Variables for option syntax.

Although storage engines use default values for options that you omit, Oracle recommends thatyou review the available options and specify explicit values for any options whose defaults are notappropriate for your installation.

• Make sure that the server knows where to find the data directory. The mysqld server uses this directoryas its current directory. This is where it expects to find databases and where it expects to write log files.The server also writes the pid (process ID) file in the data directory.

The default data directory location is hardcoded when the server is compiled. To determine what thedefault path settings are, invoke mysqld with the --verbose and --help options. If the data directoryis located somewhere else on your system, specify that location with the --datadir option to mysqldor mysqld_safe, on the command line or in an option file. Otherwise, the server will not work properly.As an alternative to the --datadir option, you can specify mysqld the location of the base directoryunder which MySQL is installed with the --basedir, and mysqld looks for the data directory there.

To check the effect of specifying path options, invoke mysqld with those options followed by the --verbose and --help options. For example, if you change location to the directory where mysqldis installed and then run the following command, it shows the effect of starting the server with a basedirectory of /usr/local:

shell> ./mysqld --basedir=/usr/local --verbose --help

You can specify other options such as --datadir as well, but --verbose and --help must be thelast options.

Once you determine the path settings you want, start the server without --verbose and --help.

If mysqld is currently running, you can find out what path settings it is using by executing this command:

shell> mysqladmin variables

Or:

shell> mysqladmin -h host_name variables

host_name is the name of the MySQL server host.

• Make sure that the server can access the data directory. The ownership and permissions of the datadirectory and its contents must allow the server to read and modify them.

If you get Errcode 13 (which means Permission denied) when starting mysqld, this means thatthe privileges of the data directory or its contents do not permit server access. In this case, you changethe permissions for the involved files and directories so that the server has the right to use them. Youcan also start the server as root, but this raises security issues and should be avoided.

Change location to the data directory and check the ownership of the data directory and its contents tomake sure the server has access. For example, if the data directory is /usr/local/mysql/var, usethis command:

Testing the Server

27

shell> ls -la /usr/local/mysql/var

If the data directory or its files or subdirectories are not owned by the login account that you use forrunning the server, change their ownership to that account. If the account is named mysql, use thesecommands:

shell> chown -R mysql /usr/local/mysql/varshell> chgrp -R mysql /usr/local/mysql/var

Even with correct ownership, MySQL might fail to start up if there is other security software running onyour system that manages application access to various parts of the file system. In this case, reconfigurethat software to enable mysqld to access the directories it uses during normal operation.

• Verify that the network interfaces the server wants to use are available.

If either of the following errors occur, it means that some other program (perhaps another mysqldserver) is using the TCP/IP port or Unix socket file that mysqld is trying to use:

Can't start server: Bind on TCP/IP port: Address already in useCan't start server: Bind on unix socket...

Use ps to determine whether you have another mysqld server running. If so, shut down the serverbefore starting mysqld again. (If another server is running, and you really want to run multiple servers,you can find information about how to do so in Running Multiple MySQL Instances on One Machine.)

If no other server is running, execute the command telnet your_host_nametcp_ip_port_number. (The default MySQL port number is 3306.) Then press Enter a couple oftimes. If you do not get an error message like telnet: Unable to connect to remote host:Connection refused, some other program is using the TCP/IP port that mysqld is trying to use.Track down what program this is and disable it, or tell mysqld to listen to a different port with the --port option. In this case, specify the same non-default port number for client programs when connectingto the server using TCP/IP.

Another reason the port might be inaccessible is that you have a firewall running that blocks connectionsto it. If so, modify the firewall settings to permit access to the port.

If the server starts but you cannot connect to it, make sure that you have an entry in /etc/hosts thatlooks like this:

127.0.0.1 localhost

• If you cannot get mysqld to start, try to make a trace file to find the problem by using the --debugoption. See The DBUG Package.

3.3 Testing the Server

After the data directory is initialized and you have started the server, perform some simple tests to makesure that it works satisfactorily. This section assumes that your current location is the MySQL installationdirectory and that it has a bin subdirectory containing the MySQL programs used here. If that is not true,adjust the command path names accordingly.

Testing the Server

28

Alternatively, add the bin directory to your PATH environment variable setting. That enables your shell(command interpreter) to find MySQL programs properly, so that you can run a program by typing only itsname, not its path name. See Setting Environment Variables.

Use mysqladmin to verify that the server is running. The following commands provide simple tests tocheck whether the server is up and responding to connections:

shell> bin/mysqladmin versionshell> bin/mysqladmin variables

If you cannot connect to the server, specify a -u root option to connect as root. If you have assigned apassword for the root account already, you'll also need to specify -p on the command line and enter thepassword when prompted. For example:

shell> bin/mysqladmin -u root -p versionEnter password: (enter root password here)

The output from mysqladmin version varies slightly depending on your platform and version of MySQL,but should be similar to that shown here:

shell> bin/mysqladmin versionmysqladmin Ver 14.12 Distrib 5.6.45, for pc-linux-gnu on i686...Server version 5.6.45Protocol version 10Connection Localhost via UNIX socketUNIX socket /var/lib/mysql/mysql.sockUptime: 14 days 5 hours 5 min 21 secThreads: 1 Questions: 366 Slow queries: 0Opens: 0 Flush tables: 1 Open tables: 19Queries per second avg: 0.000

To see what else you can do with mysqladmin, invoke it with the --help option.

Verify that you can shut down the server (include a -p option if the root account has a password already):

shell> bin/mysqladmin -u root shutdown

Verify that you can start the server again. Do this by using mysqld_safe or by invoking mysqld directly.For example:

shell> bin/mysqld_safe --user=mysql &

If mysqld_safe fails, see Section 3.2.1, “Troubleshooting Problems Starting the MySQL Server”.

Run some simple tests to verify that you can retrieve information from the server. The output should besimilar to that shown here.

Use mysqlshow to see what databases exist:

shell> bin/mysqlshow+--------------------+| Databases |+--------------------+| information_schema |

Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts

29

| mysql || performance_schema || test |+--------------------+

The list of installed databases may vary, but always includes at least mysql and information_schema.

If you specify a database name, mysqlshow displays a list of the tables within the database:

shell> bin/mysqlshow mysqlDatabase: mysql+---------------------------+| Tables |+---------------------------+| columns_priv || db || event || func || general_log || help_category || help_keyword || help_relation || help_topic || innodb_index_stats || innodb_table_stats || ndb_binlog_index || plugin || proc || procs_priv || proxies_priv || servers || slave_master_info || slave_relay_log_info || slave_worker_info || slow_log || tables_priv || time_zone || time_zone_leap_second || time_zone_name || time_zone_transition || time_zone_transition_type || user |+---------------------------+

Use the mysql program to select information from a table in the mysql database:

shell> bin/mysql -e "SELECT User, Host, plugin FROM mysql.user" mysql+------+-----------+-----------------------+| User | Host | plugin |+------+-----------+-----------------------+| root | localhost | mysql_native_password |+------+-----------+-----------------------+

At this point, your server is running and you can access it. To tighten security if you have not yet assignedpasswords to the initial account or accounts, follow the instructions in Section 3.4, “Securing the InitialMySQL Accounts”.

For more information about mysql, mysqladmin, and mysqlshow, see mysql — The MySQL Command-Line Client, mysqladmin — Client for Administering a MySQL Server, and mysqlshow — DisplayDatabase, Table, and Column Information.

3.4 Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts

Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts

30

The MySQL installation process involves initializing the data directory, including the grant tables in themysql system database that define MySQL accounts. For details, see Section 3.1, “Initializing the DataDirectory”.

This section describes how to assign passwords to the initial accounts created during the MySQLinstallation procedure, if you have not already done so.

The mysql.user grant table defines the initial MySQL user accounts and their access privileges:

• Some accounts have the user name root. These are superuser accounts that have all privileges andcan do anything. If these root accounts have empty passwords, anyone can connect to the MySQLserver as root without a password and be granted all privileges.

• On Windows, root accounts are created that permit connections from the local host only.Connections can be made by specifying the host name localhost, the IP address 127.0.0.1, orthe IPv6 address ::1. If the user selects the Enable root access from remote machines optionduring installation, the Windows installer creates another root account that permits connections fromany host.

• On Unix, each root account permits connections from the local host. Connections can be made byspecifying the host name localhost, the IP address 127.0.0.1, the IPv6 address ::1, or theactual host name or IP address.

An attempt to connect to the host 127.0.0.1 normally resolves to the localhost account. However,this fails if the server is run with the --skip-name-resolve option, so the 127.0.0.1 account isuseful in that case. The ::1 account is used for IPv6 connections.

• If accounts for anonymous users were created, these have an empty user name. The anonymousaccounts have no password, so anyone can use them to connect to the MySQL server.

• On Windows, there is one anonymous account that permits connections from the local host.Connections can be made by specifying a host name of localhost.

• On Unix, each anonymous account permits connections from the local host. Connections can bemade by specifying a host name of localhost for one of the accounts, or the actual host name or IPaddress for the other.

• The 'root'@'localhost' account also has a row in the mysql.proxies_priv table that enablesgranting the PROXY privilege for ''@'', that is, for all users and all hosts. This enables root to setup proxy users, as well as to delegate to other accounts the authority to set up proxy users. SeeSection 5.8, “Proxy Users”.

To display which accounts exist in the mysql.user system table and check whether their passwords areempty, use the following statement:

mysql> SELECT User, Host, Password FROM mysql.user;+------+--------------------+----------+| User | Host | Password |+------+--------------------+----------+| root | localhost | || root | myhost.example.com | || root | 127.0.0.1 | || root | ::1 | || | localhost | || | myhost.example.com | |+------+--------------------+----------+

Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts

31

This output indicates that there are several root and anonymous-user accounts, none of which havepasswords. The output might differ on your system, but the presence of accounts with empty passwordsmeans that your MySQL installation is unprotected until you do something about it:

• Assign a password to each MySQL root account that does not have one.

• To prevent clients from connecting as anonymous users without a password, either assign a password toeach anonymous account or remove the accounts.

In addition, the mysql.db table contains rows that permit all accounts to access the test database andother databases with names that start with test_. This is true even for accounts that otherwise have nospecial privileges such as the default anonymous accounts. This is convenient for testing but inadvisableon production servers. Administrators who want database access restricted only to accounts that havepermissions granted explicitly for that purpose should remove these mysql.db table rows.

The following instructions describe how to set up passwords for the initial MySQL accounts, first for theroot accounts, then for the anonymous accounts. The instructions also cover how to remove anonymousaccounts, should you prefer not to permit anonymous access at all, and describe how to removepermissive access to test databases. Replace new_password in the examples with the password that youwant to use. Replace host_name with the name of the server host. You can determine this name from theoutput of the preceding SELECT statement. For the output shown, host_name is myhost.example.com.

You need not remove anonymous entries in the mysql.proxies_priv table, which are used to supportproxy users. See Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”.

Note

For additional information about setting passwords, see Section 5.5, “AssigningAccount Passwords”. If you forget your root password after setting it, see How toReset the Root Password.

To set up additional accounts, see Section 5.2, “Adding User Accounts”.

You might want to defer setting the passwords until later, to avoid the need to specify them while youperform additional setup or testing. However, be sure to set them before using your installation forproduction purposes.

Note

Alternative means for performing the process described in this section:

• On Windows, you can perform the process during installation with MySQLInstaller (see MySQL Installer for Windows).

• On all platforms, the MySQL distribution includesmysql_secure_installation, a command-line utility that automates much ofthe process of securing a MySQL installation.

• On all platforms, MySQL Workbench is available and offers the ability to manageuser accounts (see MySQL Workbench ).

• Assigning root Account Passwords

• Assigning Anonymous Account Passwords

• Removing Anonymous Accounts

• Securing Test Databases

Assigning root Account Passwords

32

Assigning root Account Passwords

A root account password can be set several ways. The following discussion demonstrates three methods:

• Use the SET PASSWORD statement

• Use the UPDATE statement

• Use the mysqladmin command-line client program

To assign passwords using SET PASSWORD, connect to the server as root and issue a SET PASSWORDstatement for each root account listed in the mysql.user system table.

For Windows, do this:

shell> mysql -u rootmysql> SET PASSWORD FOR 'root'@'localhost' = PASSWORD('new_password');mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR 'root'@'127.0.0.1' = PASSWORD('new_password');mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR 'root'@'::1' = PASSWORD('new_password');mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR 'root'@'%' = PASSWORD('new_password');

The last statement is unnecessary if the mysql.user table has no root account with a host value of %.

For Unix, do this:

shell> mysql -u rootmysql> SET PASSWORD FOR 'root'@'localhost' = PASSWORD('new_password');mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR 'root'@'127.0.0.1' = PASSWORD('new_password');mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR 'root'@'::1' = PASSWORD('new_password');mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR 'root'@'host_name' = PASSWORD('new_password');

You can also use a single statement that assigns a password to all root accounts by using UPDATE tomodify the mysql.user table directly. This method works on any platform:

shell> mysql -u rootmysql> UPDATE mysql.user SET Password = PASSWORD('new_password') -> WHERE User = 'root';mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

The FLUSH statement causes the server to reread the grant tables. Without it, the password changeremains unnoticed by the server until you restart it.

To assign passwords to the root accounts using mysqladmin, execute the following commands:

shell> mysqladmin -u root password "new_password"shell> mysqladmin -u root -h host_name password "new_password"

Those commands apply both to Windows and to Unix. The double quotation marks around the passwordare not always necessary, but you should use them if the password contains spaces or other charactersthat are special to your command interpreter.

The mysqladmin method of setting the root account passwords does not work for the'root'@'127.0.0.1' or 'root'@'::1' account. Use the SET PASSWORD method shown earlier.

After the root passwords have been set, you must supply the appropriate password whenever youconnect as root to the server. For example, to shut down the server with mysqladmin, use thiscommand:

Assigning Anonymous Account Passwords

33

shell> mysqladmin -u root -p shutdownEnter password: (enter root password here)

The mysql commands in the following instructions include a -p option based on the assumption thatyou have assigned the root account passwords using the preceding instructions and must specify thatpassword when connecting to the server.

Assigning Anonymous Account Passwords

To assign passwords to the anonymous accounts, connect to the server as root, then use either SETPASSWORD or UPDATE.

To use SET PASSWORD on Windows, do this:

shell> mysql -u root -pEnter password: (enter root password here)mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR ''@'localhost' = PASSWORD('new_password');

To use SET PASSWORD on Unix, do this:

shell> mysql -u root -pEnter password: (enter root password here)mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR ''@'localhost' = PASSWORD('new_password');mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR ''@'host_name' = PASSWORD('new_password');

To set the anonymous-user account passwords with a single UPDATE statement, do this (on any platform):

shell> mysql -u root -pEnter password: (enter root password here)mysql> UPDATE mysql.user SET Password = PASSWORD('new_password') -> WHERE User = '';mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

The FLUSH statement causes the server to reread the grant tables. Without it, the password changeremains unnoticed by the server until you restart it.

Removing Anonymous Accounts

If you prefer to remove any anonymous accounts rather than assigning them passwords, do so as followson Windows:

shell> mysql -u root -pEnter password: (enter root password here)mysql> DROP USER ''@'localhost';

On Unix, remove the anonymous accounts like this:

shell> mysql -u root -pEnter password: (enter root password here)mysql> DROP USER ''@'localhost';mysql> DROP USER ''@'host_name';

Securing Test Databases

By default, the mysql.db table contains rows that permit access by any user to the test database andother databases with names that start with test_. (These rows have an empty User column value, which

Starting and Stopping MySQL Automatically

34

for access-checking purposes matches any user name.) This means that such databases can be usedeven by accounts that otherwise possess no privileges. If you want to remove any-user access to testdatabases, do so as follows:

shell> mysql -u root -pEnter password: (enter root password here)mysql> DELETE FROM mysql.db WHERE Db LIKE 'test%';mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

The FLUSH statement causes the server to reread the grant tables. Without it, the privilege change remainsunnoticed by the server until you restart it.

With the preceding change, only users who have global database privileges or privileges granted explicitlyfor the test database can use it. However, if you prefer that the database not exist at all, drop it:

mysql> DROP DATABASE test;

3.5 Starting and Stopping MySQL Automatically

This section discusses methods for starting and stopping the MySQL server.

Generally, you start the mysqld server in one of these ways:

• Invoke mysqld directly. This works on any platform.

• On Windows, you can set up a MySQL service that runs automatically when Windows starts. SeeStarting MySQL as a Windows Service.

• On Unix and Unix-like systems, you can invoke mysqld_safe, which tries to determine the properoptions for mysqld and then runs it with those options. See mysqld_safe — MySQL Server StartupScript.

• On systems that use System V-style run directories (that is, /etc/init.d and run-level specificdirectories), invoke mysql.server. This script is used primarily at system startup and shutdown. Itusually is installed under the name mysql. The mysql.server script starts the server by invokingmysqld_safe. See mysql.server — MySQL Server Startup Script.

• On OS X, install a launchd daemon to enable automatic MySQL startup at system startup. The daemonstarts the server by invoking mysqld_safe. For details, see Installing a MySQL Launch Daemon. AMySQL Preference Pane also provides control for starting and stopping MySQL through the SystemPreferences. See Installing and Using the MySQL Preference Pane.

• On Solaris, use the service management framework (SMF) system to initiate and control MySQL startup.

The mysqld_safe and mysql.server scripts, Solaris SMF, and the OS X Startup Item (or MySQLPreference Pane) can be used to start the server manually, or automatically at system startup time.mysql.server and the Startup Item also can be used to stop the server.

The following table shows which option groups the server and startup scripts read from option files.

Table 3.1 MySQL Startup Scripts and Supported Server Option Groups

Script Option Groups

mysqld [mysqld], [server], [mysqld-major_version]

mysqld_safe [mysqld], [server], [mysqld_safe]

Starting and Stopping MySQL Automatically

35

Script Option Groups

mysql.server [mysqld], [mysql.server], [server]

[mysqld-major_version] means that groups with names like [mysqld-5.5] and [mysqld-5.6]are read by servers having versions 5.5.x, 5.6.x, and so forth. This feature can be used to specify optionsthat can be read only by servers within a given release series.

For backward compatibility, mysql.server also reads the [mysql_server] group and mysqld_safealso reads the [safe_mysqld] group. However, you should update your option files to use the[mysql.server] and [mysqld_safe] groups instead.

For more information on MySQL configuration files and their structure and contents, see Using OptionFiles.

36

37

Chapter 4 The MySQL Access Privilege System

Table of Contents4.1 Privileges Provided by MySQL .................................................................................................... 384.2 Grant Tables .............................................................................................................................. 444.3 Specifying Account Names ......................................................................................................... 504.4 Access Control, Stage 1: Connection Verification ......................................................................... 524.5 Access Control, Stage 2: Request Verification ............................................................................. 554.6 When Privilege Changes Take Effect .......................................................................................... 564.7 Troubleshooting Problems Connecting to MySQL ......................................................................... 57

The primary function of the MySQL privilege system is to authenticate a user who connects from a givenhost and to associate that user with privileges on a database such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, andDELETE. Additional functionality includes the ability to have anonymous users and to grant privileges forMySQL-specific functions such as LOAD DATA and administrative operations.

There are some things that you cannot do with the MySQL privilege system:

• You cannot explicitly specify that a given user should be denied access. That is, you cannot explicitlymatch a user and then refuse the connection.

• You cannot specify that a user has privileges to create or drop tables in a database but not to create ordrop the database itself.

• A password applies globally to an account. You cannot associate a password with a specific object suchas a database, table, or routine.

The user interface to the MySQL privilege system consists of SQL statements such as CREATE USER,GRANT, and REVOKE. See Account Management Statements.

Internally, the server stores privilege information in the grant tables of the mysql system database (that is,in the database named mysql). The MySQL server reads the contents of these tables into memory when itstarts and bases access-control decisions on the in-memory copies of the grant tables.

The MySQL privilege system ensures that all users may perform only the operations permitted to them.As a user, when you connect to a MySQL server, your identity is determined by the host from which youconnect and the user name you specify. When you issue requests after connecting, the system grantsprivileges according to your identity and what you want to do.

MySQL considers both your host name and user name in identifying you because there is no reasonto assume that a given user name belongs to the same person on all hosts. For example, the userjoe who connects from office.example.com need not be the same person as the user joe whoconnects from home.example.com. MySQL handles this by enabling you to distinguish users ondifferent hosts that happen to have the same name: You can grant one set of privileges for connectionsby joe from office.example.com, and a different set of privileges for connections by joe fromhome.example.com. To see what privileges a given account has, use the SHOW GRANTS statement. Forexample:

SHOW GRANTS FOR 'joe'@'office.example.com';SHOW GRANTS FOR 'joe'@'home.example.com';

Privileges Provided by MySQL

38

MySQL access control involves two stages when you run a client program that connects to the server:

Stage 1: The server accepts or rejects the connection based on your identity and whether you can verifyyour identity by supplying the correct password.

Stage 2: Assuming that you can connect, the server checks each statement you issue to determinewhether you have sufficient privileges to perform it. For example, if you try to select rows from a table in adatabase or drop a table from the database, the server verifies that you have the SELECT privilege for thetable or the DROP privilege for the database.

For a more detailed description of what happens during each stage, see Section 4.4, “Access Control,Stage 1: Connection Verification”, and Section 4.5, “Access Control, Stage 2: Request Verification”.

If your privileges are changed (either by yourself or someone else) while you are connected, thosechanges do not necessarily take effect immediately for the next statement that you issue. For details aboutthe conditions under which the server reloads the grant tables, see Section 4.6, “When Privilege ChangesTake Effect”.

For general security-related advice, see Chapter 2, General Security Issues. For help in diagnosingprivilege-related problems, see Section 4.7, “Troubleshooting Problems Connecting to MySQL”.

4.1 Privileges Provided by MySQL

The privileges granted to a MySQL account determine which operations the account can perform. MySQLprivileges differ in the contexts in which they apply and at different levels of operation:

• Administrative privileges enable users to manage operation of the MySQL server. These privileges areglobal because they are not specific to a particular database.

• Database privileges apply to a database and to all objects within it. These privileges can be granted forspecific databases, or globally so that they apply to all databases.

• Privileges for database objects such as tables, indexes, views, and stored routines can be granted forspecific objects within a database, for all objects of a given type within a database (for example, alltables in a database), or globally for all objects of a given type in all databases.

Information about account privileges is stored in the grant tables in the mysql system database. For adescription of the structure and contents of these tables, see Section 4.2, “Grant Tables”. The MySQLserver reads the contents of the grant tables into memory when it starts, and reloads them under thecircumstances indicated in Section 4.6, “When Privilege Changes Take Effect”. The server bases access-control decisions on the in-memory copies of the grant tables.

Important

Some MySQL releases introduce changes to the grant tables to add new privilegesor features. To make sure that you can take advantage of any new capabilities,update your grant tables to the current structure whenever you upgrade MySQL.See Upgrading MySQL.

The following sections summarize the available privileges, provide more detailed descriptions of eachprivilege, and offer usage guidelines.

• Summary of Available Privileges

• Privilege Descriptions

Summary of Available Privileges

39

• Privilege-Granting Guidelines

Summary of Available Privileges

The following table shows the privilege names used in GRANT and REVOKE statements, along with thecolumn name associated with each privilege in the grant tables and the context in which the privilegeapplies.

Table 4.1 Permissible Privileges for GRANT and REVOKE

Privilege Grant Table Column Context

ALL [PRIVILEGES] Synonym for “all privileges” Server administration

ALTER Alter_priv Tables

ALTER ROUTINE Alter_routine_priv Stored routines

CREATE Create_priv Databases, tables, or indexes

CREATE ROUTINE Create_routine_priv Stored routines

CREATE TABLESPACE Create_tablespace_priv Server administration

CREATE TEMPORARYTABLES

Create_tmp_table_priv Tables

CREATE USER Create_user_priv Server administration

CREATE VIEW Create_view_priv Views

DELETE Delete_priv Tables

DROP Drop_priv Databases, tables, or views

EVENT Event_priv Databases

EXECUTE Execute_priv Stored routines

FILE File_priv File access on server host

GRANT OPTION Grant_priv Databases, tables, or stored routines

INDEX Index_priv Tables

INSERT Insert_priv Tables or columns

LOCK TABLES Lock_tables_priv Databases

PROCESS Process_priv Server administration

PROXY See proxies_priv table Server administration

REFERENCES References_priv Databases or tables

RELOAD Reload_priv Server administration

REPLICATION CLIENT Repl_client_priv Server administration

REPLICATION SLAVE Repl_slave_priv Server administration

SELECT Select_priv Tables or columns

SHOW DATABASES Show_db_priv Server administration

SHOW VIEW Show_view_priv Views

SHUTDOWN Shutdown_priv Server administration

SUPER Super_priv Server administration

TRIGGER Trigger_priv Tables

UPDATE Update_priv Tables or columns

Privilege Descriptions

40

Privilege Grant Table Column Context

USAGE Synonym for “no privileges” Server administration

Privilege Descriptions

The following list provides general descriptions of each privilege available in MySQL. Particular SQLstatements might have more specific privilege requirements than indicated here. If so, the description forthe statement in question provides the details.

• ALL, ALL PRIVILEGES

These privilege specifiers are shorthand for “all privileges available at a given privilege level” (exceptGRANT OPTION). For example, granting ALL at the global or table level grants all global privileges or alltable-level privileges, respectively.

• ALTER

Enables use of the ALTER TABLE statement to change the structure of tables. ALTER TABLE alsorequires the CREATE and INSERT privileges. Renaming a table requires ALTER and DROP on the oldtable, CREATE, and INSERT on the new table.

• ALTER ROUTINE

Enables use of statements that alter or drop stored routines (stored procedures and functions).

• CREATE

Enables use of statements that create new databases and tables.

• CREATE ROUTINE

Enables use of statements that create stored routines (stored procedures and functions).

• CREATE TABLESPACE

Enables use of statements that create, alter, or drop tablespaces and log file groups.

• CREATE TEMPORARY TABLES

Enables the creation of temporary tables using the CREATE TEMPORARY TABLE statement.

After a session has created a temporary table, the server performs no further privilege checks on thetable. The creating session can perform any operation on the table, such as DROP TABLE, INSERT,UPDATE, or SELECT. For more information, see CREATE TEMPORARY TABLE Syntax.

• CREATE USER

Enables use of the ALTER USER, CREATE USER, DROP USER, RENAME USER, and REVOKE ALLPRIVILEGES statements.

• CREATE VIEW

Enables use of the CREATE VIEW statement.

• DELETE

Enables rows to be deleted from tables in a database.

• DROP

Privilege Descriptions

41

Enables use of statements that drop (remove) existing databases, tables, and views. The DROP privilegeis required to use the ALTER TABLE ... DROP PARTITION statement on a partitioned table. TheDROP privilege is also required for TRUNCATE TABLE.

• EVENT

Enables use of statements that create, alter, drop, or display events for the Event Scheduler.

• EXECUTE

Enables use of statements that execute stored routines (stored procedures and functions).

• FILE

Affects the following operations and server behaviors:

• Enables reading and writing files on the server host using the LOAD DATA and SELECT ... INTOOUTFILE statements and the LOAD_FILE() function. A user who has the FILE privilege can readany file on the server host that is either world-readable or readable by the MySQL server. (This impliesthe user can read any file in any database directory, because the server can access any of thosefiles.)

• Enables creating new files in any directory where the MySQL server has write access. This includesthe server's data directory containing the files that implement the privilege tables.

• As of MySQL 5.6.35, enables use of the DATA DIRECTORY or INDEX DIRECTORY table option for theCREATE TABLE statement.

As a security measure, the server does not overwrite existing files.

To limit the location in which files can be read and written, set the secure_file_priv system variableto a specific directory. See Server System Variables.

• GRANT OPTION

Enables you to grant to or revoke from other users those privileges that you yourself possess.

• INDEX

Enables use of statements that create or drop (remove) indexes. INDEX applies to existing tables. Ifyou have the CREATE privilege for a table, you can include index definitions in the CREATE TABLEstatement.

• INSERT

Enables rows to be inserted into tables in a database. INSERT is also required for the ANALYZE TABLE,OPTIMIZE TABLE, and REPAIR TABLE table-maintenance statements.

• LOCK TABLES

Enables use of explicit LOCK TABLES statements to lock tables for which you have the SELECTprivilege. This includes use of write locks, which prevents other sessions from reading the locked table.

• PROCESS

Enables display of information about the threads executing within the server (that is, information aboutthe statements being executed by sessions). The privilege enables use of SHOW PROCESSLIST or

Privilege Descriptions

42

mysqladmin processlist to see threads belonging to other accounts; you can always see your ownthreads. The PROCESS privilege also enables use of SHOW ENGINE.

• PROXY

Enables one user to impersonate or become known as another user. See Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”.

• REFERENCES

This privilege is unused before MySQL 5.6.22. As of 5.6.22, creation of a foreign key constraint requiresat least one of the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, or REFERENCES privileges for the parent table.

• RELOAD

Enables use of the FLUSH statement. It also enables mysqladmin commands that are equivalent toFLUSH operations: flush-hosts, flush-logs, flush-privileges, flush-status, flush-tables, flush-threads, refresh, and reload.

The reload command tells the server to reload the grant tables into memory. flush-privileges isa synonym for reload. The refresh command closes and reopens the log files and flushes all tables.The other flush-xxx commands perform functions similar to refresh, but are more specific and maybe preferable in some instances. For example, if you want to flush just the log files, flush-logs is abetter choice than refresh.

• REPLICATION CLIENT

Enables use of the SHOW MASTER STATUS, SHOW SLAVE STATUS, and SHOW BINARY LOGSstatements. Grant this privilege to accounts that are used by slave servers to connect to the currentserver as their master.

• REPLICATION SLAVE

Enables the account to request updates that have been made to databases on the master server. Grantthis privilege to accounts that are used by slave servers to connect to the current server as their master.

• SELECT

Enables rows to be selected from tables in a database. SELECT statements require the SELECT privilegeonly if they actually access tables. Some SELECT statements do not access tables and can be executedwithout permission for any database. For example, you can use SELECT as a simple calculator toevaluate expressions that make no reference to tables:

SELECT 1+1;SELECT PI()*2;

The SELECT privilege is also needed for other statements that read column values. For example,SELECT is needed for columns referenced on the right hand side of col_name=expr assignment inUPDATE statements or for columns named in the WHERE clause of DELETE or UPDATE statements.

The SELECT privilege is needed for tables or views used with EXPLAIN, including any underlying tablesin view definitions.

• SHOW DATABASES

Enables the account to see database names by issuing the SHOW DATABASE statement. Accounts thatdo not have this privilege see only databases for which they have some privileges, and cannot use the

Privilege Descriptions

43

statement at all if the server was started with the --skip-show-database option. (Any global privilegeis considered a privilege for all databases.)

• SHOW VIEW

Enables use of the SHOW CREATE VIEW statement. This privilege is also needed for views used withEXPLAIN.

• SHUTDOWN

Enables use of the mysqladmin shutdown command and the mysql_shutdown() C API function.There is no corresponding SQL statement.

• SUPER

Affects the following operations and server behaviors:

• Enables server configuration changes by modifying global system variables. For some systemvariables, setting the session value also requires the SUPER privilege. If a system variable is restrictedand requires a special privilege to set the session value, the variable description indicates thatrestriction. Examples include binlog_format, sql_log_bin, and sql_log_off. See also SystemVariable Privileges.

• Enables changes to global transaction characteristics (see SET TRANSACTION Syntax).

• Enables the account to start and stop replication.

• Enables use of the CHANGE MASTER TO statement.

• Enables binary log control by means of the PURGE BINARY LOGS and BINLOG statements.

• Enables setting the effective authorization ID when executing a view or stored program. A user withthis privilege can specify any account in the DEFINER attribute of a view or stored program.

• Enables use of the CREATE SERVER, ALTER SERVER, and DROP SERVER statements.

• Enables use of the mysqladmin debug command.

• Enables reading the DES key file by the DES_ENCRYPT() function.

• Enables control over client connections not permitted to non-SUPER accounts:

• Enables use of the KILL statement or mysqladmin kill command to kill threads belonging toother accounts. (An account can always kill its own threads.)

• The server does not execute init_connect system variable content when SUPER clients connect.

• The server accepts one connection from a SUPER client even if the connection limit configured bythe max_connections system variable is reached.

• Updates can be performed even when the read_only system variable is enabled. This applies toexplicit table updates, and to use of account-management statements such as GRANT and REVOKEthat update tables implicitly.

You may also need the SUPER privilege to create or alter stored functions if binary logging is enabled, asdescribed in Binary Logging of Stored Programs.

• TRIGGER

Privilege-Granting Guidelines

44

Enables trigger operations. You must have this privilege for a table to create, drop, execute, or displaytriggers for that table.

When a trigger is activated (by a user who has privileges to execute INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETEstatements for the table associated with the trigger), trigger execution requires that the user who definedthe trigger still have the TRIGGER privilege for the table.

• UPDATE

Enables rows to be updated in tables in a database.

• USAGE

This privilege specifier stands for “no privileges.” It is used at the global level with GRANT to modifyaccount attributes such as resource limits or SSL characteristics without naming specific accountprivileges in the privilege list. SHOW GRANTS displays USAGE to indicate that an account has noprivileges at a privilege level.

Privilege-Granting Guidelines

It is a good idea to grant to an account only those privileges that it needs. You should exercise particularcaution in granting the FILE and administrative privileges:

• FILE can be abused to read into a database table any files that the MySQL server can read on theserver host. This includes all world-readable files and files in the server's data directory. The table canthen be accessed using SELECT to transfer its contents to the client host.

• GRANT OPTION enables users to give their privileges to other users. Two users that have differentprivileges and with the GRANT OPTION privilege are able to combine privileges.

• ALTER may be used to subvert the privilege system by renaming tables.

• SHUTDOWN can be abused to deny service to other users entirely by terminating the server.

• PROCESS can be used to view the plain text of currently executing statements, including statements thatset or change passwords.

• SUPER can be used to terminate other sessions or change how the server operates.

• Privileges granted for the mysql system database itself can be used to change passwords and otheraccess privilege information:

• Passwords are stored encrypted, so a malicious user cannot simply read them to know the plain textpassword. However, a user with write access to the mysql.user system table Password column canchange an account's password, and then connect to the MySQL server using that account.

• INSERT or UPDATE granted for the mysql system database enable a user to add privileges or modifyexisting privileges, respectively.

• DROP for the mysql system database enables a user to remote privilege tables, or even the databaseitself.

4.2 Grant TablesThe mysql system database includes several grant tables that contain information about user accountsand the privileges held by them. This section describes those tables. For information about other tables inthe system database, see The mysql System Database.

Grant Tables

45

To manipulate the contents of grant tables, modify them indirectly by using account-managementstatements such as CREATE USER, GRANT, and REVOKE to set up accounts and control the privilegesavailable to each one. See Account Management Statements. The discussion here describes theunderlying structure of the grant tables and how the server uses their contents when interacting withclients.

Note

Direct modification of grant tables using statements such as INSERT, UPDATE, orDELETE is discouraged and done at your own risk. The server is free to ignore rowsthat become malformed as a result of such modifications.

As of MySQL 5.6.36, for any operation that modifies a grant table, the serverchecks whether the table has the expected structure and produces an error if not.mysql_upgrade must be run to update the tables to the expected structure.

These mysql database tables contain grant information:

• user: User accounts, global privileges, and other non-privilege columns

• db: Database-level privileges

• tables_priv: Table-level privileges

• columns_priv: Column-level privileges

• procs_priv: Stored procedure and function privileges

• proxies_priv: Proxy-user privileges

Each grant table contains scope columns and privilege columns:

• Scope columns determine the scope of each row in the tables; that is, the context in which the rowapplies. For example, a user table row with Host and User values of 'h1.example.net' and'bob' applies to authenticating connections made to the server from the host h1.example.net bya client that specifies a user name of bob. Similarly, a db table row with Host, User, and Db columnvalues of 'h1.example.net', 'bob' and 'reports' applies when bob connects from the hosth1.example.net to access the reports database. The tables_priv and columns_priv tablescontain scope columns indicating tables or table/column combinations to which each row applies. Theprocs_priv scope columns indicate the stored routine to which each row applies.

• Privilege columns indicate which privileges a table row grants; that is, which operations it permits tobe performed. The server combines the information in the various grant tables to form a completedescription of a user's privileges. Section 4.5, “Access Control, Stage 2: Request Verification”, describesthe rules for this.

The server uses the grant tables in the following manner:

• The user table scope columns determine whether to reject or permit incoming connections. Forpermitted connections, any privileges granted in the user table indicate the user's global privileges. Anyprivileges granted in this table apply to all databases on the server.

Caution

Because any global privilege is considered a privilege for all databases,any global privilege enables a user to see all database names with SHOWDATABASES or by examining the SCHEMATA table of INFORMATION_SCHEMA.

Grant Tables

46

• The db table scope columns determine which users can access which databases from which hosts. Theprivilege columns determine the permitted operations. A privilege granted at the database level appliesto the database and to all objects in the database, such as tables and stored programs.

• The tables_priv and columns_priv tables are similar to the db table, but are more fine-grained:They apply at the table and column levels rather than at the database level. A privilege granted at thetable level applies to the table and to all its columns. A privilege granted at the column level applies onlyto a specific column.

• The procs_priv table applies to stored routines (stored procedures and functions). A privilege grantedat the routine level applies only to a single procedure or function.

• The proxies_priv table indicates which users can act as proxies for other users and whether a usercan grant the PROXY privilege to other users.

The server uses the user and db tables in the mysql database at both the first and second stages ofaccess control (see Chapter 4, The MySQL Access Privilege System). The columns in the user and dbtables are shown here.

Table 4.2 user and db Table Columns

Table Name user db

Scope columns Host Host

User Db

Password User

Privilege columns Select_priv Select_priv

Insert_priv Insert_priv

Update_priv Update_priv

Delete_priv Delete_priv

Index_priv Index_priv

Alter_priv Alter_priv

Create_priv Create_priv

Drop_priv Drop_priv

Grant_priv Grant_priv

Create_view_priv Create_view_priv

Show_view_priv Show_view_priv

Create_routine_priv Create_routine_priv

Alter_routine_priv Alter_routine_priv

Execute_priv Execute_priv

Trigger_priv Trigger_priv

Event_priv Event_priv

Create_tmp_table_priv Create_tmp_table_priv

Lock_tables_priv Lock_tables_priv

References_priv References_priv

Reload_priv

Shutdown_priv

Grant Tables

47

Table Name user db

Process_priv

File_priv

Show_db_priv

Super_priv

Repl_slave_priv

Repl_client_priv

Create_user_priv

Create_tablespace_priv

Security columns ssl_type

ssl_cipher

x509_issuer

x509_subject

plugin

authentication_string

password_expired

Resource control columns max_questions

max_updates

max_connections

max_user_connections

The user table plugin, Password, and authentication_string columns store authentication pluginand credential information.

If an account row names a plugin in the plugin column, the server uses it to authenticateconnection attempts for the account. It is up to the plugin whether it uses the Password andauthentication_string column values.

If the plugin column for an account row is empty, the server authenticates the account using themysql_native_password or mysql_old_password plugin implicitly, depending on the format of thepassword hash in the Password column. If the Password value is empty or a 4.1 password hash (41characters), the server uses mysql_native_password. If the password value is a pre-4.1 passwordhash (16 characters), the server uses mysql_old_password. (For additional information about thesehash formats, see Section 2.2.4, “Password Hashing in MySQL”.) Clients must match the password in thePassword column of the account row.

The password_expired column permits DBAs to expire account passwords and require users to resettheir password. The default password_expired value is 'N', but can be set to 'Y' with the ALTERUSER statement. After an account's password has been expired, all operations performed by the account insubsequent connections to the server result in an error until the user issues a SET PASSWORD statement toestablish a new account password.

It is possible after password expiration to “reset” a password by setting it to its current value. As a matter ofgood policy, it is preferable to choose a different password.

During the second stage of access control, the server performs request verification to ensure that eachclient has sufficient privileges for each request that it issues. In addition to the user and db grant tables,

Grant Tables

48

the server may also consult the tables_priv and columns_priv tables for requests that involve tables.The latter tables provide finer privilege control at the table and column levels. They have the columnsshown in the following table.

Table 4.3 tables_priv and columns_priv Table Columns

Table Name tables_priv columns_priv

Scope columns Host Host

Db Db

User User

Table_name Table_name

Column_name

Privilege columns Table_priv Column_priv

Column_priv

Other columns Timestamp Timestamp

Grantor

The Timestamp and Grantor columns are set to the current timestamp and the CURRENT_USER value,respectively, but are otherwise unused.

For verification of requests that involve stored routines, the server may consult the procs_priv table,which has the columns shown in the following table.

Table 4.4 procs_priv Table Columns

Table Name procs_priv

Scope columns Host

Db

User

Routine_name

Routine_type

Privilege columns Proc_priv

Other columns Timestamp

Grantor

The Routine_type column is an ENUM column with values of 'FUNCTION' or 'PROCEDURE' to indicatethe type of routine the row refers to. This column enables privileges to be granted separately for a functionand a procedure with the same name.

The Timestamp and Grantor columns are unused.

The proxies_priv table records information about proxy accounts. It has these columns:

• Host, User: The proxy account; that is, the account that has the PROXY privilege for the proxiedaccount.

• Proxied_host, Proxied_user: The proxied account.

• Grantor, Timestamp: Unused.

Grant Tables

49

• With_grant: Whether the proxy account can grant the PROXY privilege to other accounts.

For an account to be able to grant the PROXY privilege to other accounts, it must have a row in theproxies_priv table with With_grant set to 1 and Proxied_host and Proxied_user set to indicatethe account or accounts for which the privilege can be granted. For example, the 'root'@'localhost'account created during MySQL installation has a row in the proxies_priv table that enables granting thePROXY privilege for ''@'', that is, for all users and all hosts. This enables root to set up proxy users, aswell as to delegate to other accounts the authority to set up proxy users. See Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”.

Scope columns in the grant tables contain strings. The default value for each is the empty string. Thefollowing table shows the number of characters permitted in each column.

Table 4.5 Grant Table Scope Column Lengths

Column Name Maximum Permitted Characters

Host, Proxied_host 60

User, Proxied_user 16

Password 41

Db 64

Table_name 64

Column_name 64

Routine_name 64

For access-checking purposes, comparisons of User, Proxied_user, Password, Db, and Table_namevalues are case-sensitive. Comparisons of Host, Proxied_host, Column_name, and Routine_namevalues are not case-sensitive.

The user and db tables list each privilege in a separate column that is declared as ENUM('N','Y')DEFAULT 'N'. In other words, each privilege can be disabled or enabled, with the default being disabled.

The tables_priv, columns_priv, and procs_priv tables declare the privilege columns as SETcolumns. Values in these columns can contain any combination of the privileges controlled by the table.Only those privileges listed in the column value are enabled.

Table 4.6 Set-Type Privilege Column Values

Table Name Column Name Possible Set Elements

tables_priv Table_priv 'Select', 'Insert', 'Update','Delete', 'Create', 'Drop','Grant', 'References', 'Index','Alter', 'Create View', 'Showview', 'Trigger'

tables_priv Column_priv 'Select', 'Insert', 'Update','References'

columns_priv Column_priv 'Select', 'Insert', 'Update','References'

procs_priv Proc_priv 'Execute', 'Alter Routine','Grant'

Only the user table specifies administrative privileges, such as RELOAD and SHUTDOWN. Administrativeoperations are operations on the server itself and are not database-specific, so there is no reason to list

Specifying Account Names

50

these privileges in the other grant tables. Consequently, the server need consult only the user table todetermine whether a user can perform an administrative operation.

The FILE privilege also is specified only in the user table. It is not an administrative privilege as such, buta user's ability to read or write files on the server host is independent of the database being accessed.

The server reads the contents of the grant tables into memory when it starts. You can tell it to reload thetables by issuing a FLUSH PRIVILEGES statement or executing a mysqladmin flush-privilegesor mysqladmin reload command. Changes to the grant tables take effect as indicated in Section 4.6,“When Privilege Changes Take Effect”.

When you modify an account, it is a good idea to verify that your changes have the intended effect.To check the privileges for a given account, use the SHOW GRANTS statement. For example, todetermine the privileges that are granted to an account with user name and host name values of bob andpc84.example.com, use this statement:

SHOW GRANTS FOR 'bob'@'pc84.example.com';

4.3 Specifying Account NamesMySQL account names consist of a user name and a host name. This enables creation of accounts forusers with the same name who can connect from different hosts. This section describes how to writeaccount names, including special values and wildcard rules.

In SQL statements such as CREATE USER, GRANT, and SET PASSWORD, account names follow theserules:

• Account name syntax is 'user_name'@'host_name'.

• An account name consisting only of a user name is equivalent to 'user_name'@'%'. For example,'me' is equivalent to 'me'@'%'.

• The user name and host name need not be quoted if they are legal as unquoted identifiers. Quotesare necessary to specify a user_name string containing special characters (such as space or -), or ahost_name string containing special characters or wildcard characters (such as . or %); for example,'test-user'@'%.com'.

• Quote user names and host names as identifiers or as strings, using either backticks (`), singlequotation marks ('), or double quotation marks ("). For string-quoting and identifier-quoting guidelines,see String Literals, and Schema Object Names.

• The user name and host name parts, if quoted, must be quoted separately. That is,write 'me'@'localhost', not 'me@localhost'; the latter is actually equivalent to'me@localhost'@'%'.

• A reference to the CURRENT_USER or CURRENT_USER() function is equivalent to specifying the currentclient's user name and host name literally.

MySQL stores account names in grant tables in the mysql system database using separate columns forthe user name and host name parts:

• The user table contains one row for each account. The User and Host columns store the user nameand host name. This table also indicates which global privileges the account has.

• Other grant tables indicate privileges an account has for databases and objects within databases. Thesetables have User and Host columns to store the account name. Each row in these tables associateswith the account in the user table that has the same User and Host values.

Specifying Account Names

51

• For access-checking purposes, comparisons of User values are case-sensitive. Comparisons of Hostvalues are not case sensitive.

For additional detail about grant table structure, see Section 4.2, “Grant Tables”.

User names and host names have certain special values or wildcard conventions, as described following.

The user name part of an account name is either a nonblank value that literally matches the user name forincoming connection attempts, or a blank value (empty string) that matches any user name. An accountwith a blank user name is an anonymous user. To specify an anonymous user in SQL statements, use aquoted empty user name part, such as ''@'localhost'.

The host name part of an account name can take many forms, and wildcards are permitted:

• A host value can be a host name or an IP address (IPv4 or IPv6). The name 'localhost' indicates thelocal host. The IP address '127.0.0.1' indicates the IPv4 loopback interface. The IP address '::1'indicates the IPv6 loopback interface.

• The % and _ wildcard characters are permitted in host name or IP address values. These have the samemeaning as for pattern-matching operations performed with the LIKE operator. For example, a hostvalue of '%' matches any host name, whereas a value of '%.mysql.com' matches any host in themysql.com domain. '198.51.100.%' matches any host in the 198.51.100 class C network.

Because IP wildcard values are permitted in host values (for example, '198.51.100.%' tomatch every host on a subnet), someone could try to exploit this capability by naming a host198.51.100.somewhere.com. To foil such attempts, MySQL does not perform matching on hostnames that start with digits and a dot. For example, if a host is named 1.2.example.com, its namenever matches the host part of account names. An IP wildcard value can match only IP addresses, nothost names.

• For a host value specified as an IPv4 address, a netmask can be given to indicate how many addressbits to use for the network number. Netmask notation cannot be used for IPv6 addresses.

The syntax is host_ip/netmask. For example:

CREATE USER 'david'@'198.51.100.0/255.255.255.0';

This enables david to connect from any client host having an IP address client_ip for which thefollowing condition is true:

client_ip & netmask = host_ip

That is, for the CREATE USER statement just shown:

client_ip & 255.255.255.0 = 198.51.100.0

IP addresses that satisfy this condition range from 198.51.100.0 to 198.51.100.255.

A netmask typically begins with bits set to 1, followed by bits set to 0. Examples:

• 198.0.0.0/255.0.0.0: Any host on the 198 class A network

• 198.51.100.0/255.255.0.0: Any host on the 198.51 class B network

• 198.51.100.0/255.255.255.0: Any host on the 198.51.100 class C network

Access Control, Stage 1: Connection Verification

52

• 198.51.100.1: Only the host with this specific IP address

The server performs matching of host values in account names against the client host using the valuereturned by the system DNS resolver for the client host name or IP address. Except in the case that theaccount host value is specified using netmask notation, the server performs this comparison as a stringmatch, even for an account host value given as an IP address. This means that you should specify accounthost values in the same format used by DNS. Here are examples of problems to watch out for:

• Suppose that a host on the local network has a fully qualified name of host1.example.com. If DNSreturns name lookups for this host as host1.example.com, use that name in account host values. IfDNS returns just host1, use host1 instead.

• If DNS returns the IP address for a given host as 198.51.100.2, that will match an account hostvalue of 198.51.100.2 but not 198.051.100.2. Similarly, it will match an account host pattern like198.51.100.% but not 198.051.100.%.

To avoid problems like these, it is advisable to check the format in which your DNS returns host names andaddresses. Use values in the same format in MySQL account names.

4.4 Access Control, Stage 1: Connection Verification

When you attempt to connect to a MySQL server, the server accepts or rejects the connection based onyour identity and whether you can verify your identity by supplying the correct password. If not, the serverdenies access to you completely. Otherwise, the server accepts the connection, and then enters Stage 2and waits for requests.

Credential checking is performed using the three user table scope columns (Host, User, andPassword). The server accepts the connection only if the Host and User columns in some user tablerow match the client host name and user name and the client supplies the password specified in that row.The rules for permissible Host and User values are given in Section 4.3, “Specifying Account Names”.

Your identity is based on two pieces of information:

• The client host from which you connect

• Your MySQL user name

If the User column value is nonblank, the user name in an incoming connection must match exactly. If theUser value is blank, it matches any user name. If the user table row that matches an incoming connectionhas a blank user name, the user is considered to be an anonymous user with no name, not a user with thename that the client actually specified. This means that a blank user name is used for all further accesschecking for the duration of the connection (that is, during Stage 2).

The Password column can be blank. This is not a wildcard and does not mean that any passwordmatches. It means that the user must connect without specifying a password. If the server authenticatesa client using a plugin, the authentication method that the plugin implements may or may not use thepassword in the Password column. In this case, it is possible that an external password is also used toauthenticate to the MySQL server.

Nonblank Password values in the user table represent encrypted passwords. MySQL does not storepasswords in cleartext form for anyone to see. Rather, the password supplied by a user who is attemptingto connect is encrypted (using the PASSWORD() function). The encrypted password then is used during theconnection process when checking whether the password is correct. This is done without the encryptedpassword ever traveling over the connection. See Section 5.1, “User Names and Passwords”.

Access Control, Stage 1: Connection Verification

53

From MySQL's point of view, the encrypted password is the real password, so you should never giveanyone access to it. In particular, do not give nonadministrative users read access to tables in the mysqlsystem database.

The following table shows how various combinations of User and Host values in the user table apply toincoming connections.

User Value Host Value Permissible Connections

'fred' 'h1.example.net' fred, connecting from h1.example.net

'' 'h1.example.net' Any user, connecting from h1.example.net

'fred' '%' fred, connecting from any host

'' '%' Any user, connecting from any host

'fred' '%.example.net' fred, connecting from any host in theexample.net domain

'fred' 'x.example.%' fred, connecting from x.example.net,x.example.com, x.example.edu, and so on; thisis probably not useful

'fred' '198.51.100.177' fred, connecting from the host with IP address198.51.100.177

'fred' '198.51.100.%' fred, connecting from any host in the 198.51.100class C subnet

'fred' '198.51.100.0/255.255.255.0'Same as previous example

It is possible for the client host name and user name of an incoming connection to match more than onerow in the user table. The preceding set of examples demonstrates this: Several of the entries shownmatch a connection from h1.example.net by fred.

When multiple matches are possible, the server must determine which of them to use. It resolves this issueas follows:

• Whenever the server reads the user table into memory, it sorts the rows.

• When a client attempts to connect, the server looks through the rows in sorted order.

• The server uses the first row that matches the client host name and user name.

The server uses sorting rules that order rows with the most-specific Host values first. Literal host namesand IP addresses are the most specific. (The specificity of a literal IP address is not affected by whetherit has a netmask, so 198.51.100.13 and 198.51.100.0/255.255.255.0 are considered equallyspecific.) The pattern '%' means “any host” and is least specific. The empty string '' also means “anyhost” but sorts after '%'. Rows with the same Host value are ordered with the most-specific User valuesfirst (a blank User value means “any user” and is least specific). For rows with equally-specific Host andUser values, the order is nondeterministic.

To see how this works, suppose that the user table looks like this:

+-----------+----------+-| Host | User | ...+-----------+----------+-| % | root | ...| % | jeffrey | ...| localhost | root | ...| localhost | | ...+-----------+----------+-

Access Control, Stage 1: Connection Verification

54

When the server reads the table into memory, it sorts the rows using the rules just described. The resultafter sorting looks like this:

+-----------+----------+-| Host | User | ...+-----------+----------+-| localhost | root | ...| localhost | | ...| % | jeffrey | ...| % | root | ...+-----------+----------+-

When a client attempts to connect, the server looks through the sorted rows and uses the first matchfound. For a connection from localhost by jeffrey, two of the rows from the table match: the one withHost and User values of 'localhost' and '', and the one with values of '%' and 'jeffrey'. The'localhost' row appears first in sorted order, so that is the one the server uses.

Here is another example. Suppose that the user table looks like this:

+----------------+----------+-| Host | User | ...+----------------+----------+-| % | jeffrey | ...| h1.example.net | | ...+----------------+----------+-

The sorted table looks like this:

+----------------+----------+-| Host | User | ...+----------------+----------+-| h1.example.net | | ...| % | jeffrey | ...+----------------+----------+-

A connection by jeffrey from h1.example.net is matched by the first row, whereas a connection byjeffrey from any host is matched by the second.

Note

It is a common misconception to think that, for a given user name, all rows thatexplicitly name that user are used first when the server attempts to find a matchfor the connection. This is not true. The preceding example illustrates this, wherea connection from h1.example.net by jeffrey is first matched not by the rowcontaining 'jeffrey' as the User column value, but by the row with no username. As a result, jeffrey is authenticated as an anonymous user, even thoughhe specified a user name when connecting.

If you are able to connect to the server, but your privileges are not what you expect, you probablyare being authenticated as some other account. To find out what account the server used toauthenticate you, use the CURRENT_USER() function. (See Information Functions.) It returns a value inuser_name@host_name format that indicates the User and Host values from the matching user tablerow. Suppose that jeffrey connects and issues the following query:

mysql> SELECT CURRENT_USER();+----------------+| CURRENT_USER() |

Access Control, Stage 2: Request Verification

55

+----------------+| @localhost |+----------------+

The result shown here indicates that the matching user table row had a blank User column value. In otherwords, the server is treating jeffrey as an anonymous user.

Another way to diagnose authentication problems is to print out the user table and sort it by hand to seewhere the first match is being made.

4.5 Access Control, Stage 2: Request VerificationAfter you establish a connection, the server enters Stage 2 of access control. For each request that youissue through that connection, the server determines what operation you want to perform, then checkswhether you have sufficient privileges to do so. This is where the privilege columns in the grant tablescome into play. These privileges can come from any of the user, db, tables_priv, columns_priv, orprocs_priv tables. (You may find it helpful to refer to Section 4.2, “Grant Tables”, which lists the columnspresent in each of the grant tables.)

The user table grants privileges that are assigned to you on a global basis and that apply no matter whatthe default database is. For example, if the user table grants you the DELETE privilege, you can deleterows from any table in any database on the server host! It is wise to grant privileges in the user table onlyto people who need them, such as database administrators. For other users, you should leave all privilegesin the user table set to 'N' and grant privileges at more specific levels only. You can grant privileges forparticular databases, tables, columns, or routines.

The db table grants database-specific privileges. Values in the scope columns of this table can take thefollowing forms:

• A blank User value matches the anonymous user. A nonblank value matches literally; there are nowildcards in user names.

• The wildcard characters % and _ can be used in the Host and Db columns. These have the samemeaning as for pattern-matching operations performed with the LIKE operator. If you want to use eithercharacter literally when granting privileges, you must escape it with a backslash. For example, to includethe underscore character (_) as part of a database name, specify it as \_ in the GRANT statement.

• A '%' or blank Host value means “any host.”

• A '%' or blank Db value means “any database.”

The server reads the db table into memory and sorts it at the same time that it reads the user table. Theserver sorts the db table based on the Host, Db, and User scope columns. As with the user table, sortingputs the most-specific values first and least-specific values last, and when the server looks for matchingrows, it uses the first match that it finds.

The tables_priv, columns_priv, and procs_priv tables grant table-specific, column-specific, androutine-specific privileges. Values in the scope columns of these tables can take the following forms:

• The wildcard characters % and _ can be used in the Host column. These have the same meaning as forpattern-matching operations performed with the LIKE operator.

• A '%' or blank Host value means “any host.”

• The Db, Table_name, Column_name, and Routine_name columns cannot contain wildcards or beblank.

When Privilege Changes Take Effect

56

The server sorts the tables_priv, columns_priv, and procs_priv tables based on the Host, Db,and User columns. This is similar to db table sorting, but simpler because only the Host column cancontain wildcards.

The server uses the sorted tables to verify each request that it receives. For requests that requireadministrative privileges such as SHUTDOWN or RELOAD, the server checks only the user table rowbecause that is the only table that specifies administrative privileges. The server grants access if therow permits the requested operation and denies access otherwise. For example, if you want to executemysqladmin shutdown but your user table row does not grant the SHUTDOWN privilege to you, theserver denies access without even checking the db table. (It contains no Shutdown_priv column, sothere is no need to do so.)

For database-related requests (INSERT, UPDATE, and so on), the server first checks the user's globalprivileges by looking in the user table row. If the row permits the requested operation, access is granted.If the global privileges in the user table are insufficient, the server determines the user's database-specificprivileges by checking the db table:

The server looks in the db table for a match on the Host, Db, and User columns. The Host and Usercolumns are matched to the connecting user's host name and MySQL user name. The Db column ismatched to the database that the user wants to access. If there is no row for the Host and User, access isdenied.

After determining the database-specific privileges granted by the db table rows, the server adds themto the global privileges granted by the user table. If the result permits the requested operation, accessis granted. Otherwise, the server successively checks the user's table and column privileges in thetables_priv and columns_priv tables, adds those to the user's privileges, and permits or deniesaccess based on the result. For stored-routine operations, the server uses the procs_priv table ratherthan tables_priv and columns_priv.

Expressed in boolean terms, the preceding description of how a user's privileges are calculated may besummarized like this:

global privilegesOR (database privileges AND host privileges)OR table privilegesOR column privilegesOR routine privileges

It may not be apparent why, if the global user row privileges are initially found to be insufficient for therequested operation, the server adds those privileges to the database, table, and column privileges later.The reason is that a request might require more than one type of privilege. For example, if you executean INSERT INTO ... SELECT statement, you need both the INSERT and the SELECT privileges. Yourprivileges might be such that the user table row grants one privilege and the db table row grants the other.In this case, you have the necessary privileges to perform the request, but the server cannot tell that fromeither table by itself; the privileges granted by the rows in both tables must be combined.

4.6 When Privilege Changes Take Effect

When mysqld starts, it reads all grant table contents into memory. The in-memory tables become effectivefor access control at that point.

If you modify the grant tables indirectly using an account-management statement, the server notices thesechanges and loads the grant tables into memory again immediately. Account-management statements aredescribed in Account Management Statements. Examples include GRANT, REVOKE, SET PASSWORD, andRENAME USER.

Troubleshooting Problems Connecting to MySQL

57

If you modify the grant tables directly using statements such as INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE (which is notrecommended), your changes have no effect on privilege checking until you either restart the server or tellit to reload the tables. If you change the grant tables directly but forget to reload them, your changes haveno effect until you restart the server. This may leave you wondering why your changes seem to make nodifference!

To tell the server to reload the grant tables, perform a flush-privileges operation. This can be done byissuing a FLUSH PRIVILEGES statement or by executing a mysqladmin flush-privileges ormysqladmin reload command.

A grant table reload affects privileges for each existing client connection as follows:

• Table and column privilege changes take effect with the client's next request.

• Database privilege changes take effect the next time the client executes a USE db_name statement.

Note

Client applications may cache the database name; thus, this effect may not bevisible to them without actually changing to a different database.

• Global privileges and passwords are unaffected for a connected client. These changes take effect onlyfor subsequent connections.

If the server is started with the --skip-grant-tables option, it does not read the grant tables orimplement any access control. Anyone can connect and do anything, which is insecure. To cause a serverthus started to read the tables and enable access checking, flush the privileges.

4.7 Troubleshooting Problems Connecting to MySQLIf you encounter problems when you try to connect to the MySQL server, the following items describesome courses of action you can take to correct the problem.

• Make sure that the server is running. If it is not, clients cannot connect to it. For example, if an attempt toconnect to the server fails with a message such as one of those following, one cause might be that theserver is not running:

shell> mysqlERROR 2003: Can't connect to MySQL server on 'host_name' (111)shell> mysqlERROR 2002: Can't connect to local MySQL server through socket'/tmp/mysql.sock' (111)

• It might be that the server is running, but you are trying to connect using a TCP/IP port, named pipe, orUnix socket file different from the one on which the server is listening. To correct this when you invokea client program, specify a --port option to indicate the proper port number, or a --socket option toindicate the proper named pipe or Unix socket file. To find out where the socket file is, you can use thiscommand:

shell> netstat -ln | grep mysql

• Make sure that the server has not been configured to ignore network connections or (if you areattempting to connect remotely) that it has not been configured to listen only locally on its networkinterfaces. If the server was started with --skip-networking, it will not accept TCP/IP connections atall. If the server was started with --bind-address=127.0.0.1, it will listen for TCP/IP connectionsonly locally on the loopback interface and will not accept remote connections.

Troubleshooting Problems Connecting to MySQL

58

• Check to make sure that there is no firewall blocking access to MySQL. Your firewall may be configuredon the basis of the application being executed, or the port number used by MySQL for communication(3306 by default). Under Linux or Unix, check your IP tables (or similar) configuration to ensure that theport has not been blocked. Under Windows, applications such as ZoneAlarm or Windows Firewall mayneed to be configured not to block the MySQL port.

• The grant tables must be properly set up so that the server can use them for access control. Forsome distribution types (such as binary distributions on Windows, or RPM distributions on Linux),the installation process initializes the MySQL data directory, including the mysql system databasecontaining the grant tables. For distributions that that do not do this, you must initialize the grant tablesmanually. For details, see Chapter 3, Postinstallation Setup and Testing.

To determine whether you need to initialize the grant tables, look for a mysql directory under thedata directory. (The data directory normally is named data or var and is located under your MySQLinstallation directory.) Make sure that you have a file named user.MYD in the mysql database directory.If not, execute the mysql_install_db program. After running this program and starting the server, testthe initial privileges by executing this command:

shell> mysql -u root

The server should let you connect without error.

• After a fresh installation, you should connect to the server and set up your users and their accesspermissions:

shell> mysql -u root mysql

The server should let you connect because the MySQL root user has no password initially. That is alsoa security risk, so setting the password for the root accounts is something you should do while you'resetting up your other MySQL accounts. For instructions on setting the initial passwords, see Section 3.4,“Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts”.

• If you have updated an existing MySQL installation to a newer version, did you perform the MySQLupgrade procedure? If not, do so. The structure of the grant tables changes occasionally when newcapabilities are added, so after an upgrade you should always make sure that your tables have thecurrent structure. For instructions, see Upgrading MySQL.

• If a client program receives the following error message when it tries to connect, it means that the serverexpects passwords in a newer format than the client is capable of generating:

shell> mysqlClient does not support authentication protocol requestedby server; consider upgrading MySQL client

For information on how to deal with this, see Section 2.2.4, “Password Hashing in MySQL”, and Clientdoes not support authentication protocol.

• Remember that client programs use connection parameters specified in option files or environmentvariables. If a client program seems to be sending incorrect default connection parameters when youhave not specified them on the command line, check any applicable option files and your environment.For example, if you get Access denied when you run a client without any options, make sure that youhave not specified an old password in any of your option files!

You can suppress the use of option files by a client program by invoking it with the --no-defaultsoption. For example:

Troubleshooting Problems Connecting to MySQL

59

shell> mysqladmin --no-defaults -u root version

The option files that clients use are listed in Using Option Files. Environment variables are listed inMySQL Program Environment Variables.

• If you get the following error, it means that you are using an incorrect root password:

shell> mysqladmin -u root -pxxxx verAccess denied for user 'root'@'localhost' (using password: YES)

If the preceding error occurs even when you have not specified a password, it means that you havean incorrect password listed in some option file. Try the --no-defaults option as described in theprevious item.

For information on changing passwords, see Section 5.5, “Assigning Account Passwords”.

If you have lost or forgotten the root password, see How to Reset the Root Password.

• If you change a password by using SET PASSWORD, INSERT, or UPDATE, you must encrypt thepassword using the PASSWORD() function. If you do not use PASSWORD() for these statements, thepassword will not work. For example, the following statement assigns a password, but fails to encrypt it,so the user is not able to connect afterward:

SET PASSWORD FOR 'abe'@'host_name' = 'eagle';

Instead, set the password like this:

SET PASSWORD FOR 'abe'@'host_name' = PASSWORD('eagle');

The PASSWORD() function is unnecessary when you specify a password using the CREATE USERor GRANT statements or the mysqladmin password command. Each of those automatically usesPASSWORD() to encrypt the password. See Section 5.5, “Assigning Account Passwords”, and CREATEUSER Syntax.

• localhost is a synonym for your local host name, and is also the default host to which clients try toconnect if you specify no host explicitly.

You can use a --host=127.0.0.1 option to name the server host explicitly. This will make a TCP/IP connection to the local mysqld server. You can also use TCP/IP by specifying a --host option thatuses the actual host name of the local host. In this case, the host name must be specified in a usertable row on the server host, even though you are running the client program on the same host as theserver.

• The Access denied error message tells you who you are trying to log in as, the client host from whichyou are trying to connect, and whether you were using a password. Normally, you should have onerow in the user table that exactly matches the host name and user name that were given in the errormessage. For example, if you get an error message that contains using password: NO, it means thatyou tried to log in without a password.

• If you get an Access denied error when trying to connect to the database with mysql -uuser_name, you may have a problem with the user table. Check this by executing mysql -u rootmysql and issuing this SQL statement:

Troubleshooting Problems Connecting to MySQL

60

SELECT * FROM user;

The result should include a row with the Host and User columns matching your client's host name andyour MySQL user name.

• If the following error occurs when you try to connect from a host other than the one on which the MySQLserver is running, it means that there is no row in the user table with a Host value that matches theclient host:

Host ... is not allowed to connect to this MySQL server

You can fix this by setting up an account for the combination of client host name and user name that youare using when trying to connect.

If you do not know the IP address or host name of the machine from which you are connecting, youshould put a row with '%' as the Host column value in the user table. After trying to connect from theclient machine, use a SELECT USER() query to see how you really did connect. Then change the '%'in the user table row to the actual host name that shows up in the log. Otherwise, your system is leftinsecure because it permits connections from any host for the given user name.

On Linux, another reason that this error might occur is that you are using a binary MySQL version thatis compiled with a different version of the glibc library than the one you are using. In this case, youshould either upgrade your operating system or glibc, or download a source distribution of MySQLversion and compile it yourself. A source RPM is normally trivial to compile and install, so this is not a bigproblem.

• If you specify a host name when trying to connect, but get an error message where the host name is notshown or is an IP address, it means that the MySQL server got an error when trying to resolve the IPaddress of the client host to a name:

shell> mysqladmin -u root -pxxxx -h some_hostname verAccess denied for user 'root'@'' (using password: YES)

If you try to connect as root and get the following error, it means that you do not have a row in the usertable with a User column value of 'root' and that mysqld cannot resolve the host name for yourclient:

Access denied for user ''@'unknown'

These errors indicate a DNS problem. To fix it, execute mysqladmin flush-hosts to reset theinternal DNS host cache. See DNS Lookup Optimization and the Host Cache.

Some permanent solutions are:

• Determine what is wrong with your DNS server and fix it.

• Specify IP addresses rather than host names in the MySQL grant tables.

• Put an entry for the client machine name in /etc/hosts on Unix or \windows\hosts on Windows.

• Start mysqld with the --skip-name-resolve option.

• Start mysqld with the --skip-host-cache option.

Troubleshooting Problems Connecting to MySQL

61

• On Unix, if you are running the server and the client on the same machine, connect to localhost.For connections to localhost, MySQL programs attempt to connect to the local server by using aUnix socket file, unless there are connection parameters specified to ensure that the client makes aTCP/IP connection. For more information, see Connecting to the MySQL Server.

• On Windows, if you are running the server and the client on the same machine and the serversupports named pipe connections, connect to the host name . (period). Connections to . use anamed pipe rather than TCP/IP.

• If mysql -u root works but mysql -h your_hostname -u root results in Access denied(where your_hostname is the actual host name of the local host), you may not have the correctname for your host in the user table. A common problem here is that the Host value in the usertable row specifies an unqualified host name, but your system's name resolution routines return afully qualified domain name (or vice versa). For example, if you have a row with host 'pluto' in theuser table, but your DNS tells MySQL that your host name is 'pluto.example.com', the row doesnot work. Try adding a row to the user table that contains the IP address of your host as the Hostcolumn value. (Alternatively, you could add a row to the user table with a Host value that contains awildcard; for example, 'pluto.%'. However, use of Host values ending with % is insecure and is notrecommended!)

• If mysql -u user_name works but mysql -u user_name some_db does not, you have not grantedaccess to the given user for the database named some_db.

• If mysql -u user_name works when executed on the server host, but mysql -h host_name -uuser_name does not work when executed on a remote client host, you have not enabled access to theserver for the given user name from the remote host.

• If you cannot figure out why you get Access denied, remove from the user table all rows that haveHost values containing wildcards (rows that contain '%' or '_' characters). A very common error isto insert a new row with Host='%' and User='some_user', thinking that this enables you to specifylocalhost to connect from the same machine. The reason that this does not work is that the defaultprivileges include a row with Host='localhost' and User=''. Because that row has a Host value'localhost' that is more specific than '%', it is used in preference to the new row when connectingfrom localhost! The correct procedure is to insert a second row with Host='localhost' andUser='some_user', or to delete the row with Host='localhost' and User=''. After deletingthe row, remember to issue a FLUSH PRIVILEGES statement to reload the grant tables. See alsoSection 4.4, “Access Control, Stage 1: Connection Verification”.

• If you are able to connect to the MySQL server, but get an Access denied message whenever youissue a SELECT ... INTO OUTFILE or LOAD DATA statement, your row in the user table does nothave the FILE privilege enabled.

• If you change the grant tables directly (for example, by using INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements)and your changes seem to be ignored, remember that you must execute a FLUSH PRIVILEGESstatement or a mysqladmin flush-privileges command to cause the server to reload the privilegetables. Otherwise, your changes have no effect until the next time the server is restarted. Rememberthat after you change the root password with an UPDATE statement, you will not need to specify thenew password until after you flush the privileges, because the server will not know you've changed thepassword yet!

• If your privileges seem to have changed in the middle of a session, it may be that a MySQL administratorhas changed them. Reloading the grant tables affects new client connections, but it also affects existingconnections as indicated in Section 4.6, “When Privilege Changes Take Effect”.

• If you have access problems with a Perl, PHP, Python, or ODBC program, try to connect to the serverwith mysql -u user_name db_name or mysql -u user_name -pyour_pass db_name. If

Troubleshooting Problems Connecting to MySQL

62

you are able to connect using the mysql client, the problem lies with your program, not with theaccess privileges. (There is no space between -p and the password; you can also use the --password=your_pass syntax to specify the password. If you use the -p or --password option withno password value, MySQL prompts you for the password.)

• For testing purposes, start the mysqld server with the --skip-grant-tables option. Then youcan change the MySQL grant tables and use the SHOW GRANTS statement to check whether yourmodifications have the desired effect. When you are satisfied with your changes, execute mysqladminflush-privileges to tell the mysqld server to reload the privileges. This enables you to begin usingthe new grant table contents without stopping and restarting the server.

• If everything else fails, start the mysqld server with a debugging option (for example, --debug=d,general,query). This prints host and user information about attempted connections, as wellas information about each command issued. See The DBUG Package.

• If you have any other problems with the MySQL grant tables and feel you must post the problem tothe mailing list, always provide a dump of the MySQL grant tables. You can dump the tables withthe mysqldump mysql command. To file a bug report, see the instructions at How to Report Bugsor Problems. In some cases, you may need to restart mysqld with --skip-grant-tables to runmysqldump.

63

Chapter 5 MySQL User Account Management

Table of Contents5.1 User Names and Passwords ....................................................................................................... 635.2 Adding User Accounts ................................................................................................................ 655.3 Removing User Accounts ............................................................................................................ 675.4 Setting Account Resource Limits ................................................................................................. 675.5 Assigning Account Passwords ..................................................................................................... 695.6 Password Expiration and Sandbox Mode ..................................................................................... 705.7 Pluggable Authentication ............................................................................................................. 735.8 Proxy Users ............................................................................................................................... 755.9 SQL-Based MySQL Account Activity Auditing .............................................................................. 81

This section describes how to set up accounts for clients of your MySQL server. It discusses the followingtopics:

• The meaning of account names and passwords as used in MySQL and how that compares to namesand passwords used by your operating system

• How to set up new accounts and remove existing accounts

• How to change passwords

• Guidelines for using passwords securely

See also Account Management Statements, which describes the syntax and use for all user-managementSQL statements.

5.1 User Names and Passwords

MySQL stores accounts in the user table of the mysql system database. An account is defined in termsof a user name and the client host or hosts from which the user can connect to the server. For informationabout account representation in the user table, see Section 4.2, “Grant Tables”.

The account may also have a password. MySQL supports authentication plugins, so it is possible thatan account authenticates using some external authentication method. See Section 5.7, “PluggableAuthentication”.

There are several distinctions between the way user names and passwords are used by MySQL and youroperating system:

• User names, as used by MySQL for authentication purposes, have nothing to do with user names (loginnames) as used by Windows or Unix. On Unix, most MySQL clients by default try to log in using thecurrent Unix user name as the MySQL user name, but that is for convenience only. The default canbe overridden easily, because client programs permit any user name to be specified with a -u or --user option. This means that anyone can attempt to connect to the server using any user name, so youcannot make a database secure in any way unless all MySQL accounts have passwords. Anyone whospecifies a user name for an account that has no password is able to connect successfully to the server.

• MySQL user names can be up to 16 characters long. Operating system user names may be of adifferent maximum length. For example, Unix user names typically are limited to eight characters.

User Names and Passwords

64

Warning

The limit on MySQL user name length is hardcoded in MySQL servers andclients, and trying to circumvent it by modifying the definitions of the tables in themysql database does not work.

You should never alter the structure of tables in the mysql database in anymanner whatsoever except by means of the procedure that is described inUpgrading MySQL. Attempting to redefine MySQL's system tables in any otherfashion results in undefined (and unsupported!) behavior. The server is free toignore rows that become malformed as a result of such modifications.

• To authenticate client connections for accounts that use MySQL native authentication (implemented bythe mysql_native_password authentication plugin), the server uses passwords stored in the usertable. These passwords are distinct from passwords for logging in to your operating system. There is nonecessary connection between the “external” password you use to log in to a Windows or Unix machineand the password you use to access the MySQL server on that machine.

If the server authenticates a client using some other plugin, the authentication method that the pluginimplements may or may not use a password stored in the user table. In this case, it is possible that anexternal password is also used to authenticate to the MySQL server.

• Passwords stored in the user table are encrypted using plugin-specific algorithms. For informationabout MySQL native password hashing, see Section 2.2.4, “Password Hashing in MySQL”.

• If the user name and password contain only ASCII characters, it is possible to connect to theserver regardless of character set settings. To connect when the user name or password containnon-ASCII characters, the client should call the mysql_options() C API function with theMYSQL_SET_CHARSET_NAME option and appropriate character set name as arguments. This causesauthentication to take place using the specified character set. Otherwise, authentication will fail unlessthe server default character set is the same as the encoding in the authentication defaults.

Standard MySQL client programs support a --default-character-set option that causesmysql_options() to be called as just described. In addition, character set autodetection is supportedas described in Connection Character Sets and Collations. For programs that use a connector that is notbased on the C API, the connector may provide an equivalent to mysql_options() that can be usedinstead. Check the connector documentation.

The preceding notes do not apply for ucs2, utf16, and utf32, which are not permitted as clientcharacter sets.

The MySQL installation process populates the grant tables with an initial account or accounts. Thenames and access privileges for these accounts are described in Section 3.4, “Securing the Initial MySQLAccounts”, which also discusses how to assign passwords to them. Thereafter, you normally set up,modify, and remove MySQL accounts using statements such as CREATE USER, DROP USER, GRANT, andREVOKE. See Account Management Statements.

To connect to a MySQL server with a command-line client, specify user name and password options asnecessary for the account that you want to use:

shell> mysql --user=finley --password db_name

If you prefer short options, the command looks like this:

Adding User Accounts

65

shell> mysql -u finley -p db_name

If you omit the password value following the --password or -p option on the command line (as justshown), the client prompts for one. Alternatively, the password can be specified on the command line:

shell> mysql --user=finley --password=password db_nameshell> mysql -u finley -ppassword db_name

If you use the -p option, there must be no space between -p and the following password value.

Specifying a password on the command line should be considered insecure. See Section 2.2.1, “End-User Guidelines for Password Security”. You can use an option file or a login path file to avoid givingthe password on the command line. See Using Option Files, and mysql_config_editor — MySQLConfiguration Utility.

For additional information about specifying user names, passwords, and other connection parameters, seeConnecting to the MySQL Server.

5.2 Adding User Accounts

You can create MySQL accounts two ways:

• By using account-management statements intended for creating accounts and establishing theirprivileges, such as CREATE USER and GRANT. These statements cause the server to make appropriatemodifications to the underlying grant tables.

• By manipulating the MySQL grant tables directly with statements such as INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE.

The preferred method is to use account-management statements because they are more concise andless error-prone than manipulating the grant tables directly. All such statements are described in AccountManagement Statements. Direct grant table modification is discouraged, and is not described here. Theserver is free to ignore rows that become malformed as a result of such modifications.

Another option for creating accounts is to use the GUI tool MySQL Workbench. Also, several third-partyprograms offer capabilities for MySQL account administration. phpMyAdmin is one such program.

The following examples show how to use the mysql client program to set up new accounts. Theseexamples assume that privileges have been set up according to the defaults described in Section 3.4,“Securing the Initial MySQL Accounts”. This means that to make changes, you must connect to the MySQLserver as the MySQL root user, which has the CREATE USER privilege.

First, use the mysql program to connect to the server as the MySQL root user:

shell> mysql --user=root mysql

If you have assigned a password to the root account, you must also supply a --password or -p option.

After connecting to the server as root, you can add new accounts. The following example uses CREATEUSER and GRANT statements to set up four accounts:

mysql> CREATE USER 'finley'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';mysql> GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON *.* TO 'finley'@'localhost' -> WITH GRANT OPTION;mysql> CREATE USER 'finley'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';mysql> GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON *.* TO 'finley'@'%' -> WITH GRANT OPTION;

Adding User Accounts

66

mysql> CREATE USER 'admin'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';mysql> GRANT RELOAD,PROCESS ON *.* TO 'admin'@'localhost';mysql> CREATE USER 'dummy'@'localhost';

The accounts created by those statements have the following properties:

• Two accounts have a user name of finley. Both are superuser accounts with full privileges to doanything. The 'finley'@'localhost' account can be used only when connecting from the localhost. The 'finley'@'%' account uses the '%' wildcard for the host part, so it can be used to connectfrom any host.

The 'finley'@'localhost' account is necessary if there is an anonymous-user account forlocalhost. Without the 'finley'@'localhost' account, that anonymous-user account takesprecedence when finley connects from the local host and finley is treated as an anonymous user.The reason for this is that the anonymous-user account has a more specific Host column value thanthe 'finley'@'%' account and thus comes earlier in the user table sort order. (user table sorting isdiscussed in Section 4.4, “Access Control, Stage 1: Connection Verification”.)

• The 'admin'@'localhost' account can be used only by admin to connect from the local host. Itis granted the RELOAD and PROCESS administrative privileges. These privileges enable the adminuser to execute the mysqladmin reload, mysqladmin refresh, and mysqladmin flush-xxxcommands, as well as mysqladmin processlist . No privileges are granted for accessing anydatabases. You could add such privileges using GRANT statements.

• The 'dummy'@'localhost' account has no password (which is insecure and not recommended). Thisaccount can be used only to connect from the local host. No privileges are granted. It is assumed thatyou will grant specific privileges to the account using GRANT statements.

To see the privileges for an account, use SHOW GRANTS:

mysql> SHOW GRANTS FOR 'admin'@'localhost';+-----------------------------------------------------+| Grants for admin@localhost |+-----------------------------------------------------+| GRANT RELOAD, PROCESS ON *.* TO 'admin'@'localhost' |+-----------------------------------------------------+

The next examples create three accounts and grant them access to specific databases. Each of them hasa user name of custom and password of password:

mysql> CREATE USER 'custom'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';mysql> GRANT SELECT,INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE,CREATE,DROP -> ON bankaccount.* -> TO 'custom'@'localhost';mysql> CREATE USER 'custom'@'host47.example.com' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';mysql> GRANT SELECT,INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE,CREATE,DROP -> ON expenses.* -> TO 'custom'@'host47.example.com';mysql> CREATE USER 'custom'@'%.example.com' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';mysql> GRANT SELECT,INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE,CREATE,DROP -> ON customer.* -> TO 'custom'@'%.example.com';

The three accounts can be used as follows:

• The first account can access the bankaccount database, but only from the local host.

• The second account can access the expenses database, but only from the hosthost47.example.com.

Removing User Accounts

67

• The third account can access the customer database, from any host in the example.com domain. Thisaccount has access from all machines in the domain due to use of the % wildcard character in the hostpart of the account name.

5.3 Removing User Accounts

To remove an account, use the DROP USER statement, which is described in DROP USER Syntax. Forexample:

mysql> DROP USER 'jeffrey'@'localhost';

5.4 Setting Account Resource Limits

One means of restricting client use of MySQL server resources is to set the globalmax_user_connections system variable to a nonzero value. This limits the number of simultaneousconnections that can be made by any given account, but places no limits on what a client can do onceconnected. In addition, setting max_user_connections does not enable management of individualaccounts. Both types of control are of interest to MySQL administrators.

To address such concerns, MySQL permits limits for individual accounts on use of these server resources:

• The number of queries an account can issue per hour

• The number of updates an account can issue per hour

• The number of times an account can connect to the server per hour

• The number of simultaneous connections to the server by an account

Any statement that a client can issue counts against the query limit, unless its results are served from thequery cache. Only statements that modify databases or tables count against the update limit.

An “account” in this context corresponds to a row in the mysql.user system table. That is, a connectionis assessed against the User and Host values in the user table row that applies to the connection. Forexample, an account 'usera'@'%.example.com' corresponds to a row in the user table that hasUser and Host values of usera and %.example.com, to permit usera to connect from any host inthe example.com domain. In this case, the server applies resource limits in this row collectively to allconnections by usera from any host in the example.com domain because all such connections use thesame account.

Before MySQL 5.0, an “account” was assessed against the actual host from which a user connects.This older method of accounting may be selected by starting the server with the --old-style-user-limits option. In this case, if usera connects simultaneously from host1.example.com andhost2.example.com, the server applies the account resource limits separately to each connection.If usera connects again from host1.example.com, the server applies the limits for that connectiontogether with the existing connection from that host.

To establish resource limits for an account, use the GRANT statement (see GRANT Syntax). Provide aWITH clause that names each resource to be limited. The default value for each limit is zero (no limit). Forexample, to create a new account that can access the customer database, but only in a limited fashion,issue these statements:

mysql> CREATE USER 'francis'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'frank';mysql> GRANT ALL ON customer.* TO 'francis'@'localhost'

Setting Account Resource Limits

68

-> WITH MAX_QUERIES_PER_HOUR 20 -> MAX_UPDATES_PER_HOUR 10 -> MAX_CONNECTIONS_PER_HOUR 5 -> MAX_USER_CONNECTIONS 2;

The limit types need not all be named in the WITH clause, but those named can be present in anyorder. The value for each per-hour limit should be an integer representing a count per hour. ForMAX_USER_CONNECTIONS, the limit is an integer representing the maximum number of simultaneousconnections by the account. If this limit is set to zero, the global max_user_connections systemvariable value determines the number of simultaneous connections. If max_user_connections is alsozero, there is no limit for the account.

To modify limits for an existing account, use a GRANT USAGE statement at the global level (ON *.*). Thefollowing statement changes the query limit for francis to 100:

mysql> GRANT USAGE ON *.* TO 'francis'@'localhost' -> WITH MAX_QUERIES_PER_HOUR 100;

The statement modifies only the limit value specified and leaves the account otherwise unchanged.

To remove a limit, set its value to zero. For example, to remove the limit on how many times per hourfrancis can connect, use this statement:

mysql> GRANT USAGE ON *.* TO 'francis'@'localhost' -> WITH MAX_CONNECTIONS_PER_HOUR 0;

As mentioned previously, the simultaneous-connection limit for an account is determined from theMAX_USER_CONNECTIONS limit and the max_user_connections system variable. Suppose that theglobal max_user_connections value is 10 and three accounts have individual resource limits specifiedas follows:

GRANT ... TO 'user1'@'localhost' WITH MAX_USER_CONNECTIONS 0;GRANT ... TO 'user2'@'localhost' WITH MAX_USER_CONNECTIONS 5;GRANT ... TO 'user3'@'localhost' WITH MAX_USER_CONNECTIONS 20;

user1 has a connection limit of 10 (the global max_user_connections value) because it hasa MAX_USER_CONNECTIONS limit of zero. user2 and user3 have connection limits of 5 and 20,respectively, because they have nonzero MAX_USER_CONNECTIONS limits.

The server stores resource limits for an account in the user table row corresponding to the account. Themax_questions, max_updates, and max_connections columns store the per-hour limits, and themax_user_connections column stores the MAX_USER_CONNECTIONS limit. (See Section 4.2, “GrantTables”.)

Resource-use counting takes place when any account has a nonzero limit placed on its use of any of theresources.

As the server runs, it counts the number of times each account uses resources. If an account reachesits limit on number of connections within the last hour, the server rejects further connections for theaccount until that hour is up. Similarly, if the account reaches its limit on the number of queries or updates,the server rejects further queries or updates until the hour is up. In all such cases, the server issuesappropriate error messages.

Resource counting occurs per account, not per client. For example, if your account has a query limit of 50,you cannot increase your limit to 100 by making two simultaneous client connections to the server. Queriesissued on both connections are counted together.

Assigning Account Passwords

69

The current per-hour resource-use counts can be reset globally for all accounts, or individually for a givenaccount:

• To reset the current counts to zero for all accounts, issue a FLUSH USER_RESOURCES statement.The counts also can be reset by reloading the grant tables (for example, with a FLUSH PRIVILEGESstatement or a mysqladmin reload command).

• The counts for an individual account can be reset to zero by setting any of its limits again. Specify a limitvalue equal to the value currently assigned to the account.

Per-hour counter resets do not affect the MAX_USER_CONNECTIONS limit.

All counts begin at zero when the server starts. Counts do not carry over through server restarts.

For the MAX_USER_CONNECTIONS limit, an edge case can occur if the account currently has open themaximum number of connections permitted to it: A disconnect followed quickly by a connect can result inan error (ER_TOO_MANY_USER_CONNECTIONS or ER_USER_LIMIT_REACHED) if the server has not fullyprocessed the disconnect by the time the connect occurs. When the server finishes disconnect processing,another connection will once more be permitted.

5.5 Assigning Account PasswordsRequired credentials for clients that connect to the MySQL server can include a password. This sectiondescribes how to assign passwords for MySQL accounts.

MySQL stores credentials in the user table in the mysql system database. Operations that assign ormodify passwords are permitted only to users with the CREATE USER privilege, or, alternatively, privilegesfor the mysql database (INSERT privilege to create new accounts, UPDATE privilege to modify existingaccounts). If the read_only system variable is enabled, use of account-modification statements such asCREATE USER or SET PASSWORD additionally requires the SUPER privilege.

The discussion here summarizes syntax only for the most common password-assignment statements.For complete details on other possibilities, see CREATE USER Syntax, GRANT Syntax, and SETPASSWORD Syntax.

MySQL uses plugins to perform client authentication; see Section 5.7, “Pluggable Authentication”. Inpassword-assigning statements, the authentication plugin associated with an account performs anyhashing required of a cleartext password specified. This enables MySQL to obfuscate passwords prior tostoring them in the mysql.user system table. For most statements described here, MySQL automaticallyhashes the password specified. An exception is SET PASSWORD ... = PASSWORD('auth_string'),for which you use the PASSWORD() function explicitly to hash the password. There are also syntaxes forCREATE USER, GRANT, and SET PASSWORD that permit hashed values to be specified literally. For details,see the descriptions of those statements.

To assign a password when you create a new account, use CREATE USER and include an IDENTIFIEDBY clause:

CREATE USER 'jeffrey'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';

CREATE USER also supports syntax for specifying the account authentication plugin. See CREATE USERSyntax.

To assign or change a password for an existing account, use SET PASSWORD with the PASSWORD()function:

SET PASSWORD FOR 'jeffrey'@'localhost' = PASSWORD('password');

Password Expiration and Sandbox Mode

70

If you are not connected as an anonymous user, you can change your own password by omitting the FORclause:

SET PASSWORD = PASSWORD('password');

The PASSWORD() function hashes the password using the hashing method determined by the value of theold_passwords system variable value. If SET PASSWORD rejects the hashed password value returnedby PASSWORD() as not being in the correct format, it may be necessary to change old_passwords tochange the hashing method. See SET PASSWORD Syntax.

Use a GRANT USAGE statement at the global level (ON *.*) to change an account password withoutaffecting the account's current privileges:

GRANT USAGE ON *.* TO 'jeffrey'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';

To change an account password from the command line, use the mysqladmin command:

mysqladmin -u user_name -h host_name password "password"

The account for which this command sets the password is the one with a row in the mysql.user systemtable that matches user_name in the User column and the client host from which you connect in the Hostcolumn.

Warning

Setting a password using mysqladmin should be considered insecure. On somesystems, your password becomes visible to system status programs such as psthat may be invoked by other users to display command lines. MySQL clientstypically overwrite the command-line password argument with zeros during theirinitialization sequence. However, there is still a brief interval during which the valueis visible. Also, on some systems this overwriting strategy is ineffective and thepassword remains visible to ps. (SystemV Unix systems and perhaps others aresubject to this problem.)

If you are using MySQL Replication, be aware that, currently, a password used by a replication slave aspart of a CHANGE MASTER TO statement is effectively limited to 32 characters in length; if the passwordis longer, any excess characters are truncated. This is not due to any limit imposed by the MySQL Servergenerally, but rather is an issue specific to MySQL Replication. (For more information, see Bug #43439.)

5.6 Password Expiration and Sandbox Mode

MySQL 5.6 introduces password-expiration capability, which enables database administrators to requirethat users reset their password. The immediately following discussion describes how password expirationworks currently. Later, the development of this capability is detailed as it occurred over several versions,as background to help you understand what features are available when. However, to ensure that you cantake advantage of all features and fixes, you should use the most recent available version of MySQL ifpossible.

How Password Expiration Works

To expire an account password, use the ALTER USER statement. For example:

ALTER USER 'myuser'@'localhost' PASSWORD EXPIRE;

How Password Expiration Works

71

For each connection that uses an account with an expired password, the server either disconnectsthe client or restricts the client to “sandbox mode,” in which the server permits to the client only thoseoperations necessary to reset the expired password. Which action is taken by the server depends on bothclient and server settings, as discussed later.

If the server disconnects the client, it returns an ER_MUST_CHANGE_PASSWORD_LOGIN error:

shell> mysql -u myuser -pPassword: ******ERROR 1862 (HY000): Your password has expired. To log in you mustchange it using a client that supports expired passwords.

If the server restricts the client to sandbox mode, these operations are permitted within the client session:

• The client can reset the account password with SET PASSWORD. After the password has been reset,the server restores normal access for the session, as well as for subsequent connections that use theaccount.

It is possible to “reset” a password by setting it to its current value. As a matter of good policy, it ispreferable to choose a different password.

• The client can use SET statements. This might be necessary prior to resetting the password; forexample, if the account password uses a hashing format that requires the old_passwords systemvariable to be set to a value different from its default.

For any operation not permitted within the session, the server returns an ER_MUST_CHANGE_PASSWORDerror:

mysql> USE performance_schema;ERROR 1820 (HY000): You must SET PASSWORD before executing this statementmysql> SELECT 1;ERROR 1820 (HY000): You must SET PASSWORD before executing this statement

That is what normally happens for interactive invocations of the mysql client because by default suchinvocations are put in sandbox mode. To clear the error and resume normal functioning, select a newpassword.

For noninteractive invocations of the mysql client (for example, in batch mode), the server normallydisconnects the client if the password is expired. To permit noninteractive mysql invocations to stayconnected so that the password can be changed (using the statements just described), add the --connect-expired-password option to the mysql command.

As mentioned previously, whether the server disconnects an expired-password client or restricts it tosandbox mode depends on a combination of client and server settings. The following discussion describesthe relevant settings and how they interact. The discussion applies only for accounts with expiredpasswords. If a client connects using a nonexpired password, the server handles the client normally.

On the client side, a given client indicates whether it can handle sandbox mode for expired passwords. Forclients that use the C client library, there are two ways to do this:

• Pass the MYSQL_OPT_CAN_HANDLE_EXPIRED_PASSWORDS flag to mysql_options() prior toconnecting:

arg = 1;result = mysql_options(mysql, MYSQL_OPT_CAN_HANDLE_EXPIRED_PASSWORDS, &arg);

Development of Password-Expiration Capability

72

The mysql client enables MYSQL_OPT_CAN_HANDLE_EXPIRED_PASSWORDS if invoked interactively orthe --connect-expired-password option is given.

• Pass the CLIENT_CAN_HANDLE_EXPIRED_PASSWORDS flag to mysql_real_connect() atconnection time:

mysql = mysql_real_connect(mysql, host, user, password, db, port, unix_socket, CLIENT_CAN_HANDLE_EXPIRED_PASSWORDS);

Other MySQL Connectors have their own conventions for indicating readiness to handle sandbox mode.See the documentation for the Connector in which you are interested.

On the server side, if a client indicates that it can handle expired passwords, the server puts it in sandboxmode.

If a client does not indicate that it can handle expired passwords (or uses an older versionof the client library that cannot so indicate), the server action depends on the value of thedisconnect_on_expired_password system variable:

• If disconnect_on_expired_password is enabled (the default), the server disconnects the client withan ER_MUST_CHANGE_PASSWORD_LOGIN error.

• If disconnect_on_expired_password is disabled, the server puts the client in sandbox mode.

The preceding client and server settings apply only for accounts with expired passwords. If a clientconnects using a nonexpired password, the server handles the client normally.

Development of Password-Expiration Capability

The following timeline describes the versions in which various password-expiration features were added.

• MySQL 5.6.6: Initial implementation of password expiration.

The password_expired column is introduced in the mysql.user system table to enable DBAs toexpire account passwords. The column default value is 'N' (not expired).

The ALTER USER statement is introduced as the SQL interface for setting the password_expiredcolumn to 'Y'.

Connections that use an account with an expired password enter “sandbox mode” that permits only SETPASSWORD statements. For other statements, the server returns an ER_MUST_CHANGE_PASSWORD error.The intent is to force the client to reset the password before the server permits any other operations. SETPASSWORD resets the account password and sets password_expired to 'N'.

A bug in the initial implementation is that ALTER USER sets the Password column in the mysql.usersystem table to the empty string. The implication is that users should wait until MySQL 5.6.7 to use thisstatement.

• MySQL 5.6.7: ALTER USER is fixed to not set the Password column to the empty string.

• MySQL 5.6.8: ALTER USER can be used as a prepared statement.

mysqladmin password is made capable of setting passwords for accounts with expired native or old-native passwords.

Pluggable Authentication

73

Sandbox mode is changed to permit clients to execute SET statements in addition to SET PASSWORDProhibiting SET prevented clients that needed to set old_passwords from resetting their password.It also broke some Connectors, which use SET extensively at connect time to initialize the sessionenvironment.

• MySQL 5.6.9: Sandbox mode is changed to permit SET PASSWORD only if the account named in thestatement matches the account the client authenticated as.

• MySQL 5.6.10: Sandbox mode is changed to permit better control over how the server handles clientconnections for accounts with expired passwords, and to permit clients to signal whether they arecapable of handling expired passwords:

• The disconnect_on_expired_password system variable is added, which controls how the servertreats expired-password accounts.

• Two flags are added to the C API client library: MYSQL_OPT_CAN_HANDLE_EXPIRED_PASSWORDSfor mysql_options() and CLIENT_CAN_HANDLE_EXPIRED_PASSWORDS formysql_real_connect(). Each flag enables a client program to indicate whether it can handlesandbox mode for accounts with expired passwords.

MYSQL_OPT_CAN_HANDLE_EXPIRED_PASSWORDS is enabled for mysqltest unconditionally, formysql in interactive mode, and for mysqladmin if the first command is password.

• The ER_MUST_CHANGE_PASSWORD_LOGIN error is added. The server returns this error when itdisconnects a client.

• MySQL 5.6.12: The --connect-expired-password option is added to the mysql client to enablepassword-change statement execution in batch mode for accounts with an expired password.

Concurrent with these changes to sandbox mode in MySQL Server and the C API client library, workbegins to modify Connectors for conformance to the changes.

5.7 Pluggable AuthenticationWhen a client connects to the MySQL server, the server uses the user name provided by the client andthe client host to select the appropriate account row from the mysql.user system table. The server thenauthenticates the client, determining from the account row which authentication plugin applies to the client:

• If the server cannot find the plugin, an error occurs and the connection attempt is rejected. Otherwise, ifthe account row specifies a plugin, the server invokes it to authenticate the user.

• If the account row specifies no plugin name, the server authenticates the account using either themysql_native_password or mysql_old_password plugin, depending on whether the passwordhash value in the Password column used native hashing or the older pre-4.1 hashing method. Clientsmust match the password in the Password column of the account row.

The plugin returns a status to the server indicating whether the user provided the correct password and ispermitted to connect.

Pluggable authentication enables these important capabilities:

• Choice of authentication methods. Pluggable authentication makes it easy for DBAs to choose andchange the authentication method used for individual MySQL accounts.

• External authentication. Pluggable authentication makes it possible for clients to connect tothe MySQL server with credentials appropriate for authentication methods that store credentials

Available Authentication Plugins

74

elsewhere than in the mysql.user system table. For example, plugins can be created to use externalauthentication methods such as PAM, Windows login IDs, LDAP, or Kerberos.

• Proxy users: If a user is permitted to connect, an authentication plugin can return to the server a username different from the name of the connecting user, to indicate that the connecting user is a proxy foranother user (the proxied user). While the connection lasts, the proxy user is treated, for purposes ofaccess control, as having the privileges of the proxied user. In effect, one user impersonates another.For more information, see Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”.

Note

If you start the server with the --skip-grant-tables option, authenticationplugins are not used even if loaded because the server performs no clientauthentication and permits any client to connect. Because this is insecure,you might want to use --skip-grant-tables in conjunction with --skip-networking to prevent remote clients from connecting.

• Available Authentication Plugins

• Authentication Plugin Usage

Available Authentication Plugins

MySQL 5.6 provides these authentication plugins:

• Plugins that perform native authentication; that is, authentication based on the passwordhashing methods in use from before the introduction of pluggable authentication in MySQL. Themysql_native_password plugin implements authentication based on the native password hashingmethod. The mysql_old_password plugin implements native authentication based on the older(pre-4.1) password hashing method (and is now deprecated). See Section 7.1.1, “Native PluggableAuthentication”, and Section 7.1.2, “Old Native Pluggable Authentication”. Native authenticationusing mysql_native_password is the default for new accounts, unless the --default-authentication-plugin option is set otherwise at server startup.

• A plugin that performs authentication using SHA-256 password hashing. This is stronger encryption thanthat available with native authentication. See Section 7.1.4, “SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication”.

• A client-side plugin that sends the password to the server without hashing or encryption. This plugin isused in conjunction with server-side plugins that require access to the password exactly as provided bythe client user. See Section 7.1.5, “Client-Side Cleartext Pluggable Authentication”.

• A plugin that performs external authentication using PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules), enablingMySQL Server to use PAM to authenticate MySQL users. This plugin supports proxy users as well. SeeSection 7.1.6, “PAM Pluggable Authentication”.

• A plugin that performs external authentication on Windows, enabling MySQL Server to use nativeWindows services to authenticate client connections. Users who have logged in to Windows canconnect from MySQL client programs to the server based on the information in their environmentwithout specifying an additional password. This plugin supports proxy users as well. See Section 7.1.7,“Windows Pluggable Authentication”.

• A plugin that authenticates clients that connect from the local host through the Unix socket file. SeeSection 7.1.8, “Socket Peer-Credential Pluggable Authentication”.

• A test plugin that checks account credentials and logs success or failure to the server error log.This plugin is intended for testing and development purposes, and as an example of how to write anauthentication plugin. See Section 7.1.9, “Test Pluggable Authentication”.

Authentication Plugin Usage

75

Note

For information about current restrictions on the use of pluggable authentication,including which connectors support which plugins, see Restrictions on PluggableAuthentication.

Third-party connector developers should read that section to determine the extentto which a connector can take advantage of pluggable authentication capabilitiesand what steps to take to become more compliant.

If you are interested in writing your own authentication plugins, see Writing Authentication Plugins.

Authentication Plugin Usage

This section provides general instructions for installing and using authentication plugins. For instructionsspecific to a given plugin, see the section that describes that plugin under Section 7.1, “AuthenticationPlugins”.

In general, pluggable authentication uses a pair of corresponding plugins on the server and client sides, soyou use a given authentication method like this:

• If necessary, install the plugin library or libraries containing the appropriate plugins. On the server host,install the library containing the server-side plugin, so that the server can use it to authenticate clientconnections. Similarly, on each client host, install the library containing the client-side plugin for use byclient programs. Authentication plugins that are built in need not be installed.

• For each MySQL account that you create, specify the appropriate server-side plugin to use forauthentication. If the account is to use the default authentication plugin, the account-creation statementneed not specify the plugin explicitly. The --default-authentication-plugin option configuresthe default authentication plugin.

• When a client connects, the server-side plugin tells the client program which client-side plugin to use forauthentication.

In the case that an account uses an authentication method that is the default for both the server andthe client program, the server need not communicate to the client which client-side plugin to use, and around trip in client/server negotiation can be avoided. This is true for accounts that use native MySQLauthentication.

For standard MySQL clients such as mysql and mysqladmin, the --default-auth=plugin_nameoption can be specified on the command line as a hint about which client-side plugin the program canexpect to use, although the server will override this if the server-side plugin associated with the useraccount requires a different client-side plugin.

If the client program does not find the client-side plugin library file, specify a --plugin-dir=dir_nameoption to indicate the plugin library directory location.

5.8 Proxy Users

The MySQL server authenticates client connections using authentication plugins. The plugin thatauthenticates a given connection may request that the connecting (external) user be treated as a differentuser for privilege-checking purposes. This enables the external user to be a proxy for the second user; thatis, to assume the privileges of the second user:

• The external user is a “proxy user” (a user who can impersonate or become known as another user).

Requirements for Proxy User Support

76

• The second user is a “proxied user” (a user whose identity and privileges can be assumed by a proxyuser).

This section describes how the proxy user capability works. For general information about authenticationplugins, see Section 5.7, “Pluggable Authentication”. For information about specific plugins, seeSection 7.1, “Authentication Plugins”. For information about writing authentication plugins that supportproxy users, see Implementing Proxy User Support in Authentication Plugins.

• Requirements for Proxy User Support

• Granting the Proxy Privilege

• Default Proxy Users

• Default Proxy User and Anonymous User Conflicts

• Proxy User System Variables

Requirements for Proxy User Support

For proxying to occur for a given authentication plugin, these conditions must be satisfied:

• The plugin must support proxying.

• The proxy user account must be set up to be authenticated by the plugin. Use the CREATE USER orGRANT statement to associate an account with an authentication plugin.

• The proxied user account must be created and granted the privileges to be assumed by the proxy user.Use the CREATE USER and GRANT statements for this.

• The proxy user account must have the PROXY privilege for the proxied account. Use the GRANTstatement for this.

• For a client connecting to the proxy account to be treated as a proxy user, the authentication plugin mustreturn a user name different from the client user name, to indicate the user name of the proxied accountthat defines the privileges to be assumed by the proxy user.

The proxy mechanism permits mapping only the client user name to the proxied user name. There is noprovision for mapping host names. When a connecting client matches a proxy account, the server attemptsto find a match for a proxied account using the user name returned by the authentication plugin and thehost name of the proxy account.

Consider the following account definitions:

-- create proxy accountCREATE USER 'employee_ext'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED WITH my_auth_plugin AS 'my_auth_string';-- create proxied account and grant its privilegesCREATE USER 'employee'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'employee_pass';GRANT ALL ON employees.* TO 'employee'@'localhost';-- grant PROXY privilege to proxy account for proxied accountGRANT PROXY ON 'employee'@'localhost' TO 'employee_ext'@'localhost';

When a client connects as employee_ext from the local host, MySQL uses the plugin namedmy_auth_plugin to perform authentication. Suppose that my_auth_plugin returns a user name of

Granting the Proxy Privilege

77

employee to the server, based on the content of 'my_auth_string' and perhaps by consulting someexternal authentication system. The name employee differs from employee_ext, so returning employeeserves as a request to the server to treat the employee_ext client, for purposes of privilege checking, asthe employee local user.

In this case, employee_ext is the proxy user and employee is the proxied user.

The server verifies that proxy authentication for employee is possible for the employee_ext user bychecking whether employee_ext (the proxy user) has the PROXY privilege for employee (the proxieduser). If this privilege has not been granted, an error occurs. Otherwise, employee_ext assumesthe privileges of employee. The server checks statements executed during the client session byemployee_ext against the privileges granted to employee. In this case, employee_ext can accesstables in the employees database.

When proxying occurs, the USER() and CURRENT_USER() functions can be used to see the differencebetween the connecting user (the proxy user) and the account whose privileges apply during the currentsession (the proxied user). For the example just described, those functions return these values:

mysql> SELECT USER(), CURRENT_USER();+------------------------+--------------------+| USER() | CURRENT_USER() |+------------------------+--------------------+| employee_ext@localhost | employee@localhost |+------------------------+--------------------+

In the CREATE USER statement that creates the proxy user account, the IDENTIFIED WITH clausethat names the authentication plugin is optionally followed by an AS 'auth_string' clause specifyinga string that the server passes to the plugin when the user connects. If present, the string providesinformation that helps the plugin determine how to map the external client user name to a proxied username. It is up to each plugin whether it requires the AS clause. If so, the format of the authentication stringdepends on how the plugin intends to use it. Consult the documentation for a given plugin for informationabout the authentication string values it accepts.

Granting the Proxy Privilege

The PROXY privilege is needed to enable an external user to connect as and have the privileges of anotheruser. To grant this privilege, use the GRANT statement. For example:

GRANT PROXY ON 'proxied_user' TO 'proxy_user';

The statement creates a row in the mysql.proxies_priv grant table.

At connection time, proxy_user must represent a valid externally authenticated MySQL user, andproxied_user must represent a valid locally authenticated user. Otherwise, the connection attempt fails.

The corresponding REVOKE syntax is:

REVOKE PROXY ON 'proxied_user' FROM 'proxy_user';

MySQL GRANT and REVOKE syntax extensions work as usual. For example:

GRANT PROXY ON 'a' TO 'b', 'c', 'd';GRANT PROXY ON 'a' TO 'd' IDENTIFIED BY ...;GRANT PROXY ON 'a' TO 'd' WITH GRANT OPTION;GRANT PROXY ON 'a' TO ''@'';

Default Proxy Users

78

REVOKE PROXY ON 'a' FROM 'b', 'c', 'd';

The PROXY privilege can be granted in these cases:

• By a user that has GRANT PROXY ... WITH GRANT OPTION for proxied_user.

• By proxied_user for itself: The value of USER() must exactly match CURRENT_USER() andproxied_user, for both the user name and host name parts of the account name.

The initial root account created during MySQL installation has the PROXY ... WITH GRANT OPTIONprivilege for ''@'', that is, for all users and all hosts. This enables root to set up proxy users, as well asto delegate to other accounts the authority to set up proxy users. For example, root can do this:

CREATE USER 'admin'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'test';GRANT PROXY ON ''@'' TO 'admin'@'localhost' WITH GRANT OPTION;

Those statements create an admin user that can manage all GRANT PROXY mappings. For example,admin can do this:

GRANT PROXY ON sally TO joe;

Default Proxy Users

To specify that some or all users should connect using a given authentication plugin, create a “blank”MySQL account (''@''), associate it with that plugin, and let the plugin return the real authenticated username (if different from the blank user). For example, suppose that there exists a plugin named ldap_auththat implements LDAP authentication and maps connecting users onto either a developer or manageraccount. To set up proxying of users onto these accounts, use the following statements:

-- create default proxy accountCREATE USER ''@'' IDENTIFIED WITH ldap_auth AS 'O=Oracle, OU=MySQL';-- create proxied accountsCREATE USER 'developer'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'developer_pass';CREATE USER 'manager'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'manager_pass';-- grant PROXY privilege to default proxy account for proxied accountsGRANT PROXY ON 'manager'@'localhost' TO ''@'';GRANT PROXY ON 'developer'@'localhost' TO ''@'';

Now assume that a client connects as follows:

shell> mysql --user=myuser --password ...Enter password: myuser_pass

The server will not find myuser defined as a MySQL user. But because there is a blank user account(''@'') that matches the client user name and host name, the server authenticates the client against thataccount: The server invokes the ldap_auth authentication plugin and passes myuser and myuser_passto it as the user name and password.

If the ldap_auth plugin finds in the LDAP directory that myuser_pass is not the correct password formyuser, authentication fails and the server rejects the connection.

If the password is correct and ldap_auth finds that myuser is a developer, it returns the user namedeveloper to the MySQL server, rather than myuser. Returning a user name different from the clientuser name of myuser signals to the server that it should treat myuser as a proxy. The server verifiesthat ''@'' can authenticate as developer (because that account has the PROXY privilege to do so)and accepts the connection. The session proceeds with myuser having the privileges of developer, the

Default Proxy User and Anonymous User Conflicts

79

proxied user. (These privileges should be set up by the DBA using GRANT statements, not shown.) TheUSER() and CURRENT_USER() functions return these values:

mysql> SELECT USER(), CURRENT_USER();+------------------+---------------------+| USER() | CURRENT_USER() |+------------------+---------------------+| myuser@localhost | developer@localhost |+------------------+---------------------+

If the plugin instead finds in the LDAP directory that myuser is a manager, it returns manager as the username and the session proceeds with myuser having the privileges of manager.

mysql> SELECT USER(), CURRENT_USER();+------------------+-------------------+| USER() | CURRENT_USER() |+------------------+-------------------+| myuser@localhost | manager@localhost |+------------------+-------------------+

For simplicity, external authentication cannot be multilevel: Neither the credentials for developer northose for manager are taken into account in the preceding example. However, they are still used if a clienttries to connect and authenticate directly as the developer or manager account, which is why thoseaccounts should be assigned passwords.

Default Proxy User and Anonymous User Conflicts

If you intend to create a default proxy user, check for other existing “match any user” accounts that takeprecedence over the default proxy user because they can prevent that user from working as intended.

In the preceding discussion, the default proxy user account has '' in the host part, which matches anyhost. If you set up a default proxy user, take care to also check whether nonproxy accounts exist with thesame user part and '%' in the host part, because '%' also matches any host, but has precedence over ''by the rules that the server uses to sort account rows internally (see Section 4.4, “Access Control, Stage 1:Connection Verification”).

Suppose that a MySQL installation includes these two accounts:

-- create default proxy accountCREATE USER ''@'' IDENTIFIED WITH some_plugin AS 'some_auth_string';-- create anonymous accountCREATE USER ''@'%' IDENTIFIED BY 'some_password';

The first account (''@'') is intended as the default proxy user, used to authenticate connections for userswho do not otherwise match a more-specific account. The second account (''@'%') is an anonymous-user account, which might have been created, for example, to enable users without their own account toconnect anonymously.

Both accounts have the same user part (''), which matches any user. And each account has a hostpart that matches any host. Nevertheless, there is a priority in account matching for connection attemptsbecause the matching rules sort a host of '%' ahead of ''. For accounts that do not match any more-specific account, the server attempts to authenticate them against ''@'%' (the anonymous user) ratherthan ''@'' (the default proxy user). The result is that the default proxy account is never used.

To avoid this problem, use one of the following strategies:

Proxy User System Variables

80

• Remove the anonymous account so that it does not conflict with the default proxy user. This might be agood idea anyway if you want to associate every connection with a named user.

• Use a more-specific default proxy user that matches ahead of the anonymous user. For example, topermit only localhost proxy connections, use ''@'localhost':

CREATE USER ''@'localhost' IDENTIFIED WITH some_plugin AS 'some_auth_string';

In addition, modify any GRANT PROXY statements to name ''@'localhost' rather than ''@'' as theproxy user.

Be aware that this strategy prevents anonymous-user connections from localhost.

• Create multiple proxy users, one for local connections and one for “everything else” (remoteconnections). This can be useful particularly when local users should have different privileges fromremote users.

Create the proxy users:

-- create proxy user for local connectionsCREATE USER ''@'localhost' IDENTIFIED WITH some_plugin AS 'some_auth_string';-- create proxy user for remote connectionsCREATE USER ''@'%' IDENTIFIED WITH some_plugin AS 'some_auth_string';

Create the proxied users:

-- create proxied user for local connectionsCREATE USER 'developer'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'some_password';-- create proxied user for remote connectionsCREATE USER 'developer'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY 'some_password';

Grant the proxy privilege to each proxy user for the corresponding proxied user:

GRANT PROXY ON 'developer'@'localhost' TO ''@'localhost';GRANT PROXY ON 'developer'@'%' TO ''@'%';

Finally, grant appropriate privileges to the local and remote proxied users (not shown).

Assume that the some_plugin/'some_auth_string' combination causes some_plugin to mapthe client user name to developer. Local connections match the ''@'localhost' proxy user, whichmaps to the 'developer'@'localhost' proxied user. Remote connections match the ''@'%' proxyuser, which maps to the 'developer'@'%' proxied user.

Proxy User System Variables

Two system variables help trace the proxy login process:

• proxy_user: This value is NULL if proxying is not used. Otherwise, it indicates the proxy user account.For example, if a client authenticates through the ''@'' proxy account, this variable is set as follows:

mysql> SELECT @@proxy_user;

SQL-Based MySQL Account Activity Auditing

81

+--------------+| @@proxy_user |+--------------+| ''@'' |+--------------+

• external_user: Sometimes the authentication plugin may use an external user to authenticate to theMySQL server. For example, when using Windows native authentication, a plugin that authenticatesusing the windows API does not need the login ID passed to it. However, it still uses a Windows userID to authenticate. The plugin may return this external user ID (or the first 512 UTF-8 bytes of it) to theserver using the external_user read-only session variable. If the plugin does not set this variable, itsvalue is NULL.

5.9 SQL-Based MySQL Account Activity AuditingApplications can use the following guidelines to perform SQL-based auditing that ties database activity toMySQL accounts.

MySQL accounts correspond to rows in the mysql.user system table. When a client connectssuccessfully, the server authenticates the client to a particular row in this table. The Userand Host column values in this row uniquely identify the account and correspond to the'user_name'@'host_name' format in which account names are written in SQL statements.

The account used to authenticate a client determines which privileges the client has. Normally, theCURRENT_USER() function can be invoked to determine which account this is for the client user. Its valueis constructed from the User and Host columns of the user table row for the account.

However, there are circumstances under which the CURRENT_USER() value corresponds not to the clientuser but to a different account. This occurs in contexts when privilege checking is not based the client'saccount:

• Stored routines (procedures and functions) defined with the SQL SECURITY DEFINER characteristic

• Views defined with the SQL SECURITY DEFINER characteristic

• Triggers and events

In those contexts, privilege checking is done against the DEFINER account and CURRENT_USER() refersto that account, not to the account for the client who invoked the stored routine or view or who causedthe trigger to activate. To determine the invoking user, you can call the USER() function, which returns avalue indicating the actual user name provided by the client and the host from which the client connected.However, this value does not necessarily correspond directly to an account in the user table, because theUSER() value never contains wildcards, whereas account values (as returned by CURRENT_USER()) maycontain user name and host name wildcards.

For example, a blank user name matches any user, so an account of ''@'localhost' enables clients toconnect as an anonymous user from the local host with any user name. In this case, if a client connects asuser1 from the local host, USER() and CURRENT_USER() return different values:

mysql> SELECT USER(), CURRENT_USER();+-----------------+----------------+| USER() | CURRENT_USER() |+-----------------+----------------+| user1@localhost | @localhost |+-----------------+----------------+

The host name part of an account can contain wildcards, too. If the host name contains a '%' or'_' pattern character or uses netmask notation, the account can be used for clients connecting from

SQL-Based MySQL Account Activity Auditing

82

multiple hosts and the CURRENT_USER() value will not indicate which one. For example, the account'user2'@'%.example.com' can be used by user2 to connect from any host in the example.comdomain. If user2 connects from remote.example.com, USER() and CURRENT_USER() return differentvalues:

mysql> SELECT USER(), CURRENT_USER();+--------------------------+---------------------+| USER() | CURRENT_USER() |+--------------------------+---------------------+| user2@remote.example.com | user2@%.example.com |+--------------------------+---------------------+

If an application must invoke USER() for user auditing (for example, if it does auditing from within triggers)but must also be able to associate the USER() value with an account in the user table, it is necessaryto avoid accounts that contain wildcards in the User or Host column. Specifically, do not permit User tobe empty (which creates an anonymous-user account), and do not permit pattern characters or netmasknotation in Host values. All accounts must have a nonempty User value and literal Host value.

With respect to the previous examples, the ''@'localhost' and 'user2'@'%.example.com'accounts should be changed not to use wildcards:

RENAME USER ''@'localhost' TO 'user1'@'localhost';RENAME USER 'user2'@'%.example.com' TO 'user2'@'remote.example.com';

If user2 must be able to connect from several hosts in the example.com domain, there should be aseparate account for each host.

To extract the user name or host name part from a CURRENT_USER() or USER() value, use theSUBSTRING_INDEX() function:

mysql> SELECT SUBSTRING_INDEX(CURRENT_USER(),'@',1);+---------------------------------------+| SUBSTRING_INDEX(CURRENT_USER(),'@',1) |+---------------------------------------+| user1 |+---------------------------------------+mysql> SELECT SUBSTRING_INDEX(CURRENT_USER(),'@',-1);+----------------------------------------+| SUBSTRING_INDEX(CURRENT_USER(),'@',-1) |+----------------------------------------+| localhost |+----------------------------------------+

83

Chapter 6 Using Encrypted Connections

Table of Contents6.1 Configuring MySQL to Use Encrypted Connections ...................................................................... 846.2 Command Options for Encrypted Connections ............................................................................. 866.3 Creating SSL and RSA Certificates and Keys .............................................................................. 90

6.3.1 Creating SSL Certificates and Keys Using openssl ............................................................ 906.3.2 Creating RSA Keys Using openssl .................................................................................... 95

6.4 SSL Library-Dependent Capabilities ............................................................................................ 956.5 Building MySQL with Support for Encrypted Connections ............................................................. 966.6 Encrypted Connection Protocols and Ciphers ............................................................................... 976.7 Connecting to MySQL Remotely from Windows with SSH ............................................................ 99

With an unencrypted connection between the MySQL client and the server, someone with access to thenetwork could watch all your traffic and inspect the data being sent or received between client and server.

When you must move information over a network in a secure fashion, an unencrypted connectionis unacceptable. To make any kind of data unreadable, use encryption. Encryption algorithms mustinclude security elements to resist many kinds of known attacks such as changing the order of encryptedmessages or replaying data twice.

MySQL supports encrypted connections between clients and the server using the TLS (Transport LayerSecurity) protocol. TLS is sometimes referred to as SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) but MySQL does notactually use the SSL protocol for encrypted connections because its encryption is weak (see Section 6.6,“Encrypted Connection Protocols and Ciphers”).

TLS uses encryption algorithms to ensure that data received over a public network can be trusted. It hasmechanisms to detect data change, loss, or replay. TLS also incorporates algorithms that provide identityverification using the X.509 standard.

X.509 makes it possible to identify someone on the Internet. In basic terms, there should be some entitycalled a “Certificate Authority” (or CA) that assigns electronic certificates to anyone who needs them.Certificates rely on asymmetric encryption algorithms that have two encryption keys (a public key and asecret key). A certificate owner can present the certificate to another party as proof of identity. A certificateconsists of its owner's public key. Any data encrypted using this public key can be decrypted only using thecorresponding secret key, which is held by the owner of the certificate.

MySQL can be compiled for encrypted-connection support using OpenSSL or yaSSL. For a comparisonof the two packages, see Section 6.4, “SSL Library-Dependent Capabilities” For information aboutthe encryption protocols and ciphers each package supports, see Section 6.6, “Encrypted ConnectionProtocols and Ciphers”.

MySQL programs attempt to connect using encryption if the proper options are given and the serversupports encrypted connections. For information about options that affect use of encrypted connections,see Section 6.1, “Configuring MySQL to Use Encrypted Connections” and Section 6.2, “Command Optionsfor Encrypted Connections”.

MySQL performs encryption on a per-connection basis, and use of encryption for a given user can beoptional or mandatory. This enables you to choose an encrypted or unencrypted connection according

Configuring MySQL to Use Encrypted Connections

84

to the requirements of individual applications. For information on how to require users to use encryptedconnections, see the discussion of the REQUIRE clause of the GRANT statement in GRANT Syntax.

Encrypted connections are not used by default. For applications that require the security provided byencrypted connections, the extra computation to encrypt the data is worthwhile.

Encrypted connections can be used between master and slave replication servers. See Setting UpReplication to Use Encrypted Connections.

For information about using encrypted connections from the MySQL C API, see C API EncryptedConnection Support.

It is also possible to connect using encryption from within an SSH connection to the MySQL server host.For an example, see Section 6.7, “Connecting to MySQL Remotely from Windows with SSH”.

6.1 Configuring MySQL to Use Encrypted Connections

To enable encrypted connections, your MySQL distribution must be built with SSL support, as describedin Section 6.5, “Building MySQL with Support for Encrypted Connections”. In addition, several options areavailable to indicate whether to use encrypted connections, and to specify the appropriate certificate andkey files. This section provides general guidance about configuring the server and clients for encryptedconnections:

• Server-Side Startup Configuration for Encrypted Connections

• Client-Side Configuration for Encrypted Connections

For a complete list of options related to establishment of encrypted connections, see Section 6.2,“Command Options for Encrypted Connections”. To create any required certificate and key files, seeSection 6.3, “Creating SSL and RSA Certificates and Keys”.

Encrypted connections can be used between master and slave replication servers. See Setting UpReplication to Use Encrypted Connections.

Encrypted connections are available through the MySQL C API. See C API Encrypted Connection Support.

Note

If the server is compiled against OpenSSL, clients from MySQL 5.6 versions olderthan 5.6.17 are not able to connect to the server using encrypted connections ifthe client library is compiled using yaSSL. Either use a client and server compiledusing the same SSL package, or upgrade to clients compiled against a client libraryversion from MySQL 5.6.17 or higher.

Server-Side Startup Configuration for Encrypted Connections

These options on the server side identify the certificate and key files the server uses when permittingclients to establish encrypted connections:

• --ssl-ca: The path name of the Certificate Authority (CA) certificate file. (--ssl-capath is similar butspecifies the path name of a directory of CA certificate files.)

• --ssl-cert: The path name of the server public key certificate file. This can be sent to the client andauthenticated against the CA certificate that it has.

• --ssl-key: The path name of the server private key file.

Client-Side Configuration for Encrypted Connections

85

For example, to enable the server for encrypted connections, start it with these lines in the my.cnf file,changing the file names as necessary:

[mysqld]ssl-ca=ca.pemssl-cert=server-cert.pemssl-key=server-key.pem

Each option names a file in PEM format. If you have a MySQL source distribution, you can test your setupusing the demonstration certificate and key files in its mysql-test/std_data directory.

MySQL also provides these options for server-side SSL control:

• --ssl-cipher: The list of permitted ciphers for connection encryption.

• --ssl-crl: The path name of the file containing certificate revocation lists. (--ssl-crlpath is similarbut specifies the path name of a directory of certificate revocation-list files.)

The server uses the values of the --ssl-xxx options as the values of the used certificate and key files toset the corresponding system variables (ssl_ca, ssl_cert, ssl_key, and so forth).

Client-Side Configuration for Encrypted Connections

These options on the client side identify the certificate and key files clients use when establishingencrypted connections to the server. They are similar to the options used on the server side, but --ssl-cert and --ssl-key identify the client public and private key:

• --ssl-ca: The path name of the Certificate Authority (CA) certificate file. This option, if used, mustspecify the same certificate used by the server. (--ssl-capath is similar but specifies the path nameof a directory of CA certificate files.)

• --ssl-cert: The path name of the client public key certificate file.

• --ssl-key: The path name of the client private key file.

For additional security relative to that provided by the default encryption, clients can supply a CA certificatematching the one used by the server and enable host name identity verification. In this way, the server andclient place their trust in the same CA certificate and the client verifies that the host to which it connected isthe one intended:

• To specify the CA certificate, use --ssl-ca (or --ssl-capath).

• To enable host name identity verification as well, specify --ssl-verify-server-cert.

• To require an encrypted connection, specify --ssl-mode=REQUIRED.

Depending on the encryption requirements of the MySQL account used by a client, the client may berequired to specify certain options to connect using encryption to a MySQL server that supports encryptedconnections.

Suppose that you want to connect using an account that has no special encryption requirements or wascreated using a GRANT statement that includes the REQUIRE SSL option. As a recommended set ofencrypted-connection options, start the server with at least --ssl-cert and --ssl-key, and invoke theclient with --ssl-ca (or --ssl-capath). A client can connect using encryption like this:

mysql --ssl-ca=ca.pem

Command Options for Encrypted Connections

86

To require that a client certificate also be specified, create the account using the REQUIRE X509 option.Then the client must also specify the proper client key and certificate files or the server will reject theconnection:

mysql --ssl-ca=ca.pem \ --ssl-cert=client-cert.pem \ --ssl-key=client-key.pem

For additional information about the REQUIRE clause, see the discussion in GRANT Syntax.

To prevent use of encryption and override other --ssl-xxx options, invoke the client program with --ssl=0 or a synonym (--skip-ssl, --disable-ssl):

mysql --ssl=0

MySQL also provides these options for client-side SSL control:

• --ssl-cipher: The list of permitted ciphers for connection encryption.

• --ssl-crl: The path name of the file containing certificate revocation lists. (--ssl-crlpath is similarbut specifies the path name of a directory of certificate revocation-list files.)

To determine whether the current connection with the server uses encryption, check the session value ofthe Ssl_cipher status variable. If the value is empty, the connection is not encrypted. Otherwise, theconnection is encrypted and the value indicates the encryption cipher. For example:

mysql> SHOW SESSION STATUS LIKE 'Ssl_cipher';+---------------+--------------------+| Variable_name | Value |+---------------+--------------------+| Ssl_cipher | DHE-RSA-AES256-SHA |+---------------+--------------------+

For the mysql client, an alternative is to use the STATUS or \s command and check the SSL line:

mysql> \s...SSL: Not in use...

Or:

mysql> \s...SSL: Cipher in use is DHE-RSA-AES256-SHA...

6.2 Command Options for Encrypted Connections

This section describes options that specify whether to use encrypted connections, the names of certificateand key files, and other parameters related to encrypted-connection support. These options can be givenon the command line or in an option file. They are not available unless MySQL has been built with SSLsupport. See Section 6.5, “Building MySQL with Support for Encrypted Connections”. For examples ofsuggested use and how to check whether a connection is encrypted, see Section 6.1, “Configuring MySQLto Use Encrypted Connections”.

Command Options for Encrypted Connections

87

For information about using encrypted connections from the MySQL C API, see C API EncryptedConnection Support.

Table 6.1 Encrypted-Connection Option Summary

Format Description Introduced

--skip-ssl Do not use encrypted connection

--ssl Enable encrypted connection

--ssl-ca File that contains list of trusted SSL Certificate Authorities

--ssl-capath Directory that contains trusted SSL Certificate Authoritycertificate files

--ssl-cert File that contains X.509 certificate

--ssl-cipher List of permitted ciphers for connection encryption

--ssl-crl File that contains certificate revocation lists 5.6.3

--ssl-crlpath Directory that contains certificate revocation-list files 5.6.3

--ssl-key File that contains X.509 key

--ssl-mode Security state of connection to server 5.6.30

--ssl-verify-server-cert Verify host name against server certificate Common Nameidentity

• --ssl

For the MySQL server, this option specifies that the server permits but does not require encryptedconnections.

For MySQL client programs, this option permits but does not require the client to connect to the serverusing encryption. Therefore, this option is not sufficient in itself to cause an encrypted connection to beused. For example, if you specify this option for a client program but the server has not been configuredto support encrypted connections, the client falls back to an unencrypted connection.

As a recommended set of options to enable encrypted connections, use at least --ssl-cert and --ssl-key on the server side and --ssl-ca on the client side. See Section 6.1, “Configuring MySQL toUse Encrypted Connections”.

--ssl may be implied by other --ssl-xxx options, as indicated in the descriptions for those options.

The --ssl option in negated form indicates that encryption should not be used and overrides other --ssl-xxx options. Specify the option as --ssl=0 or a synonym (--skip-ssl, --disable-ssl). Forexample, you might have options specified in the [client] group of your option file to use encryptedconnections by default when you invoke MySQL client programs. To use an unencrypted connectioninstead, invoke the client program with --ssl=0 on the command line to override the options in theoption file.

To require use of encrypted connections by a MySQL account, use a GRANT statement for theaccount that includes a REQUIRE SSL clause. Connection attempts by clients that use the accountwill be rejected unless MySQL supports encrypted connections and an encrypted connection can beestablished.

The REQUIRE clause permits other encryption-related options, which can be used to enforce securityrequirements stricter than REQUIRE SSL. For additional details about which command options may ormust be specified by clients that connect using accounts configured using the various REQUIRE options,see the description of REQUIRE in GRANT Syntax.

Command Options for Encrypted Connections

88

• --ssl-ca=file_name

The path name of the Certificate Authority (CA) certificate file in PEM format. This option implies --ssl.

To tell the client not to authenticate the server certificate when establishing an encrypted connection tothe server, specify neither --ssl-ca nor --ssl-capath. The server still verifies the client accordingto any applicable requirements established for the client account, and it still uses any --ssl-ca or --ssl-capath option values specified on the server side.

• --ssl-capath=dir_name

The path name of the directory that contains trusted SSL certificate authority (CA) certificate files in PEMformat. This option implies --ssl.

To tell the client not to authenticate the server certificate when establishing an encrypted connection tothe server, specify neither --ssl-ca nor --ssl-capath. The server still verifies the client accordingto any applicable requirements established for the client account, and it still uses any --ssl-ca or --ssl-capath option values specified on the server side.

Support for this option depends on the SSL library used to compile MySQL. See Section 6.4, “SSLLibrary-Dependent Capabilities”.

• --ssl-cert=file_name

The path name of the SSL public key certificate file in PEM format. On the client side, this is the clientpublic key certificate. On the server side, this is the server public key certificate. This option implies --ssl.

• --ssl-cipher=cipher_list

The list of permitted ciphers for connection encryption. If no cipher in the list is supported, encryptedconnections will not work. This option implies --ssl.

For greatest portability, cipher_list should be a list of one or more cipher names, separated bycolons. This format is understood both by OpenSSL and yaSSL. Examples:

--ssl-cipher=AES128-SHA--ssl-cipher=DHE-RSA-AES256-SHA:AES128-SHA

OpenSSL supports a more flexible syntax for specifying ciphers, as described in the OpenSSLdocumentation at https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man1/ciphers.html. yaSSL does not, soattempts to use that extended syntax fail for a MySQL distribution compiled using yaSSL.

For information about which encryption ciphers MySQL supports, see Section 6.6, “EncryptedConnection Protocols and Ciphers”.

• --ssl-crl=file_name

The path name of the file containing certificate revocation lists in PEM format. This option implies --ssl.

If neither --ssl-crl nor --ssl-crlpath is given, no CRL checks are performed, even if the CA pathcontains certificate revocation lists.

Support for this option depends on the SSL library used to compile MySQL. See Section 6.4, “SSLLibrary-Dependent Capabilities”.

• --ssl-crlpath=dir_name

Command Options for Encrypted Connections

89

The path name of the directory that contains certificate revocation-list files in PEM format. This optionimplies --ssl.

If neither --ssl-crl nor --ssl-crlpath is given, no CRL checks are performed, even if the CA pathcontains certificate revocation lists.

Support for this option depends on the SSL library used to compile MySQL. See Section 6.4, “SSLLibrary-Dependent Capabilities”.

• --ssl-key=file_name

The path name of the SSL private key file in PEM format. On the client side, this is the client private key.On the server side, this is the server private key. This option implies --ssl.

If the MySQL distribution was built using OpenSSL or yaSSL and the key file is protected by apassphrase, the program prompts the user for the passphrase. The password must be giveninteractively; it cannot be stored in a file. If the passphrase is incorrect, the program continues as if itcould not read the key.

• --ssl-mode=mode

This option is available only for client programs, not the server. It specifies the security state of theconnection to the server:

• If this option is not specified, the default is to establish an unencrypted connection. This is like the --ssl=0 option or its synonyms (--skip-ssl, --disable-ssl).

• If this option is specified, the only permitted value is REQUIRED (establish an encrypted connection ifthe server supports encrypted connections). The connection attempt fails if an encrypted connectioncannot be established.

The --ssl-mode option was added in MySQL 5.6.30.

Note

To require encrypted connections in MySQL 5.6, the standard MySQL clientprograms check whether the connection is encrypted if --ssl-mode=REQUIREDwas specified. If not, the client exits with an error. Third-party applications thatmust be able to require encrypted connections can use the same technique. Fordetails, see mysql_ssl_set().

• --ssl-verify-server-cert

This option is available only for client programs, not the server. It causes the client to perform host nameidentity verification by checking the host name the client uses for connecting to the server against theidentity in the certificate that the server sends to the client:

• As of MySQL 5.6.41, if the client uses OpenSSL 1.0.2 or higher, the client checks whether the hostname that it uses for connecting matches either the Subject Alternative Name value or the CommonName value in the server certificate.

• Otherwise, the client checks whether the host name that it uses for connecting matches the CommonName value in the server certificate.

The connection fails if there is a mismatch. For encrypted connections, this option helps prevent man-in-the-middle attacks. Host name identity verification is disabled by default.

Creating SSL and RSA Certificates and Keys

90

6.3 Creating SSL and RSA Certificates and KeysThe following discussion describes how to create the files required for SSL and RSA support in MySQL.File creation is done by invoking the openssl command.

SSL certificate and key files enable MySQL to support encrypted connections using SSL. See Chapter 6,Using Encrypted Connections.

RSA key files enable MySQL to support secure password exchange over unencrypted connectionsfor accounts authenticated by the sha256_password plugin. See Section 7.1.4, “SHA-256 PluggableAuthentication”.

6.3.1 Creating SSL Certificates and Keys Using openssl

This section describes how to use the openssl command to set up SSL certificate and key files for useby MySQL servers and clients. The first example shows a simplified procedure such as you might usefrom the command line. The second shows a script that contains more detail. The first two examples areintended for use on Unix and both use the openssl command that is part of OpenSSL. The third exampledescribes how to set up SSL files on Windows.

Important

Whatever method you use to generate the certificate and key files, the CommonName value used for the server and client certificates/keys must each differ fromthe Common Name value used for the CA certificate. Otherwise, the certificate andkey files will not work for servers compiled using OpenSSL. A typical error in thiscase is:

ERROR 2026 (HY000): SSL connection error:error:00000001:lib(0):func(0):reason(1)

• Example 1: Creating SSL Files from the Command Line on Unix

• Example 2: Creating SSL Files Using a Script on Unix

• Example 3: Creating SSL Files on Windows

Example 1: Creating SSL Files from the Command Line on Unix

The following example shows a set of commands to create MySQL server and client certificate and keyfiles. You will need to respond to several prompts by the openssl commands. To generate test files,you can press Enter to all prompts. To generate files for production use, you should provide nonemptyresponses.

# Create clean environmentrm -rf newcertsmkdir newcerts && cd newcerts# Create CA certificateopenssl genrsa 2048 > ca-key.pemopenssl req -new -x509 -nodes -days 3600 \ -key ca-key.pem -out ca.pem# Create server certificate, remove passphrase, and sign it# server-cert.pem = public key, server-key.pem = private keyopenssl req -newkey rsa:2048 -days 3600 \ -nodes -keyout server-key.pem -out server-req.pemopenssl rsa -in server-key.pem -out server-key.pemopenssl x509 -req -in server-req.pem -days 3600 \ -CA ca.pem -CAkey ca-key.pem -set_serial 01 -out server-cert.pem

Creating SSL Certificates and Keys Using openssl

91

# Create client certificate, remove passphrase, and sign it# client-cert.pem = public key, client-key.pem = private keyopenssl req -newkey rsa:2048 -days 3600 \ -nodes -keyout client-key.pem -out client-req.pemopenssl rsa -in client-key.pem -out client-key.pemopenssl x509 -req -in client-req.pem -days 3600 \ -CA ca.pem -CAkey ca-key.pem -set_serial 01 -out client-cert.pem

After generating the certificates, verify them:

openssl verify -CAfile ca.pem server-cert.pem client-cert.pem

You should see a response like this:

server-cert.pem: OKclient-cert.pem: OK

Now you have a set of files that can be used as follows:

• ca.pem: Use this as the argument to --ssl-ca on the server and client sides. (The CA certificate, ifused, must be the same on both sides.)

• server-cert.pem, server-key.pem: Use these as the arguments to --ssl-cert and --ssl-keyon the server side.

• client-cert.pem, client-key.pem: Use these as the arguments to --ssl-cert and --ssl-keyon the client side.

For additional usage instructions, see Section 6.1, “Configuring MySQL to Use Encrypted Connections”.

Example 2: Creating SSL Files Using a Script on Unix

Here is an example script that shows how to set up SSL certificate and key files for MySQL. Afterexecuting the script, use the files for SSL connections as described in Section 6.1, “Configuring MySQL toUse Encrypted Connections”.

DIR=`pwd`/opensslPRIV=$DIR/privatemkdir $DIR $PRIV $DIR/newcertscp /usr/share/ssl/openssl.cnf $DIRreplace ./demoCA $DIR -- $DIR/openssl.cnf# Create necessary files: $database, $serial and $new_certs_dir# directory (optional)touch $DIR/index.txtecho "01" > $DIR/serial## Generation of Certificate Authority(CA)#openssl req -new -x509 -keyout $PRIV/cakey.pem -out $DIR/ca.pem \ -days 3600 -config $DIR/openssl.cnf# Sample output:# Using configuration from /home/finley/openssl/openssl.cnf# Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key# ................++++++# .........++++++# writing new private key to '/home/finley/openssl/private/cakey.pem'# Enter PEM pass phrase:# Verifying password - Enter PEM pass phrase:# -----# You are about to be asked to enter information that will be# incorporated into your certificate request.# What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name

Creating SSL Certificates and Keys Using openssl

92

# or a DN.# There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank# For some fields there will be a default value,# If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.# -----# Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:FI# State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:.# Locality Name (eg, city) []:# Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:MySQL AB# Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:# Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:MySQL admin# Email Address []:## Create server request and key#openssl req -new -keyout $DIR/server-key.pem -out \ $DIR/server-req.pem -days 3600 -config $DIR/openssl.cnf# Sample output:# Using configuration from /home/finley/openssl/openssl.cnf# Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key# ..++++++# ..........++++++# writing new private key to '/home/finley/openssl/server-key.pem'# Enter PEM pass phrase:# Verifying password - Enter PEM pass phrase:# -----# You are about to be asked to enter information that will be# incorporated into your certificate request.# What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name# or a DN.# There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank# For some fields there will be a default value,# If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.# -----# Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:FI# State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:.# Locality Name (eg, city) []:# Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:MySQL AB# Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:# Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:MySQL server# Email Address []:## Please enter the following 'extra' attributes# to be sent with your certificate request# A challenge password []:# An optional company name []:## Remove the passphrase from the key#openssl rsa -in $DIR/server-key.pem -out $DIR/server-key.pem## Sign server cert#openssl ca -cert $DIR/ca.pem -policy policy_anything \ -out $DIR/server-cert.pem -config $DIR/openssl.cnf \ -infiles $DIR/server-req.pem# Sample output:# Using configuration from /home/finley/openssl/openssl.cnf# Enter PEM pass phrase:# Check that the request matches the signature# Signature ok# The Subjects Distinguished Name is as follows# countryName :PRINTABLE:'FI'# organizationName :PRINTABLE:'MySQL AB'# commonName :PRINTABLE:'MySQL admin'# Certificate is to be certified until Sep 13 14:22:46 2003 GMT# (365 days)

Creating SSL Certificates and Keys Using openssl

93

# Sign the certificate? [y/n]:y### 1 out of 1 certificate requests certified, commit? [y/n]y# Write out database with 1 new entries# Data Base Updated## Create client request and key#openssl req -new -keyout $DIR/client-key.pem -out \ $DIR/client-req.pem -days 3600 -config $DIR/openssl.cnf# Sample output:# Using configuration from /home/finley/openssl/openssl.cnf# Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key# .....................................++++++# .............................................++++++# writing new private key to '/home/finley/openssl/client-key.pem'# Enter PEM pass phrase:# Verifying password - Enter PEM pass phrase:# -----# You are about to be asked to enter information that will be# incorporated into your certificate request.# What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name# or a DN.# There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank# For some fields there will be a default value,# If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.# -----# Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:FI# State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:.# Locality Name (eg, city) []:# Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:MySQL AB# Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:# Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:MySQL user# Email Address []:## Please enter the following 'extra' attributes# to be sent with your certificate request# A challenge password []:# An optional company name []:## Remove the passphrase from the key#openssl rsa -in $DIR/client-key.pem -out $DIR/client-key.pem## Sign client cert#openssl ca -cert $DIR/ca.pem -policy policy_anything \ -out $DIR/client-cert.pem -config $DIR/openssl.cnf \ -infiles $DIR/client-req.pem# Sample output:# Using configuration from /home/finley/openssl/openssl.cnf# Enter PEM pass phrase:# Check that the request matches the signature# Signature ok# The Subjects Distinguished Name is as follows# countryName :PRINTABLE:'FI'# organizationName :PRINTABLE:'MySQL AB'# commonName :PRINTABLE:'MySQL user'# Certificate is to be certified until Sep 13 16:45:17 2003 GMT# (365 days)# Sign the certificate? [y/n]:y### 1 out of 1 certificate requests certified, commit? [y/n]y# Write out database with 1 new entries# Data Base Updated

Creating SSL Certificates and Keys Using openssl

94

## Create a my.cnf file that you can use to test the certificates#cat <<EOF > $DIR/my.cnf[client]ssl-ca=$DIR/ca.pemssl-cert=$DIR/client-cert.pemssl-key=$DIR/client-key.pem[mysqld]ssl-ca=$DIR/ca.pemssl-cert=$DIR/server-cert.pemssl-key=$DIR/server-key.pemEOF

Example 3: Creating SSL Files on Windows

Download OpenSSL for Windows if it is not installed on your system. An overview of available packagescan be seen here:

http://www.slproweb.com/products/Win32OpenSSL.html

Choose the Win32 OpenSSL Light or Win64 OpenSSL Light package, depending on your architecture(32-bit or 64-bit). The default installation location will be C:\OpenSSL-Win32 or C:\OpenSSL-Win64,depending on which package you downloaded. The following instructions assume a default location of C:\OpenSSL-Win32. Modify this as necessary if you are using the 64-bit package.

If a message occurs during setup indicating '...critical component is missing: MicrosoftVisual C++ 2008 Redistributables', cancel the setup and download one of the followingpackages as well, again depending on your architecture (32-bit or 64-bit):

• Visual C++ 2008 Redistributables (x86), available at:

http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?familyid=9B2DA534-3E03-4391-8A4D-074B9F2BC1BF

• Visual C++ 2008 Redistributables (x64), available at:

http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?familyid=bd2a6171-e2d6-4230-b809-9a8d7548c1b6

After installing the additional package, restart the OpenSSL setup procedure.

During installation, leave the default C:\OpenSSL-Win32 as the install path, and also leave the defaultoption 'Copy OpenSSL DLL files to the Windows system directory' selected.

When the installation has finished, add C:\OpenSSL-Win32\bin to the Windows System Path variableof your server (depending on your version of Windows, the following path-setting instructions might differslightly):

1. On the Windows desktop, right-click the My Computer icon, and select Properties.

2. Select the Advanced tab from the System Properties menu that appears, and click the EnvironmentVariables button.

3. Under System Variables, select Path, then click the Edit button. The Edit System Variable dialogueshould appear.

4. Add ';C:\OpenSSL-Win32\bin' to the end (notice the semicolon).

5. Press OK 3 times.

Creating RSA Keys Using openssl

95

6. Check that OpenSSL was correctly integrated into the Path variable by opening a new commandconsole (Start>Run>cmd.exe) and verifying that OpenSSL is available:

Microsoft Windows [Version ...]Copyright (c) 2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.C:\Windows\system32>cd \C:\>opensslOpenSSL> exit <<< If you see the OpenSSL prompt, installation was successful.C:\>

After OpenSSL has been installed, use instructions similar to those from Example 1 (shown earlier in thissection), with the following changes:

• Change the following Unix commands:

# Create clean environmentrm -rf newcertsmkdir newcerts && cd newcerts

On Windows, use these commands instead:

# Create clean environmentmd c:\newcertscd c:\newcerts

• When a '\' character is shown at the end of a command line, this '\' character must be removed andthe command lines entered all on a single line.

After generating the certificate and key files, to use them for SSL connections, see Section 6.1,“Configuring MySQL to Use Encrypted Connections”.

6.3.2 Creating RSA Keys Using openssl

This section describes how to use the openssl command to set up the RSA key files that enable MySQLto support secure password exchange over unencrypted connections for accounts authenticated by thesha256_password plugin.

To create the RSA private and public key-pair files, run these commands while logged into the systemaccount used to run the MySQL server so the files will be owned by that account:

openssl genrsa -out private_key.pem 2048openssl rsa -in private_key.pem -pubout -out public_key.pem

Those commands create 2,048-bit keys. To create stronger keys, use a larger value.

Then set the access modes for the key files. The private key should be readable only by the server,whereas the public key can be freely distributed to client users:

chmod 400 private_key.pemchmod 444 public_key.pem

6.4 SSL Library-Dependent Capabilities

MySQL can be compiled using OpenSSL or yaSSL, both of which enable encrypted connections based onthe OpenSSL API:

Building MySQL with Support for Encrypted Connections

96

• MySQL Enterprise Edition binary distributions are compiled using OpenSSL. It is not possible to useyaSSL with MySQL Enterprise Edition.

• MySQL Community Edition binary distributions are compiled using yaSSL.

• MySQL Community Edition source distributions can be compiled using either OpenSSL or yaSSL (seeSection 6.5, “Building MySQL with Support for Encrypted Connections”).

OpenSSL and yaSSL offer the same basic functionality, but MySQL distributions compiled using OpenSSLhave additional features:

• OpenSSL supports a more flexible syntax for specifying ciphers for the --ssl-cipher option, andsupports a wider range of encryption ciphers from which to choose. See Section 6.2, “Command Optionsfor Encrypted Connections”, and Section 6.6, “Encrypted Connection Protocols and Ciphers”.

• OpenSSL supports the --ssl-capath. MySQL distributions compiled using yaSSL do not becauseyaSSL does not look in any directory and do not follow a chained certificate tree. yaSSL requires thatall components of the CA certificate tree be contained within a single CA certificate tree and that eachcertificate in the file has a unique SubjectName value. To work around this limitation, concatenate theindividual certificate files comprising the certificate tree into a new file and specify that file as the value ofthe --ssl-ca option.

• OpenSSL supports the --ssl-crl, and --ssl-crlpath options. Distributions compiled using yaSSLdo not because revocation lists do not work with yaSSL.

• Accounts that authenticate using the sha256_password plugin can use RSA key files for securepassword exchange over unencrypted connections. See Section 7.1.4, “SHA-256 PluggableAuthentication”.

• OpenSSL supports more encryption modes for the AES_ENCRYPT() and AES_DECRYPT() functions.See Encryption and Compression Functions

Certain OpenSSL-related system and status variables are present only if MySQL was compiled usingOpenSSL:

• sha256_password_private_key_path

• sha256_password_public_key_path

• Rsa_public_key

To determine whether a server was compiled using OpenSSL, test the existence of any of those variables.For example, this statement returns a row if OpenSSL was used and an empty result if yaSSL was used:

SHOW STATUS LIKE 'Rsa_public_key';

Such tests assume that your server version is not older than the first appearance of the variable tested. Forexample, you cannot test for Rsa_public_key before MySQL 5.6.6, when that variable was added.

6.5 Building MySQL with Support for Encrypted ConnectionsTo use encrypted connections between the MySQL server and client programs, your system must supporteither OpenSSL or yaSSL:

• MySQL Enterprise Edition binary distributions are compiled using OpenSSL. It is not possible to useyaSSL with MySQL Enterprise Edition.

Encrypted Connection Protocols and Ciphers

97

• MySQL Community Edition binary distributions are compiled using yaSSL.

• MySQL Community Edition source distributions can be compiled using either OpenSSL or yaSSL.

If you compile MySQL from a source distribution, CMake configures the distribution to use yaSSL bydefault. To compile using OpenSSL instead, use this procedure:

1. Ensure that OpenSSL 1.0.1 or higher is installed on your system. If the installed OpenSSL version islower than 1.0.1, CMake produces an error at MySQL configuration time. If it is necessary to obtainOpenSSL, visit http://www.openssl.org.

2. The WITH_SSL CMake option determines which SSL library to use for compiling MySQL (see MySQLSource-Configuration Options). The default is -DWITH_SSL=bundled, which uses yaSSL. To useOpenSSL, add the -DWITH_SSL=system option to the CMake command you normally use to configurethe MySQL source distribution. For example:

cmake . -DWITH_SSL=system

That command configures the distribution to use the installed OpenSSL library. Alternatively, toexplicitly specify the path name to the OpenSSL installation, use the following syntax. This can beuseful if you have multiple versions of OpenSSL installed, to prevent CMake from choosing the wrongone:

cmake . -DWITH_SSL=path_name

3. Compile and install the distribution.

To check whether a mysqld server supports encrypted connections, examine the value of the have_sslsystem variable:

mysql> SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'have_ssl';+---------------+-------+| Variable_name | Value |+---------------+-------+| have_ssl | YES |+---------------+-------+

If the value is YES, the server supports encrypted connections. If the value is DISABLED, the server iscapable of supporting encrypted connections but was not started with the appropriate --ssl-xxx optionsto enable encrypted connections to be used; see Section 6.1, “Configuring MySQL to Use EncryptedConnections”.

To determine whether a server was compiled using OpenSSL or yaSSL, check the existence of any of thesystem or status variables that are present only for OpenSSL. See Section 6.4, “SSL Library-DependentCapabilities”

6.6 Encrypted Connection Protocols and Ciphers

To determine which encryption protocol and cipher are in use for an encrypted connection, use thefollowing statements to check the values of the Ssl_version and Ssl_cipher status variables:

mysql> SHOW SESSION STATUS LIKE 'Ssl_version';+---------------+-------+| Variable_name | Value |+---------------+-------+

Encrypted Connection Protocols and Ciphers

98

| Ssl_version | TLSv1 |+---------------+-------+mysql> SHOW SESSION STATUS LIKE 'Ssl_cipher';+---------------+--------------------+| Variable_name | Value |+---------------+--------------------+| Ssl_cipher | DHE-RSA-AES256-SHA |+---------------+--------------------+

If the connection is not encrypted, both variables have an empty value.

MySQL supports encrypted connections using the TLSv1 protocol. As of MySQL 5.6.23, it explicitlydisables SSL 2.0 and SSL 3.0 because they provide weak encryption.

To determine which ciphers a given server supports, use the following statement to check the value of theSsl_cipher_list status variable:

SHOW SESSION STATUS LIKE 'Ssl_cipher_list';

The set of available ciphers depends on your MySQL version and whether MySQL was compiled usingOpenSSL or yaSSL, and (for OpenSSL) the library version used to compile MySQL.

MySQL passes this cipher list to OpenSSL:

AES256-GCM-SHA384AES256-SHAAES256-SHA256CAMELLIA256-SHADES-CBC3-SHADHE-DSS-AES256-GCM-SHA384DHE-DSS-AES256-SHADHE-DSS-AES256-SHA256DHE-DSS-CAMELLIA256-SHADHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384DHE-RSA-AES256-SHADHE-RSA-AES256-SHA256DHE-RSA-CAMELLIA256-SHAECDH-ECDSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384ECDH-ECDSA-AES256-SHAECDH-ECDSA-AES256-SHA384ECDH-ECDSA-DES-CBC3-SHAECDH-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384ECDH-RSA-AES256-SHAECDH-RSA-AES256-SHA384ECDH-RSA-DES-CBC3-SHAECDHE-ECDSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256ECDHE-ECDSA-AES128-SHAECDHE-ECDSA-AES128-SHA256ECDHE-ECDSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384ECDHE-ECDSA-AES256-SHAECDHE-ECDSA-AES256-SHA384ECDHE-ECDSA-DES-CBC3-SHAECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256ECDHE-RSA-AES128-SHAECDHE-RSA-AES128-SHA256ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384ECDHE-RSA-AES256-SHAECDHE-RSA-AES256-SHA384ECDHE-RSA-DES-CBC3-SHAEDH-DSS-DES-CBC3-SHAEDH-RSA-DES-CBC3-SHAPSK-3DES-EDE-CBC-SHAPSK-AES256-CBC-SHA

Connecting to MySQL Remotely from Windows with SSH

99

SRP-DSS-3DES-EDE-CBC-SHASRP-DSS-AES-128-CBC-SHASRP-DSS-AES-256-CBC-SHASRP-RSA-3DES-EDE-CBC-SHASRP-RSA-AES-128-CBC-SSRP-RSA-AES-256-CBC-SHA

MySQL passes this cipher list to yaSSL:

AES128-RMDAES128-SHAAES256-RMDAES256-SHADES-CBC-SHADES-CBC3-RMDDES-CBC3-SHADHE-RSA-AES128-RMDDHE-RSA-AES128-SHADHE-RSA-AES256-RMDDHE-RSA-AES256-SHADHE-RSA-DES-CBC3-RMDEDH-RSA-DES-CBC-SHAEDH-RSA-DES-CBC3-SHARC4-MD5RC4-SHA

6.7 Connecting to MySQL Remotely from Windows with SSH

This section describes how to get an encrypted connection to a remote MySQL server with SSH. Theoriginal information was provided by David Carlson <dcarlson@mplcomm.com>.

1. Install an SSH client on your Windows machine. For a comparison of SSH clients, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_SSH_clients.

2. Start your Windows SSH client. Set Host_Name = yourmysqlserver_URL_or_IP. Setuserid=your_userid to log in to your server. This userid value might not be the same as the username of your MySQL account.

3. Set up port forwarding. Either do a remote forward (Set local_port: 3306, remote_host:yourmysqlservername_or_ip, remote_port: 3306 ) or a local forward (Set port: 3306,host: localhost, remote port: 3306).

4. Save everything, otherwise you will have to redo it the next time.

5. Log in to your server with the SSH session you just created.

6. On your Windows machine, start some ODBC application (such as Access).

7. Create a new file in Windows and link to MySQL using the ODBC driver the same way you normally do,except type in localhost for the MySQL host server, not yourmysqlservername.

At this point, you should have an ODBC connection to MySQL, encrypted using SSH.

100

101

Chapter 7 Security Plugins

Table of Contents7.1 Authentication Plugins ............................................................................................................... 102

7.1.1 Native Pluggable Authentication ...................................................................................... 1027.1.2 Old Native Pluggable Authentication ............................................................................... 1037.1.3 Migrating Away from Pre-4.1 Password Hashing and the mysql_old_password Plugin ........ 1047.1.4 SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication ................................................................................. 1087.1.5 Client-Side Cleartext Pluggable Authentication ................................................................ 1127.1.6 PAM Pluggable Authentication ........................................................................................ 1137.1.7 Windows Pluggable Authentication ................................................................................. 1217.1.8 Socket Peer-Credential Pluggable Authentication ............................................................. 1267.1.9 Test Pluggable Authentication ........................................................................................ 128

7.2 The Connection-Control Plugins ................................................................................................ 1307.2.1 Connection-Control Plugin Installation ............................................................................. 1317.2.2 Connection-Control System and Status Variables ............................................................ 135

7.3 The Password Validation Plugin ................................................................................................ 1377.3.1 Password Validation Plugin Installation ........................................................................... 1387.3.2 Password Validation Plugin Options and Variables .......................................................... 139

7.4 MySQL Enterprise Audit ............................................................................................................ 1437.4.1 Installing MySQL Enterprise Audit ................................................................................... 1457.4.2 MySQL Enterprise Audit Security Considerations ............................................................. 1467.4.3 Audit Log File Formats ................................................................................................... 1467.4.4 Audit Log Logging Control .............................................................................................. 1577.4.5 Audit Log Filtering .......................................................................................................... 1607.4.6 Audit Log Reference ...................................................................................................... 1627.4.7 Audit Log Restrictions .................................................................................................... 170

7.5 MySQL Enterprise Firewall ........................................................................................................ 1717.5.1 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Components ......................................................................... 1717.5.2 Installing or Uninstalling MySQL Enterprise Firewall ......................................................... 1727.5.3 Using MySQL Enterprise Firewall ................................................................................... 1747.5.4 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Reference ............................................................................. 178

MySQL includes several plugins that implement security features:

• Plugins for authenticating attempts by clients to connect to MySQL Server. Plugins are available forseveral authentication protocols. For general discussion of the authentication process, see Section 5.7,“Pluggable Authentication”. For characteristics of specific authentication plugins, see Section 7.1,“Authentication Plugins”.

• A password-validation plugin for implementing password strength policies and assessing the strength ofpotential passwords. See Section 7.3, “The Password Validation Plugin”.

• (MySQL Enterprise Edition only) MySQL Enterprise Audit, implemented using a server plugin, usesthe open MySQL Audit API to enable standard, policy-based monitoring and logging of connection andquery activity executed on specific MySQL servers. Designed to meet the Oracle audit specification,MySQL Enterprise Audit provides an out of box, easy to use auditing and compliance solution forapplications that are governed by both internal and external regulatory guidelines. See Section 7.4,“MySQL Enterprise Audit”.

• (MySQL Enterprise Edition only) MySQL Enterprise Firewall, an application-level firewall that enablesdatabase administrators to permit or deny SQL statement execution based on matching against

Authentication Plugins

102

whitelists of accepted statement patterns. This helps harden MySQL Server against attacks such asSQL injection or attempts to exploit applications by using them outside of their legitimate query workloadcharacteristics. See Section 7.5, “MySQL Enterprise Firewall”.

7.1 Authentication PluginsThe following sections describe pluggable authentication methods available in MySQL and the pluginsthat implement these methods. For general discussion of the authentication process, see Section 5.7,“Pluggable Authentication”.

The default plugin is mysql_native_password unless the --default-authentication-pluginoption is set otherwise at server startup.

7.1.1 Native Pluggable Authentication

MySQL includes two plugins that implement native authentication; that is, authentication based on thepassword hashing methods in use from before the introduction of pluggable authentication. This sectiondescribes mysql_native_password, which implements authentication against the mysql.user systemtable using the native password hashing method. For information about mysql_old_password, whichimplements authentication using the older (pre-4.1) native password hashing method, see Section 7.1.2,“Old Native Pluggable Authentication”. For information about these password hashing methods, seeSection 2.2.4, “Password Hashing in MySQL”.

The following table shows the plugin names on the server and client sides.

Table 7.1 Plugin and Library Names for Native Password Authentication

Plugin or File Plugin or File Name

Server-side plugin mysql_native_password

Client-side plugin mysql_native_password

Library file None (plugins are built in)

The following sections provide installation and usage information specific to native pluggableauthentication:

• Installing Native Pluggable Authentication

• Using Native Pluggable Authentication

For general information about pluggable authentication in MySQL, see Section 5.7, “PluggableAuthentication”.

Installing Native Pluggable Authentication

The mysql_native_password plugin exists in server and client forms:

• The server-side plugin is built into the server, need not be loaded explicitly, and cannot be disabled byunloading it.

• The client-side plugin is built into the libmysqlclient client library and is available to any programlinked against libmysqlclient.

Using Native Pluggable Authentication

MySQL client programs use mysql_native_password by default. The --default-auth option can beused as a hint about which client-side plugin the program can expect to use:

Old Native Pluggable Authentication

103

shell> mysql --default-auth=mysql_native_password ...

If an account row specifies no plugin name, the server authenticates the account using either themysql_native_password or mysql_old_password plugin, depending on whether the password hashvalue in the Password column used native hashing or the older pre-4.1 hashing method. Clients mustmatch the password in the Password column of the account row.

7.1.2 Old Native Pluggable Authentication

MySQL includes two plugins that implement native authentication; that is, authentication based onthe password hashing methods in use from before the introduction of pluggable authentication. Thissection describes mysql_old_password, which implements authentication against the mysql.usersystem table using the older (pre-4.1) native password hashing method. For information aboutmysql_native_password, which implements authentication using the native password hashing method,see Section 7.1.1, “Native Pluggable Authentication”. For information about these password hashingmethods, see Section 2.2.4, “Password Hashing in MySQL”.

Note

Passwords that use the pre-4.1 hashing method are less secure than passwordsthat use the native password hashing method and should be avoided. Pre-4.1passwords are deprecated and support for them will be removed in a future MySQLrelease. For account upgrade instructions, see Section 7.1.3, “Migrating Away fromPre-4.1 Password Hashing and the mysql_old_password Plugin”.

The following table shows the plugin names on the server and client sides.

Table 7.2 Plugin and Library Names for Old Native Password Authentication

Plugin or File Plugin or File Name

Server-side plugin mysql_old_password

Client-side plugin mysql_old_password

Library file None (plugins are built in)

The following sections provide installation and usage information specific to old native pluggableauthentication:

• Installing Old Native Pluggable Authentication

• Using Old Native Pluggable Authentication

For general information about pluggable authentication in MySQL, see Section 5.7, “PluggableAuthentication”.

Installing Old Native Pluggable Authentication

The mysql_old_password plugin exists in server and client forms:

• The server-side plugin is built into the server, need not be loaded explicitly, and cannot be disabled byunloading it.

• The client-side plugin is built into the libmysqlclient client library and is available to any programlinked against libmysqlclient.

Migrating Away from Pre-4.1 Password Hashing and the mysql_old_password Plugin

104

Using Old Native Pluggable Authentication

MySQL client programs can use the --default-auth option to specify the mysql_old_passwordplugin as a hint about which client-side plugin the program can expect to use:

shell> mysql --default-auth=mysql_old_password ...

If an account row specifies no plugin name, the server authenticates the account using either themysql_native_password or mysql_old_password plugin, depending on whether the password hashvalue in the Password column used native hashing or the older pre-4.1 hashing method. Clients mustmatch the password in the Password column of the account row.

7.1.3 Migrating Away from Pre-4.1 Password Hashing and themysql_old_password Plugin

The MySQL server authenticates connection attempts for each account listed in the mysql.user systemtable using the authentication plugin named in the plugin column. If the plugin column is empty, theserver authenticates the account as follows:

• Before MySQL 5.7, the server uses the mysql_native_password or mysql_old_passwordplugin implicitly, depending on the format of the password hash in the Password column.If the Password value is empty or a 4.1 password hash (41 characters), the server usesmysql_native_password. If the password value is a pre-4.1 password hash (16 characters),the server uses mysql_old_password. (For additional information about these hash formats, seeSection 2.2.4, “Password Hashing in MySQL”.)

• As of MySQL 5.7, the server requires the plugin column to be nonempty and disables accounts thathave an empty plugin value.

Pre-4.1 password hashes and the mysql_old_password plugin are deprecated in MySQL 5.6 andsupport for them is removed in MySQL 5.7. They provide a level of security inferior to that offered by 4.1password hashing and the mysql_native_password plugin.

Given the requirement in MySQL 5.7 that the plugin column must be nonempty, coupled with removal ofmysql_old_password support, DBAs are advised to upgrade accounts as follows:

• Upgrade accounts that use mysql_native_password implicitly to use it explicitly

• Upgrade accounts that use mysql_old_password (either implicitly or explicitly) to usemysql_native_password explicitly

The instructions in this section describe how to perform those upgrades. The result is that no account hasan empty plugin value and no account uses pre-4.1 password hashing or the mysql_old_passwordplugin.

As a variant on these instructions, DBAs might offer users the choice to upgrade to thesha256_password plugin, which authenticates using SHA-256 password hashes. For information aboutthis plugin, see Section 7.1.4, “SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication”.

The following table lists the types of mysql.user accounts considered in this discussion.

plugin Column Password Column Authentication Result Upgrade Action

Empty Empty Implicitly usesmysql_native_password

Assign plugin

Migrating Away from Pre-4.1 Password Hashing and the mysql_old_password Plugin

105

plugin Column Password Column Authentication Result Upgrade Action

Empty 4.1 hash Implicitly usesmysql_native_password

Assign plugin

Empty Pre-4.1 hash Implicitly usesmysql_old_password

Assign plugin,rehash password

mysql_native_password Empty Explicitly usesmysql_native_password

None

mysql_native_password 4.1 hash Explicitly usesmysql_native_password

None

mysql_old_password Empty Explicitly usesmysql_old_password

Upgrade plugin

mysql_old_password Pre-4.1 hash Explicitly usesmysql_old_password

Upgrade plugin,rehash password

Accounts corresponding to lines for the mysql_native_password plugin require no upgrade action(because no change of plugin or hash format is required). For accounts corresponding to lines for whichthe password is empty, consider asking the account owners to choose a password (or require it by usingALTER USER to expire empty account passwords).

Upgrading Accounts from Implicit to Explicit mysql_native_password Use

Accounts that have an empty plugin and a 4.1 password hash use mysql_native_password implicitly.To upgrade these accounts to use mysql_native_password explicitly, execute these statements:

UPDATE mysql.user SET plugin = 'mysql_native_password'WHERE plugin = '' AND (Password = '' OR LENGTH(Password) = 41);FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

Before MySQL 5.7, you can execute those statements to uprade accounts proactively. As of MySQL 5.7,you can run mysql_upgrade, which performs the same operation among its upgrade actions.

Notes:

• The upgrade operation just described is safe to execute at any time because it makes themysql_native_password plugin explicit only for accounts that already use it implicitly.

• This operation requires no password changes, so it can be performed without affecting users or requiringtheir involvement in the upgrade process.

Upgrading Accounts from mysql_old_password to mysql_native_password

Accounts that use mysql_old_password (either implicitly or explicitly) should be upgraded to usemysql_native_password explicitly. This requires changing the plugin and changing the password frompre-4.1 to 4.1 hash format.

For the accounts covered in this step that must be upgraded, one of these conditions is true:

• The account uses mysql_old_password implicitly because the plugin column is empty and thepassword has the pre-4.1 hash format (16 characters).

• The account uses mysql_old_password explicitly.

To identify such accounts, use this query:

Migrating Away from Pre-4.1 Password Hashing and the mysql_old_password Plugin

106

SELECT User, Host, Password FROM mysql.userWHERE (plugin = '' AND LENGTH(Password) = 16)OR plugin = 'mysql_old_password';

The following discussion provides two methods for updating that set of accounts. They have differingcharacteristics, so read both and decide which is most suitable for a given MySQL installation.

Method 1.

Characteristics of this method:

• It requires that server and clients be run with secure_auth=0 until all users have been upgraded tomysql_native_password. (Otherwise, users cannot connect to the server using their old-formatpassword hashes for the purpose of upgrading to a new-format hash.)

• It works for MySQL 5.5 and 5.6. In 5.7, it does not work because the server requires accounts to have anonempty plugin and disables them otherwise. Therefore, if you have already upgraded to 5.7, chooseMethod 2, described later.

You should ensure that the server is running with secure_auth=0.

For all accounts that use mysql_old_password explicitly, set them to the empty plugin:

UPDATE mysql.user SET plugin = ''WHERE plugin = 'mysql_old_password';FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

To also expire the password for affected accounts, use these statements instead:

UPDATE mysql.user SET plugin = '', password_expired = 'Y'WHERE plugin = 'mysql_old_password';FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

Now affected users can reset their password to use 4.1 hashing. Ask each user who now has an emptyplugin to connect to the server and execute these statements:

SET old_passwords = 0;SET PASSWORD = PASSWORD('user-chosen-password');

Note

The client-side --secure-auth option is enabled by default, so remind users todisable it or they will be unable to connect:

shell> mysql -u user_name -p --secure-auth=0

After an affected user has executed those statements, you can set the corresponding account plugin tomysql_native_password to make the plugin explicit. Or you can periodically run these statements tofind and fix any accounts for which affected users have reset their password:

UPDATE mysql.user SET plugin = 'mysql_native_password'WHERE plugin = '' AND (Password = '' OR LENGTH(Password) = 41);FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

When there are no more accounts with an empty plugin, this query returns an empty result:

SELECT User, Host, Password FROM mysql.user

Migrating Away from Pre-4.1 Password Hashing and the mysql_old_password Plugin

107

WHERE plugin = '' AND LENGTH(Password) = 16;

At that point, all accounts have been migrated away from pre-4.1 password hashing and the server nolonger need be run with secure_auth=0.

Method 2.

Characteristics of this method:

• It assigns each affected account a new password, so you must tell each such user the new passwordand ask the user to choose a new one. Communication of passwords to users is outside the scope ofMySQL, but should be done carefully.

• It does not require server or clients to be run with secure_auth=0.

• It works for any version of MySQL 5.5 or later (and for 5.7 has an easier variant).

With this method, you update each account separately due to the need to set passwords individually.Choose a different password for each account.

Suppose that 'user1'@'localhost' is one of the accounts to be upgraded. Modify it as follows:

• In MySQL 5.7, ALTER USER provides the capability of modifying both the account password and itsauthentication plugin, so you need not modify the mysql.user system table directly:

ALTER USER 'user1'@'localhost'IDENTIFIED WITH mysql_native_password BY 'DBA-chosen-password';

To also expire the account password, use this statement instead:

ALTER USER 'user1'@'localhost'IDENTIFIED WITH mysql_native_password BY 'DBA-chosen-password'PASSWORD EXPIRE;

Then tell the user the new password and ask the user to connect to the server with that password andexecute this statement to choose a new password:

ALTER USER USER() IDENTIFIED BY 'user-chosen-password';

• Before MySQL 5.7, you must modify the mysql.user system table directly using these statements:

SET old_passwords = 0;UPDATE mysql.user SET plugin = 'mysql_native_password',Password = PASSWORD('DBA-chosen-password')WHERE (User, Host) = ('user1', 'localhost');FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

To also expire the account password, use these statements instead:

SET old_passwords = 0;UPDATE mysql.user SET plugin = 'mysql_native_password',Password = PASSWORD('DBA-chosen-password'), password_expired = 'Y'WHERE (User, Host) = ('user1', 'localhost');FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

Then tell the user the new password and ask the user to connect to the server with that password andexecute these statements to choose a new password:

SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication

108

SET old_passwords = 0;SET PASSWORD = PASSWORD('user-chosen-password');

Repeat for each account to be upgraded.

7.1.4 SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication

MySQL provides an authentication plugin that implements SHA-256 hashing for user account passwords.

Important

To connect to the server using an account that authenticates with thesha256_password plugin, you must use either a TLS connection or anunencrypted connection that supports password exchange using an RSA key pair,as described later in this section. Either way, use of the sha256_password pluginrequires that MySQL be built with SSL capabilities. See Chapter 6, Using EncryptedConnections.

The following table shows the plugin names on the server and client sides.

Table 7.3 Plugin and Library Names for SHA-256 Authentication

Plugin or File Plugin or File Name

Server-side plugin sha256_password

Client-side plugin sha256_password

Library file None (plugins are built in)

The following sections provide installation and usage information specific to SHA-256 pluggableauthentication:

• Installing SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication

• Using SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication

For general information about pluggable authentication in MySQL, see Section 5.7, “PluggableAuthentication”.

Installing SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication

The sha256_password plugin exists in server and client forms:

• The server-side plugin is built into the server, need not be loaded explicitly, and cannot be disabled byunloading it.

• The client-side plugin is built into the libmysqlclient client library and is available to any programlinked against libmysqlclient.

Using SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication

To set up an account that uses the sha256_password plugin for SHA-256 password hashing, use thefollowing procedure.

1. Create the account and specify that it authenticates using the sha256_password plugin:

SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication

109

CREATE USER 'sha256user'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED WITH sha256_password;

2. Set the old_passwords system variable to 2 to cause the PASSWORD() function to use SHA-256hashing of password strings, then set the account password:

SET old_passwords = 2;SET PASSWORD FOR 'sha256user'@'localhost' = PASSWORD('password');

The server assigns the sha256_password plugin to the account and uses it to encrypt the passwordusing SHA-256, storing those values in the plugin and authentication_string columns of themysql.user system table.

The preceding instructions do not assume that sha256_password is the default authentication plugin. Ifsha256_password is the default authentication plugin, a simpler CREATE USER syntax can be used.

To start the server with the default authentication plugin set to sha256_password, put these lines in theserver option file:

[mysqld]default-authentication-plugin=sha256_password

That causes the sha256_password plugin to be used by default for new accounts. As a result, it ispossible to create the account and set its password without naming the plugin explicitly:

CREATE USER 'sha256user'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';

Another consequence of setting default-authentication-plugin to sha256_password is that, touse some other plugin for account creation, you must specify that plugin explicitly in the CREATE USERstatement, then set old_passwords appropriately for the plugin before using SET PASSWORD to set theaccount password. For example, to use the mysql_native_password plugin, do this:

CREATE USER 'nativeuser'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED WITH mysql_native_password;SET old_passwords = 0;SET PASSWORD FOR 'nativeuser'@'localhost' = PASSWORD('N@tivePa33');

To set or change the password for any account that authenticates using the sha256_password plugin, besure that the value of old_passwords is 2 before using SET PASSWORD. If old_passwords has a valueother than 2, an error occurs for attempts to set the password:

mysql> SET old_passwords = 0;mysql> SET PASSWORD FOR 'sha256user'@'localhost' = PASSWORD('password');ERROR 1827 (HY000): The password hash doesn't have the expected format.Check if the correct password algorithm is being used with thePASSWORD() function.

For more information about old_passwords and PASSWORD(), see Server System Variables, andEncryption and Compression Functions.

MySQL can be compiled using either OpenSSL or yaSSL (see Section 6.4, “SSL Library-DependentCapabilities”). The sha256_password plugin works with distributions compiled using either package,but if MySQL is compiled using OpenSSL, sha256_password supports the use of RSA encryption. (Toenable this capability, you must follow the RSA configuration procedure given later in this section.) RSAsupport has these characteristics:

SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication

110

• On the server side, two system variables name the RSA private and public key-pair files:sha256_password_private_key_path and sha256_password_public_key_path. Thedatabase administrator must set these variables at server startup if the key files to use have names thatdiffer from the system variable default values.

• The Rsa_public_key status variable displays the RSA public key value used by thesha256_password authentication plugin.

• Clients that have the RSA public key can perform RSA key pair-based password exchange with theserver during the connection process, as described later.

• For connections by accounts that authenticate with sha256_password and RSA public key pair-basedpassword exchange, the server sends the RSA public key to the client as needed. However, if a copy ofthe public key is available on the client host, the client can use it to save a round trip in the client/serverprotocol:

• For these command-line clients, use the --server-public-key-path option to specify the RSApublic key file: mysql, mysqltest.

• For programs that use the C API, call mysql_options() to specify the RSA public key file bypassing the MYSQL_SERVER_PUBLIC_KEY option and the name of the file.

• For replication slaves, RSA key pair-based password exchange cannot be used to connect to masterservers for accounts that authenticate with the sha256_password plugin. For such accounts, onlysecure connections can be used.

For clients that use the sha256_password plugin, passwords are never exposed as cleartext whenconnecting to the server. How password transmission occurs depends on whether a secure connection orRSA encryption is used:

• If the connection is secure, an RSA key pair is unnecessary and is not used. This applies to encryptedconnections that use TLS. The password is sent as cleartext but cannot be snooped because theconnection is secure.

• If the connection is not secure, and an RSA key pair is available, the connection remains unencrypted.This applies to unencrypted connections without TLS. RSA is used only for password exchange betweenclient and server, to prevent password snooping. When the server receives the encrypted password, itdecrypts it. A scramble is used in the encryption to prevent repeat attacks.

• If a secure connection is not used and RSA encryption is not available, the connection attempt failsbecause the password cannot be sent without being exposed as cleartext.

As mentioned previously, RSA password encryption is available only if MySQL was compiled usingOpenSSL. The implication for MySQL distributions compiled using yaSSL is that, to use SHA-256passwords, clients must use an encrypted connection to access the server. See Section 6.1, “ConfiguringMySQL to Use Encrypted Connections”.

Note

To use RSA password encryption with sha256_password, the client and serverboth must be compiled using OpenSSL, not just one of them.

Assuming that MySQL has been compiled using OpenSSL, use the following procedure to enable use ofan RSA key pair for password exchange during the client connection process:

1. Create the RSA private and public key-pair files using the instructions in Section 6.3, “Creating SSL andRSA Certificates and Keys”.

SHA-256 Pluggable Authentication

111

2. If the private and public key files are located in the data directory and are named private_key.pemand public_key.pem (the default values of the sha256_password_private_key_path andsha256_password_public_key_path system variables), the server uses them automatically atstartup.

Otherwise, to name the key files explicitly, set the system variables to the key file names in the serveroption file. If the files are located in the server data directory, you need not specify their full path names:

[mysqld]sha256_password_private_key_path=myprivkey.pemsha256_password_public_key_path=mypubkey.pem

If the key files are not located in the data directory, or to make their locations explicit in the systemvariable values, use full path names:

[mysqld]sha256_password_private_key_path=/usr/local/mysql/myprivkey.pemsha256_password_public_key_path=/usr/local/mysql/mypubkey.pem

3. Restart the server, then connect to it and check the Rsa_public_key status variable value. The valuewill differ from that shown here, but should be nonempty:

mysql> SHOW STATUS LIKE 'Rsa_public_key'\G*************************** 1. row ***************************Variable_name: Rsa_public_key Value: -----BEGIN PUBLIC KEY-----MIGfMA0GCSqGSIb3DQEBAQUAA4GNADCBiQKBgQDO9nRUDd+KvSZgY7cNBZMNpwX6MvE1PbJFXO7u18nJ9lwc99Du/E7lw6CVXw7VKrXPeHbVQUzGyUNkf45Nz/ckaaJaaLgJOBCIDmNVnyU54OT/1lcs2xiyfaDMe8fCJ64ZwTnKbY2gkt1IMjUAB5Ogd5kJg8aV7EtKwyhHb0c30QIDAQAB-----END PUBLIC KEY-----

If the value is empty, the server found some problem with the key files. Check the error log fordiagnostic information.

After the server has been configured with the RSA key files, accounts that authenticate with thesha256_password plugin have the option of using those key files to connect to the server. As mentionedpreviously, such accounts can use either a secure connection (in which case RSA is not used) or anunencrypted connection that performs password exchange using RSA. Suppose that an unencryptedconnection is used. For example:

shell> mysql --ssl-mode=DISABLED -u sha256user -pEnter password: password

For this connection attempt by sha256user, the server determines that sha256_password is theappropriate authentication plugin and invokes it (because that was the plugin specified at CREATEUSER time). The plugin finds that the connection is not encrypted and thus requires the password to betransmitted using RSA encryption. In this case, the plugin sends the RSA public key to the client, whichuses it to encrypt the password and returns the result to the server. The plugin uses the RSA private keyon the server side to decrypt the password and accepts or rejects the connection based on whether thepassword is correct.

The server sends the RSA public key to the client as needed. However, if the client has a file containinga local copy of the RSA public key required by the server, it can specify the file using the --server-public-key-path option:

Client-Side Cleartext Pluggable Authentication

112

shell> mysql --ssl-mode=DISABLED -u sha256user -p --server-public-key-path=file_nameEnter password: password

The public key value in the file named by the --server-public-key-path option should be the sameas the key value in the server-side file named by the sha256_password_public_key_path systemvariable. If the key file contains a valid public key value but the value is incorrect, an access-denied erroroccurs. If the key file does not contain a valid public key, the client program cannot use it. In this case,the sha256_password plugin sends the public key to the client as if no --server-public-key-pathoption had been specified.

Client users can obtain the RSA public key two ways:

• The database administrator can provide a copy of the public key file.

• A client user who can connect to the server some other way can use a SHOW STATUS LIKE'Rsa_public_key' statement and save the returned key value in a file.

7.1.5 Client-Side Cleartext Pluggable Authentication

A client-side authentication plugin is available that sends the password to the server without hashing orencryption. This plugin is built into the MySQL client library.

The following table shows the plugin name.

Table 7.4 Plugin and Library Names for Cleartext Authentication

Plugin or File Plugin or File Name

Server-side plugin None, see discussion

Client-side plugin mysql_clear_password

Library file None (plugin is built in)

With many MySQL authentication methods, the client performs hashing or encryption of the passwordbefore sending it to the server. This enables the client to avoid sending the password in clear text.

Hashing or encryption cannot be done for authentication schemes that require the server to receive thepassword as entered on the client side. In such cases, the client-side mysql_clear_password plugin isused to send the password to the server in clear text. There is no corresponding server-side plugin. Rather,the client-side plugin can be used by any server-side plugin that needs a cleartext password. (The PAMauthentication plugin is one such; see Section 7.1.6, “PAM Pluggable Authentication”.)

The following discussion provides usage information specific to clear text pluggable authentication. Forgeneral information about pluggable authentication in MySQL, see Section 5.7, “Pluggable Authentication”.

Note

Sending passwords in clear text may be a security problem in some configurations.To avoid problems if there is any possibility that the password would be intercepted,clients should connect to MySQL Server using a method that protects thepassword. Possibilities include SSL (see Chapter 6, Using Encrypted Connections),IPsec, or a private network.

To make inadvertent use of the mysql_clear_password plugin less likely, MySQL clients must explicitlyenable it. This can be done in several ways:

• Set the LIBMYSQL_ENABLE_CLEARTEXT_PLUGIN environment variable to a value that begins with 1, Y,or y. This enables the plugin for all client connections.

PAM Pluggable Authentication

113

• The mysql, mysqladmin, and mysqlslap client programs (also mysqlcheck, mysqldump, andmysqlshow for MySQL 5.6.28 and later) support an --enable-cleartext-plugin option thatenables the plugin on a per-invocation basis.

• The mysql_options() C API function supports a MYSQL_ENABLE_CLEARTEXT_PLUGIN option thatenables the plugin on a per-connection basis. Also, any program that uses libmysqlclient and readsoption files can enable the plugin by including an enable-cleartext-plugin option in an optiongroup read by the client library.

7.1.6 PAM Pluggable Authentication

Note

PAM pluggable authentication is an extension included in MySQL EnterpriseEdition, a commercial product. To learn more about commercial products, seehttps://www.mysql.com/products/.

MySQL Enterprise Edition supports an authentication method that enables MySQL Server to use PAM(Pluggable Authentication Modules) to authenticate MySQL users. PAM enables a system to use astandard interface to access various kinds of authentication methods, such as Unix passwords or an LDAPdirectory.

PAM pluggable authentication provides these capabilities:

• External authentication: PAM authentication enables MySQL Server to accept connections from usersdefined outside the MySQL grant tables and that authenticate using methods supported by PAM.

• Proxy user support: PAM authentication can return to MySQL a user name different from the operatingsystem user, based on the groups the external user is in and the authentication string provided.This means that the plugin can return the MySQL user that defines the privileges the external PAM-authenticated user should have. For example, a user named joe can connect and have the privileges ofthe user named developer.

PAM pluggable authentication has been tested on Linux and macOS.

The PAM plugin uses the information passed to it by MySQL Server (such as user name, host name,password, and authentication string), plus whatever method is available for PAM lookup. The pluginchecks the user credentials against PAM and returns 'Authentication succeeded, Username isuser_name' or 'Authentication failed'.

The following table shows the plugin and library file names. The file name suffix might differ on yoursystem. The file must be located in the directory named by the plugin_dir system variable. Forinstallation information, see Installing PAM Pluggable Authentication.

Table 7.5 Plugin and Library Names for PAM Authentication

Plugin or File Plugin or File Name

Server-side plugin authentication_pam

Client-side plugin mysql_clear_password

Library file authentication_pam.so

The client-side clear-text plugin that communicates with the server-side PAM plugin is built into thelibmysqlclient client library and is included in all distributions, including community distributions.

PAM Pluggable Authentication

114

Inclusion of the client-side clear-text plugin in all MySQL distributions enables clients from any distributionto connect to a server that has the server-side plugin loaded.

The following sections provide installation and usage information specific to PAM pluggable authentication:

• Installing PAM Pluggable Authentication

• Uninstalling PAM Pluggable Authentication

• Using PAM Pluggable Authentication

• Unix Password Authentication without Proxy Users

• LDAP Authentication without Proxy Users

• Unix Password Authentication with Proxy Users and Group Mapping

• PAM Pluggable Authentication Debugging

For general information about pluggable authentication in MySQL, see Section 5.7, “PluggableAuthentication”. For information about the mysql_clear_password plugin, see Section 7.1.5, “Client-Side Cleartext Pluggable Authentication”. For proxy user information, see Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”.

Installing PAM Pluggable Authentication

This section describes how to install the PAM authentication plugin. For general information about installingplugins, see Installing and Uninstalling Plugins.

To be usable by the server, the plugin library file must be located in the MySQL plugin directory (thedirectory named by the plugin_dir system variable). If necessary, configure the plugin directory locationby setting the value of plugin_dir at server startup.

The plugin library file base name is authentication_pam. The file name suffix differs per platform (forexample, .so for Unix and Unix-like systems, .dll for Windows).

To load the plugin at server startup, use the --plugin-load-add option to name the library file thatcontains it. With this plugin-loading method, the option must be given each time the server starts. Forexample, put these lines in the server my.cnf file (adjust the .so suffix for your platform as necessary):

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=authentication_pam.so

After modifying my.cnf, restart the server to cause the new settings to take effect.

Alternatively, to register the plugin at runtime, use this statement (adjust the .so suffix as necessary):

INSTALL PLUGIN authentication_pam SONAME 'authentication_pam.so';

INSTALL PLUGIN loads the plugin immediately, and also registers it in the mysql.plugins system tableto cause the server to load it for each subsequent normal startup.

To verify plugin installation, examine the INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS table or use the SHOWPLUGINS statement (see Obtaining Server Plugin Information). For example:

PAM Pluggable Authentication

115

mysql> SELECT PLUGIN_NAME, PLUGIN_STATUS FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS WHERE PLUGIN_NAME LIKE '%pam%';+--------------------+---------------+| PLUGIN_NAME | PLUGIN_STATUS |+--------------------+---------------+| authentication_pam | ACTIVE |+--------------------+---------------+

If the plugin fails to initialize, check the server error log for diagnostic messages.

To associate MySQL accounts with the PAM plugin, see Using PAM Pluggable Authentication.

Uninstalling PAM Pluggable Authentication

The method used to uninstall the PAM authentication plugin depends on how you installed it:

• If you installed the plugin at server startup using a --plugin-load-add option, restart the serverwithout the option.

• If you installed the plugin at runtime using INSTALL PLUGIN, it remains installed across server restarts.To uninstall it, use UNINSTALL PLUGIN:

UNINSTALL PLUGIN authentication_pam;

Using PAM Pluggable Authentication

This section describes how to use the PAM authentication plugin to connect from MySQL client programsto the server. It is assumed that the server is running with the server-side plugin enabled, as described inInstalling PAM Pluggable Authentication.

To refer to the PAM authentication plugin in the IDENTIFIED WITH clause of a CREATE USER or GRANTstatement, use the name authentication_pam. For example:

CREATE USER user IDENTIFIED WITH authentication_pam AS 'authentication_string';

The authentication string specifies the following types of information:

• PAM supports the notion of “service name,” which is a name that the system administrator can use toconfigure the authentication method for a particular application. There can be several such “applications”associated with a single database server instance, so the choice of service name is left to the SQLapplication developer. When you define an account that should authenticate using PAM, specify theservice name in the authentication string.

• PAM provides a way for a PAM module to return to the server a MySQL user name other than the loginname supplied at login time. Use the authentication string to control the mapping between login nameand MySQL user name. If you want to take advantage of proxy user capabilities, the authentication stringmust include this kind of mapping.

For example, if the service name is mysql and users in the root and users PAM groups should bemapped to the developer and data_entry MySQL users, respectively, use a statement like this:

CREATE USER user IDENTIFIED WITH authentication_pam

PAM Pluggable Authentication

116

AS 'mysql, root=developer, users=data_entry';

Authentication string syntax for the PAM authentication plugin follows these rules:

• The string consists of a PAM service name, optionally followed by a group mapping list consisting of oneor more keyword/value pairs each specifying a group name and a MySQL user name:

pam_service_name[,group_name=mysql_user_name]...

The plugin parses the authentication string on each login check. To minimize overhead, keep the stringas short as possible.

• Each group_name=mysql_user_name pair must be preceded by a comma.

• Leading and trailing spaces not inside double quotation marks are ignored.

• Unquoted pam_service_name, group_name, and mysql_user_name values can contain anythingexcept equal sign, comma, or space.

• If a pam_service_name, group_name, or mysql_user_name value is quoted with double quotationmarks, everything between the quotation marks is part of the value. This is necessary, for example, if thevalue contains space characters. All characters are legal except double quotation mark and backslash(\). To include either character, escape it with a backslash.

If the plugin successfully authenticates a login name, it looks for a group mapping list in the authenticationstring and, if present, uses it to return a different user name to the MySQL server based on the groups theexternal user is a member of:

• If the authentication string contains no group mapping list, the plugin returns the login name.

• If the authentication string does contain a group mapping list, the plugin examines eachgroup_name=mysql_user_name pair in the list from left to right and tries to find a match for thegroup_name value in a non-MySQL directory of the groups assigned to the authenticated user andreturns mysql_user_name for the first match it finds. If the plugin finds no match for any group, itreturns the login name. If the plugin is not capable of looking up a group in a directory, it ignores thegroup mapping list and returns the login name.

The following sections describe how to set up several authentication scenarios that use the PAMauthentication plugin:

• No proxy users. This uses PAM only to check login names and passwords. Every external userpermitted to connect to MySQL Server should have a matching MySQL account that is defined to useexternal PAM authentication. (For a MySQL account of user_name@host_name to match the externaluser, user_name must be the login name and host_name must match the host from which the clientconnects.) Authentication can be performed by various PAM-supported methods. The discussion showshow to use traditional Unix passwords and LDAP.

PAM authentication, when not done through proxy users or groups, requires the MySQL account tohave the same user name as the Unix account. MySQL user names are limited to 16 characters (seeSection 4.2, “Grant Tables”), which limits PAM nonproxy authentication to Unix accounts with names ofat most 16 characters.

• Proxy login only and group mapping. For this scenario, create one or a few MySQL accounts thatdefine different sets of privileges. (Ideally, nobody should connect using those accounts directly.) Thendefine a default user authenticating through PAM that uses some mapping scheme (usually by theexternal groups the users are in) to map all the external logins to the few MySQL accounts holding theprivilege sets. Any user that logs in is mapped to one of the MySQL accounts and uses its privileges.

PAM Pluggable Authentication

117

The discussion shows how to set this up using Unix passwords, but other PAM methods such as LDAPcould be used instead.

Variations on these scenarios are possible. For example, you can permit some users to log in directly(without proxying) but require others to connect through proxy users.

The examples make the following assumptions. You might need to make some adjustments if your systemis set up differently.

• The PAM configuration directory is /etc/pam.d.

• The PAM service name is mysql, which means that you must set up a PAM file named mysql in thePAM configuration directory (creating the file if it does not exist). If you use a service name different frommysql, the file name will differ and you must use a different name in the AS 'auth_string' clause ofCREATE USER and GRANT statements.

• The examples use a login name of antonio and password of verysecret. Change these tocorrespond to the users you want to authenticate.

The PAM authentication plugin checks at initialization time whether the AUTHENTICATION_PAM_LOGenvironment value is set in the server's startup environment. If so, the plugin enables logging of diagnosticmessages to the standard output. Depending on how your server is started, the message might appear onthe console or in the error log. These messages can be helpful for debugging PAM-related problems thatoccur when the plugin performs authentication. For more information, see PAM Pluggable AuthenticationDebugging.

Unix Password Authentication without Proxy Users

This authentication scenario uses PAM only to check Unix user login names and passwords. Everyexternal user permitted to connect to MySQL Server should have a matching MySQL account that isdefined to use external PAM authentication.

1. Verify that Unix authentication in PAM permits you to log in as antonio with password verysecret.

2. Set up PAM to authenticate the mysql service by creating a file named /etc/pam.d/mysql. The filecontents are system dependent, so check existing login-related files in the /etc/pam.d directory tosee what they look like. On Linux, the mysql file might look like this:

#%PAM-1.0auth include password-authaccount include password-auth

For Gentoo Linux, use system-login rather than password-auth. For macOS, use login ratherthan password-auth.

The PAM file format might differ on some systems. For example, on Ubuntu and other Debian-basedsystems, use these file contents instead:

@include common-auth@include common-account@include common-session-noninteractive

3. Create a MySQL account with the same user name as the Unix login name and define it to authenticateusing the PAM plugin:

CREATE USER 'antonio'@'localhost'

PAM Pluggable Authentication

118

IDENTIFIED WITH authentication_pam AS 'mysql';GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON mydb.* TO 'antonio'@'localhost';

4. Connect to the MySQL server using the mysql command-line client. For example:

mysql --user=antonio --password --enable-cleartext-plugin mydbEnter password: verysecret

The server should permit the connection and the following query should return output as shown:

mysql> SELECT USER(), CURRENT_USER(), @@proxy_user;+-------------------+-------------------+--------------+| USER() | CURRENT_USER() | @@proxy_user |+-------------------+-------------------+--------------+| antonio@localhost | antonio@localhost | NULL |+-------------------+-------------------+--------------+

This demonstrates that antonio uses the privileges granted to the antonio MySQL account, and thatno proxying has occurred.

Note

The client-side mysql_clear_password plugin with which the server-side PAMplugin communicates sends the password to the MySQL server in clear text so itcan be passed to PAM. This is necessary to use the server-side PAM library, butmay be a security problem in some configurations. These measures minimize therisk:

• To make inadvertent use of the mysql_clear_password plugin less likely,MySQL clients must explicitly enable it; for example, with the --enable-cleartext-plugin option.

• To avoid password exposure with the mysql_clear_password plugin enabled,MySQL clients should connect to the MySQL server using a secure connection.

For additinal information, see Section 7.1.5, “Client-Side Cleartext PluggableAuthentication”, and Section 6.1, “Configuring MySQL to Use EncryptedConnections”.

Note

On some systems, Unix authentication uses /etc/shadow, a file that typically hasrestricted access permissions. This can cause MySQL PAM-based authenticationto fail. Unfortunately, the PAM implementation does not permit distinguishing“password could not be checked” (due, for example, to inability to read /etc/shadow) from “password does not match.” If your system uses /etc/shadow, youmay be able enable access to it by MySQL using this method (assuming that theMySQL server is run from the mysql system account):

1. Create a shadow group in /etc/group.

2. Add the mysql user to the shadow group in /etc/group.

3. Assign /etc/group to the shadow group and enable the group readpermission:

PAM Pluggable Authentication

119

chgrp shadow /etc/shadowchmod g+r /etc/shadow

4. Restart the MySQL server.

LDAP Authentication without Proxy Users

This authentication scenario uses PAM only to check LDAP user login names and passwords. Everyexternal user permitted to connect to MySQL Server should have a matching MySQL account that isdefined to use external PAM authentication.

1. Verify that LDAP authentication in PAM permits you to log in as antonio with password verysecret.

2. Set up PAM to authenticate the mysql service through LDAP by creating a file named /etc/pam.d/mysql. The file contents are system dependent, so check existing login-related files in the /etc/pam.d directory to see what they look like. On Linux, the mysql file might look like this:

#%PAM-1.0auth required pam_ldap.soaccount required pam_ldap.so

If PAM object files have a suffix different from .so on your system, substitute the correct suffix.

The PAM file format might differ on some systems.

3. MySQL account creation and connecting to the server is the same as described in Unix PasswordAuthentication without Proxy Users.

Unix Password Authentication with Proxy Users and Group Mapping

The authentication scheme described here uses proxying and group mapping to map connecting MySQLusers who authenticate using PAM onto other MySQL accounts that define different sets of privileges.Users do not connect directly through the accounts that define the privileges. Instead, they connect througha default proxy user authenticated using PAM, such that all the external logins are mapped to the MySQLaccounts that hold the privileges. Any user who connects is mapped to one of those MySQL accounts, theprivileges for which determine the database operations permitted to the external user.

The procedure shown here uses Unix password authentication. To use LDAP instead, see the early stepsof LDAP Authentication without Proxy Users.

Note

For information regarding possible problems related to /etc/shadow, see UnixPassword Authentication without Proxy Users.

1. Verify that Unix authentication in PAM permits you to log in as antonio with password verysecretand that antonio is a member of the root or users group.

2. Set up PAM to authenticate the mysql service. Put the following in /etc/pam.d/mysql:

#%PAM-1.0auth include password-authaccount include password-auth

For Gentoo Linux, use system-login rather than password-auth. For macOS, use login ratherthan password-auth.

PAM Pluggable Authentication

120

The PAM file format might differ on some systems. For example, on Ubuntu and other Debian-basedsystems, use these file contents instead:

@include common-auth@include common-account@include common-session-noninteractive

3. Create a default proxy user (''@'') that maps the external PAM users to the proxied accounts. It mapsexternal users from the root PAM group to the developer MySQL account and the external usersfrom the users PAM group to the data_entry MySQL account:

CREATE USER ''@'' IDENTIFIED WITH authentication_pam AS 'mysql, root=developer, users=data_entry';

The mapping list following the service name is required when you set up proxy users. Otherwise, theplugin cannot tell how to map the name of PAM groups to the proper proxied user name.

Note

If your MySQL installation has anonymous users, they might conflict with thedefault proxy user. For more information about this problem, and ways ofdealing with it, see Default Proxy User and Anonymous User Conflicts.

4. Create the proxied accounts that will be used to access the databases:

CREATE USER 'developer'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'very secret password';GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON mydevdb.* TO 'developer'@'localhost';CREATE USER 'data_entry'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'very secret password';GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON mydb.* TO 'data_entry'@'localhost';

If you do not let anyone know the passwords for these accounts, other users cannot use them toconnect directly to the MySQL server. Instead, it is expected that users will authenticate using PAM andthat they will use the developer or data_entry account by proxy based on their PAM group.

5. Grant the PROXY privilege to the proxy account for each proxied account:

GRANT PROXY ON 'developer'@'localhost' TO ''@'';GRANT PROXY ON 'data_entry'@'localhost' TO ''@'';

6. Connect to the MySQL server using the mysql command-line client. For example:

mysql --user=antonio --password --enable-cleartext-plugin mydbEnter password: verysecret

The server authenticates the connection using the ''@'' account. The privileges antonio will havedepends on what PAM groups he is a member of. If antonio is a member of the root PAM group,the PAM plugin maps root to the developer MySQL user name and returns that name to the server.The server verifies that ''@'' has the PROXY privilege for developer and permits the connection. thefollowing query should return output as shown:

mysql> SELECT USER(), CURRENT_USER(), @@proxy_user;+-------------------+---------------------+--------------+| USER() | CURRENT_USER() | @@proxy_user |+-------------------+---------------------+--------------+

Windows Pluggable Authentication

121

| antonio@localhost | developer@localhost | ''@'' |+-------------------+---------------------+--------------+

This demonstrates that antonio uses the privileges granted to the developer MySQL account, andthat proxying occurred through the default proxy user account.

If antonio is not a member of the root PAM group but is a member of the users group, a similarprocess occurs, but the plugin maps user group membership to the data_entry MySQL user nameand returns that name to the server. In this case, antonio uses the privileges of the data_entryMySQL account:

mysql> SELECT USER(), CURRENT_USER(), @@proxy_user;+-------------------+----------------------+--------------+| USER() | CURRENT_USER() | @@proxy_user |+-------------------+----------------------+--------------+| antonio@localhost | data_entry@localhost | ''@'' |+-------------------+----------------------+--------------+

Note

The client-side mysql_clear_password plugin with which the server-side PAMplugin communicates sends the password to the MySQL server in clear text so itcan be passed to PAM. This is necessary to use the server-side PAM library, butmay be a security problem in some configurations. These measures minimize therisk:

• To make inadvertent use of the mysql_clear_password plugin less likely,MySQL clients must explicitly enable it; for example, with the --enable-cleartext-plugin option.

• To avoid password exposure with the mysql_clear_password plugin enabled,MySQL clients should connect to the MySQL server using a secure connection.

For additinal information, see Section 7.1.5, “Client-Side Cleartext PluggableAuthentication”, and Section 6.1, “Configuring MySQL to Use EncryptedConnections”.

PAM Pluggable Authentication Debugging

The PAM authentication plugin checks at initialization time whether the AUTHENTICATION_PAM_LOGenvironment value is set (the value does not matter). If so, the plugin enables logging of diagnosticmessages to the standard output. These messages may be helpful for debugging PAM-related problemsthat occur when the plugin performs authentication.

Some messages include reference to PAM plugin source files and line numbers, which enables pluginactions to be tied more closely to the location in the code where they occur.

7.1.7 Windows Pluggable Authentication

Note

Windows pluggable authentication is an extension included in MySQL EnterpriseEdition, a commercial product. To learn more about commercial products, seehttps://www.mysql.com/products/.

MySQL Enterprise Edition for Windows supports an authentication method that performs externalauthentication on Windows, enabling MySQL Server to use native Windows services to authenticate client

Windows Pluggable Authentication

122

connections. Users who have logged in to Windows can connect from MySQL client programs to the serverbased on the information in their environment without specifying an additional password.

The client and server exchange data packets in the authentication handshake. As a result of thisexchange, the server creates a security context object that represents the identity of the client in theWindows OS. This identity includes the name of the client account. Windows pluggable authenticationuses the identity of the client to check whether it is a given account or a member of a group. By default,negotiation uses Kerberos to authenticate, then NTLM if Kerberos is unavailable.

Windows pluggable authentication provides these capabilities:

• External authentication: Windows authentication enables MySQL Server to accept connections fromusers defined outside the MySQL grant tables who have logged in to Windows.

• Proxy user support: Windows authentication can return to MySQL a user name different from the clientuser. This means that the plugin can return the MySQL user that defines the privileges the externalWindows-authenticated user should have. For example, a user named joe can connect and have theprivileges of the user named developer.

The following table shows the plugin and library file names. The file must be located in the directory namedby the plugin_dir system variable.

Table 7.6 Plugin and Library Names for Windows Authentication

Plugin or File Plugin or File Name

Server-side plugin authentication_windows

Client-side plugin authentication_windows_client

Library file authentication_windows.dll

The library file includes only the server-side plugin. The client-side plugin is built into thelibmysqlclient client library.

The server-side Windows authentication plugin is included only in MySQL Enterprise Edition. It is notincluded in MySQL community distributions. The client-side plugin is included in all distributions, includingcommunity distributions. This permits clients from any distribution to connect to a server that has theserver-side plugin loaded.

The Windows authentication plugin is supported on any version of Windows supported by MySQL 5.6 (seehttps://www.mysql.com/support/supportedplatforms/database.html).

The following sections provide installation and usage information specific to Windows pluggableauthentication:

• Installing Windows Pluggable Authentication

• Uninstalling Windows Pluggable Authentication

• Using Windows Pluggable Authentication

For general information about pluggable authentication in MySQL, see Section 5.7, “PluggableAuthentication”. For proxy user information, see Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”.

Installing Windows Pluggable Authentication

This section describes how to install the Windows authentication plugin. For general information aboutinstalling plugins, see Installing and Uninstalling Plugins.

Windows Pluggable Authentication

123

To be usable by the server, the plugin library file must be located in the MySQL plugin directory (thedirectory named by the plugin_dir system variable). If necessary, configure the plugin directory locationby setting the value of plugin_dir at server startup.

To load the plugin at server startup, use the --plugin-load-add option to name the library file thatcontains it. With this plugin-loading method, the option must be given each time the server starts. Forexample, put these lines in the server my.cnf file:

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=authentication_windows.dll

After modifying my.cnf, restart the server to cause the new settings to take effect.

Alternatively, to register the plugin at runtime, use this statement:

INSTALL PLUGIN authentication_windows SONAME 'authentication_windows.dll';

INSTALL PLUGIN loads the plugin immediately, and also registers it in the mysql.plugins system tableto cause the server to load it for each subsequent normal startup.

To verify plugin installation, examine the INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS table or use the SHOWPLUGINS statement (see Obtaining Server Plugin Information). For example:

mysql> SELECT PLUGIN_NAME, PLUGIN_STATUS FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS WHERE PLUGIN_NAME LIKE '%windows%';+------------------------+---------------+| PLUGIN_NAME | PLUGIN_STATUS |+------------------------+---------------+| authentication_windows | ACTIVE |+------------------------+---------------+

If the plugin fails to initialize, check the server error log for diagnostic messages.

To associate MySQL accounts with the Windows authentication plugin, see Using Windows PluggableAuthentication.

Uninstalling Windows Pluggable Authentication

The method used to uninstall the Windows authentication plugin depends on how you installed it:

• If you installed the plugin at server startup using a --plugin-load-add option, restart the serverwithout the option.

• If you installed the plugin at runtime using INSTALL PLUGIN, it remains installed across server restarts.To uninstall it, use UNINSTALL PLUGIN:

UNINSTALL PLUGIN authentication_windows;

In addition, remove any startup options that set Windows plugin-related system variables.

Using Windows Pluggable Authentication

The Windows authentication plugin supports the use of MySQL accounts such that users who have loggedin to Windows can connect to the MySQL server without having to specify an additional password. It is

Windows Pluggable Authentication

124

assumed that the server is running with the server-side plugin enabled, as described in Installing WindowsPluggable Authentication. Once the DBA has enabled the server-side plugin and set up accounts to use it,clients can connect using those accounts with no other setup required on their part.

To refer to the Windows authentication plugin in the IDENTIFIED WITH clause of a CREATE USER orGRANT statement, use the name authentication_windows. Suppose that the Windows users Rafaland Tasha should be permitted to connect to MySQL, as well as any users in the Administrators orPower Users group. To set this up, create a MySQL account named sql_admin that uses the Windowsplugin for authentication:

CREATE USER sql_admin IDENTIFIED WITH authentication_windows AS 'Rafal, Tasha, Administrators, "Power Users"';

The plugin name is authentication_windows. The string following the AS keyword is theauthentication string. It specifies that the Windows users named Rafal or Tasha are permittedto authenticate to the server as the MySQL user sql_admin, as are any Windows users in theAdministrators or Power Users group. The latter group name contains a space, so it must be quotedwith double quote characters.

After you create the sql_admin account, a user who has logged in to Windows can attempt to connect tothe server using that account:

C:\> mysql --user=sql_admin

No password is required here. The authentication_windows plugin uses the Windows securityAPI to check which Windows user is connecting. If that user is named Rafal or Tasha, or is in theAdministrators or Power Users group, the server grants access and the client is authenticated assql_admin and has whatever privileges are granted to the sql_admin account. Otherwise, the serverdenies access.

Authentication string syntax for the Windows authentication plugin follows these rules:

• The string consists of one or more user mappings separated by commas.

• Each user mapping associates a Windows user or group name with a MySQL user name:

win_user_or_group_name=mysql_user_namewin_user_or_group_name

For the latter syntax, with no mysql_user_name value given, the implicit value is the MySQL usercreated by the CREATE USER statement. Thus, these statements are equivalent:

CREATE USER sql_admin IDENTIFIED WITH authentication_windows AS 'Rafal, Tasha, Administrators, "Power Users"';CREATE USER sql_admin IDENTIFIED WITH authentication_windows AS 'Rafal=sql_admin, Tasha=sql_admin, Administrators=sql_admin, "Power Users"=sql_admin';

• Each backslash ('\') in a value must be doubled because backslash is the escape character in MySQLstrings.

• Leading and trailing spaces not inside double quotation marks are ignored.

Windows Pluggable Authentication

125

• Unquoted win_user_or_group_name and mysql_user_name values can contain anything exceptequal sign, comma, or space.

• If a win_user_or_group_name and or mysql_user_name value is quoted with double quotationmarks, everything between the quotation marks is part of the value. This is necessary, for example, if thename contains space characters. All characters within double quotes are legal except double quotationmark and backslash. To include either character, escape it with a backslash.

• win_user_or_group_name values use conventional syntax for Windows principals, either local or in adomain. Examples (note the doubling of backslashes):

domain\\user.\\userdomain\\group.\\groupBUILTIN\\WellKnownGroup

When invoked by the server to authenticate a client, the plugin scans the authentication string left to rightfor a user or group match to the Windows user. If there is a match, the plugin returns the correspondingmysql_user_name to the MySQL server. If there is no match, authentication fails.

A user name match takes preference over a group name match. Suppose that the Windows user namedwin_user is a member of win_group and the authentication string looks like this:

'win_group = sql_user1, win_user = sql_user2'

When win_user connects to the MySQL server, there is a match both to win_group and to win_user.The plugin authenticates the user as sql_user2 because the more-specific user match takes precedenceover the group match, even though the group is listed first in the authentication string.

Windows authentication always works for connections from the same computer on which the serveris running. For cross-computer connections, both computers must be registered with Windows ActiveDirectory. If they are in the same Windows domain, it is unnecessary to specify a domain name. It is alsopossible to permit connections from a different domain, as in this example:

CREATE USER sql_accounting IDENTIFIED WITH authentication_windows AS 'SomeDomain\\Accounting';

Here SomeDomain is the name of the other domain. The backslash character is doubled because it is theMySQL escape character within strings.

MySQL supports the concept of proxy users whereby a client can connect and authenticate to the MySQLserver using one account but while connected has the privileges of another account (see Section 5.8,“Proxy Users”). Suppose that you want Windows users to connect using a single user name but bemapped based on their Windows user and group names onto specific MySQL accounts as follows:

• The local_user and MyDomain\domain_user local and domain Windows users should map to thelocal_wlad MySQL account.

• Users in the MyDomain\Developers domain group should map to the local_dev MySQL account.

• Local machine administrators should map to the local_admin MySQL account.

To set this up, create a proxy account for Windows users to connect to, and configure this account so thatusers and groups map to the appropriate MySQL accounts (local_wlad, local_dev, local_admin).In addition, grant the MySQL accounts the privileges appropriate to the operations they need to perform.

Socket Peer-Credential Pluggable Authentication

126

The following instructions use win_proxy as the proxy account, and local_wlad, local_dev, andlocal_admin as the proxied accounts.

1. Create the proxy MySQL account:

CREATE USER win_proxy IDENTIFIED WITH authentication_windows AS 'local_user = local_wlad, MyDomain\\domain_user = local_wlad, MyDomain\\Developers = local_dev, BUILTIN\\Administrators = local_admin';

Note

If your MySQL installation has anonymous users, they might conflict with thedefault proxy user. For more information about this problem, and ways ofdealing with it, see Default Proxy User and Anonymous User Conflicts.

2. For proxying to work, the proxied accounts must exist, so create them:

CREATE USER local_wlad IDENTIFIED BY 'wlad_pass';CREATE USER local_dev IDENTIFIED BY 'dev_pass';CREATE USER local_admin IDENTIFIED BY 'admin_pass';

If you do not let anyone know the passwords for these accounts, other users cannot use them toconnect directly to the MySQL server.

You should also issue GRANT statements (not shown) that grant each proxied account the privileges itneeds.

3. The proxy account must have the PROXY privilege for each proxied account:

GRANT PROXY ON local_wlad TO win_proxy;GRANT PROXY ON local_dev TO win_proxy;GRANT PROXY ON local_admin TO win_proxy;

Now the Windows users local_user and MyDomain\domain_user can connect to the MySQL serveras win_proxy and when authenticated have the privileges of the account given in the authenticationstring—in this case, local_wlad. A user in the MyDomain\Developers group who connects aswin_proxy has the privileges of the local_dev account. A user in the BUILTIN\Administratorsgroup has the privileges of the local_admin account.

To configure authentication so that all Windows users who do not have their own MySQL account gothrough a proxy account, substitute the default proxy user (''@'') for win_proxy in the precedinginstructions. For information about the default proxy user, see Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”.

To use the Windows authentication plugin with Connector/NET connection strings in Connector/NET 6.4.4and higher, see Using the Windows Native Authentication Plugin.

Additional control over the Windows authentication plugin is provided by theauthentication_windows_use_principal_name and authentication_windows_log_levelsystem variables. See Server System Variables.

7.1.8 Socket Peer-Credential Pluggable Authentication

The server-side auth_socket authentication plugin authenticates clients that connect from the localhost through the Unix socket file. The plugin uses the SO_PEERCRED socket option to obtain information

Socket Peer-Credential Pluggable Authentication

127

about the user running the client program. Thus, the plugin can be used only on systems that support theSO_PEERCRED option, such as Linux.

The source code for this plugin can be examined as a relatively simple example demonstrating how towrite a loadable authentication plugin.

The following table shows the plugin and library file names. The file must be located in the directory namedby the plugin_dir system variable.

Table 7.7 Plugin and Library Names for Socket Peer-Credential Authentication

Plugin or File Plugin or File Name

Server-side plugin auth_socket

Client-side plugin None, see discussion

Library file auth_socket.so

The following sections provide installation and usage information specific to socket pluggableauthentication:

• Installing Socket Pluggable Authentication

• Uninstalling Socket Pluggable Authentication

• Using Socket Pluggable Authentication

For general information about pluggable authentication in MySQL, see Section 5.7, “PluggableAuthentication”.

Installing Socket Pluggable Authentication

This section describes how to install the socket authentication plugin. For general information aboutinstalling plugins, see Installing and Uninstalling Plugins.

To be usable by the server, the plugin library file must be located in the MySQL plugin directory (thedirectory named by the plugin_dir system variable). If necessary, configure the plugin directory locationby setting the value of plugin_dir at server startup.

To load the plugin at server startup, use the --plugin-load-add option to name the library file thatcontains it. With this plugin-loading method, the option must be given each time the server starts. Forexample, put these lines in the server my.cnf file:

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=auth_socket.so

After modifying my.cnf, restart the server to cause the new settings to take effect.

Alternatively, to register the plugin at runtime, use this statement:

INSTALL PLUGIN auth_socket SONAME 'auth_socket.so';

INSTALL PLUGIN loads the plugin immediately, and also registers it in the mysql.plugins system tableto cause the server to load it for each subsequent normal startup.

Test Pluggable Authentication

128

To verify plugin installation, examine the INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS table or use the SHOWPLUGINS statement (see Obtaining Server Plugin Information). For example:

mysql> SELECT PLUGIN_NAME, PLUGIN_STATUS FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS WHERE PLUGIN_NAME LIKE '%socket%';+-------------+---------------+| PLUGIN_NAME | PLUGIN_STATUS |+-------------+---------------+| auth_socket | ACTIVE |+-------------+---------------+

If the plugin fails to initialize, check the server error log for diagnostic messages.

To associate MySQL accounts with the socket plugin, see Using Socket Pluggable Authentication.

Uninstalling Socket Pluggable Authentication

The method used to uninstall the socket authentication plugin depends on how you installed it:

• If you installed the plugin at server startup using a --plugin-load-add option, restart the serverwithout the option.

• If you installed the plugin at runtime using INSTALL PLUGIN, it remains installed across server restarts.To uninstall it, use UNINSTALL PLUGIN:

UNINSTALL PLUGIN auth_socket;

Using Socket Pluggable Authentication

The socket plugin checks whether the socket user name (the operating system user name) matches theMySQL user name specified by the client program to the server, and permits the connection only if thenames match.

Suppose that a MySQL account is created for an operating system user named valerie who is to beauthenticated by the auth_socket plugin for connections from the local host through the socket file:

CREATE USER 'valerie'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED WITH auth_socket;

If a user on the local host with a login name of stefanie invokes mysql with the option --user=valerie to connect through the socket file, the server uses auth_socket to authenticate theclient. The plugin determines that the --user option value (valerie) differs from the client user's name(stephanie) and refuses the connection. If a user named valerie tries the same thing, the plugin findsthat the user name and the MySQL user name are both valerie and permits the connection. However,the plugin refuses the connection even for valerie if the connection is made using a different protocol,such as TCP/IP.

7.1.9 Test Pluggable Authentication

MySQL includes a test plugin that checks account credentials and logs success or failure to the servererror log. This is a loadable plugin (not built in) and must be installed prior to use.

The test plugin source code is separate from the server source, unlike the built-in native plugin, so it can beexamined as a relatively simple example demonstrating how to write a loadable authentication plugin.

Test Pluggable Authentication

129

Note

This plugin is intended for testing and development purposes, and is not for use inproduction environments or on servers that are exposed to public networks.

The following table shows the plugin and library file names. The file name suffix might differ on yoursystem. The file must be located in the directory named by the plugin_dir system variable.

Table 7.8 Plugin and Library Names for Test Authentication

Plugin or File Plugin or File Name

Server-side plugin test_plugin_server

Client-side plugin auth_test_plugin

Library file auth_test_plugin.so

The following sections provide installation and usage information specific to test pluggable authentication:

• Installing Test Pluggable Authentication

• Uninstalling Test Pluggable Authentication

• Using Test Pluggable Authentication

For general information about pluggable authentication in MySQL, see Section 5.7, “PluggableAuthentication”.

Installing Test Pluggable Authentication

This section describes how to install the test authentication plugin. For general information about installingplugins, see Installing and Uninstalling Plugins.

To be usable by the server, the plugin library file must be located in the MySQL plugin directory (thedirectory named by the plugin_dir system variable). If necessary, configure the plugin directory locationby setting the value of plugin_dir at server startup.

To load the plugin at server startup, use the --plugin-load-add option to name the library file thatcontains it. With this plugin-loading method, the option must be given each time the server starts. Forexample, put these lines in the server my.cnf file (adjust the .so suffix for your platform as necessary):

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=auth_test_plugin.so

After modifying my.cnf, restart the server to cause the new settings to take effect.

Alternatively, to register the plugin at runtime, use this statement (adjust the .so suffix as necessary):

INSTALL PLUGIN test_plugin_server SONAME 'auth_test_plugin.so';

INSTALL PLUGIN loads the plugin immediately, and also registers it in the mysql.plugins system tableto cause the server to load it for each subsequent normal startup.

To verify plugin installation, examine the INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS table or use the SHOWPLUGINS statement (see Obtaining Server Plugin Information). For example:

The Connection-Control Plugins

130

mysql> SELECT PLUGIN_NAME, PLUGIN_STATUS FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS WHERE PLUGIN_NAME LIKE '%test_plugin%';+--------------------+---------------+| PLUGIN_NAME | PLUGIN_STATUS |+--------------------+---------------+| test_plugin_server | ACTIVE |+--------------------+---------------+

If the plugin fails to initialize, check the server error log for diagnostic messages.

To associate MySQL accounts with the test plugin, see Using Test Pluggable Authentication.

Uninstalling Test Pluggable Authentication

The method used to uninstall the test authentication plugin depends on how you installed it:

• If you installed the plugin at server startup using a --plugin-load-add option, restart the serverwithout the option.

• If you installed the plugin at runtime using INSTALL PLUGIN, it remains installed across server restarts.To uninstall it, use UNINSTALL PLUGIN:

UNINSTALL PLUGIN test_plugin_server;

Using Test Pluggable Authentication

To use the test authentication plugin, create an account and name that plugin in the IDENTIFIED WITHclause:

CREATE USER 'testuser'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED WITH test_plugin_server;SET PASSWORD FOR 'testuser'@'localhost' = PASSWORD('testpassword');

Then provide the --user and --password options for that account when you connect to the server. Forexample:

shell> mysql --user=testuser --passwordEnter password: testpassword

The plugin fetches the password as received from the client and compares it with the value stored in theauthentication_string column of the account row in the mysql.user system table. If the two valuesmatch, the plugin returns the authentication_string value as the new effective user ID.

You can look in the server error log for a message indicating whether authentication succeeded (notice thatthe password is reported as the “user”):

[Note] Plugin test_plugin_server reported:'successfully authenticated user testpassword'

7.2 The Connection-Control Plugins

As of MySQL 5.6.35, MySQL Server includes a plugin library that enables administrators to introducean increasing delay in server response to clients after a certain number of consecutive failed connection

Connection-Control Plugin Installation

131

attempts. This capability provides a deterrent that slows down brute force attacks that attempt to accessMySQL user accounts. The plugin library contains two plugins:

• CONNECTION_CONTROL checks incoming connections and adds a delay to server responses asnecessary. This plugin also exposes system variables that enable its operation to be configured and astatus variable that provides rudimentary monitoring information.

The CONNECTION_CONTROL plugin uses the audit plugin interface (see Writing Audit Plugins). To collectinformation, it subscribes to the MYSQL_AUDIT_CONNECTION_CLASSMASK event class, and processesMYSQL_AUDIT_CONNECTION_CONNECT and MYSQL_AUDIT_CONNECTION_CHANGE_USER subeventsto check whether the server should introduce a delay before responding to client connection attempts.

• CONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS implements an INFORMATION_SCHEMA table thatexposes more detailed monitoring information for failed connection attempts.

The following sections provide information about connection-control plugin installation and configuration.For information about the CONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS table, see TheINFORMATION_SCHEMA CONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS Table.

7.2.1 Connection-Control Plugin Installation

This section describes how to install the connection-control plugins, CONNECTION_CONTROL andCONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS. For general information about installing plugins,see Installing and Uninstalling Plugins.

To be usable by the server, the plugin library file must be located in the MySQL plugin directory (thedirectory named by the plugin_dir system variable). If necessary, configure the plugin directory locationby setting the value of plugin_dir at server startup.

The plugin library file base name is connection_control. The file name suffix differs per platform (forexample, .so for Unix and Unix-like systems, .dll for Windows).

To load the plugins at server startup, use the --plugin-load-add option to name the library file thatcontains them. With this plugin-loading method, the option must be given each time the server starts. Forexample, put these lines in the server my.cnf file (adjust the .so suffix for your platform as necessary):

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=connection_control.so

After modifying my.cnf, restart the server to cause the new settings to take effect.

Alternatively, to register the plugins at runtime, use these statements (adjust the .so suffix as necessary):

INSTALL PLUGIN CONNECTION_CONTROL SONAME 'connection_control.so';INSTALL PLUGIN CONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS SONAME 'connection_control.so';

INSTALL PLUGIN loads the plugin immediately, and also registers it in the mysql.plugins system tableto cause the server to load it for each subsequent normal startup.

To verify plugin installation, examine the INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS table or use the SHOWPLUGINS statement (see Obtaining Server Plugin Information). For example:

Connection-Control Plugin Installation

132

mysql> SELECT PLUGIN_NAME, PLUGIN_STATUS FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS WHERE PLUGIN_NAME LIKE 'connection%';+------------------------------------------+---------------+| PLUGIN_NAME | PLUGIN_STATUS |+------------------------------------------+---------------+| CONNECTION_CONTROL | ACTIVE || CONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS | ACTIVE |+------------------------------------------+---------------+

If a plugin fails to initialize, check the server error log for diagnostic messages.

If the plugins have been previously registered with INSTALL PLUGIN or are loaded with --plugin-load-add, you can use the --connection-control and --connection-control-failed-login-attempts options at server startup to control plugin activation. For example, to load the plugins at startupand prevent them from being removed at runtime, use these options:

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=connection_control.soconnection-control=FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENTconnection-control-failed-login-attempts=FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENT

If it is desired to prevent the server from running without a given connection-control plugin, use an optionvalue of FORCE or FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENT to force server startup to fail if the plugin does not initializesuccessfully.

Note

It is possible to install one plugin without the other, but both must beinstalled for full connection-control capability. In particular, installing only theCONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS plugin is of little use becausewithout the CONNECTION_CONTROL plugin to provide the data that populates theCONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS table, retrievals from thetable will always be empty.

• Connection Delay Configuration

• Connection Failure Assessment

• Connection Failure Monitoring

Connection Delay Configuration

To enable you to configure its operation, the CONNECTION_CONTROL plugin exposes several systemvariables:

• connection_control_failed_connections_threshold: The number of consecutive failedconnection attempts permitted to clients before the server adds a delay for subsequent connectionattempts.

• connection_control_min_connection_delay: The amount of delay to add for each consecutiveconnection failure above the threshold.

• connection_control_max_connection_delay: The maximum delay to add.

To entirely disable checking for failed connection attempts, setconnection_control_failed_connections_threshold to zero. Ifconnection_control_failed_connections_threshold is nonzero, the amount of delay is zero up

Connection-Control Plugin Installation

133

through that many consecutive failed connection attempts. Thereafter, the amount of delay is the numberof failed attempts above the threshold, multiplied by connection_control_min_connection_delaymilliseconds. For example, with the default connection_control_failed_connections_thresholdand connection_control_min_connection_delay values of 3 and 1000, respectively, there is nodelay for the first three consecutive failed connection attempts by a client, a delay of 1000 milliseconds forthe fourth failed attempt, 2000 milliseconds for the fifth failed attempt, and so on, up to the maximum delaypermitted by connection_control_max_connection_delay.

You can set the CONNECTION_CONTROL system variables at server startup or runtime. Suppose that youwant to permit four consecutive failed connection attempts before the server starts delaying its responses,and to increase the delay by 1500 milliseconds for each additional failure after that. To set the relevantvariables at server startup, put these lines in the server my.cnf file:

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=connection_control.soconnection_control_failed_connections_threshold=4connection_control_min_connection_delay=1500

To set the variables at runtime, use these statements:

SET GLOBAL connection_control_failed_connections_threshold = 4;SET GLOBAL connection_control_min_connection_delay = 1500;

SET GLOBAL sets the value for the running MySQL instance. To make the change permanent, add a linein your my.cnf file, as shown previously.

The connection_control_min_connection_delay andconnection_control_max_connection_delay system variables have fixed minimum and maximumvalues of 1000 and 2147483647, respectively. In addition, the permitted range of values of each variablealso depends on the current value of the other:

• connection_control_min_connection_delay cannot be set greater than the current value ofconnection_control_max_connection_delay.

• connection_control_max_connection_delay cannot be set less than the current value ofconnection_control_min_connection_delay.

Thus, to make the changes required for some configurations, you might need to set thevariables in a specific order. Suppose that the current minimum and maximum delaysare 1000 and 2000, and that you want to set them to 3000 and 5000. You cannot firstset connection_control_min_connection_delay to 3000 because that is greaterthan the current connection_control_max_connection_delay value of 2000.Instead, set connection_control_max_connection_delay to 5000, then setconnection_control_min_connection_delay to 3000.

Connection Failure Assessment

When the CONNECTION_CONTROL plugin is installed, it checks connection attempts and tracks whetherthey fail or succeed. For this purpose, a failed connection attempt is one for which the client user and hostmatch a known MySQL account but the provided credentials are incorrect, or do not match any knownaccount.

Failed-connection counting is based on the user/host combination for each connection attempt.Determination of the applicable user name and host name takes proxying into account and occurs asfollows:

Connection-Control Plugin Installation

134

• If the client user proxies another user, the proxying user's information is used. For example,if external_user@example.com proxies proxy_user@example.com, connectioncounting uses the proxying user, external_user@example.com, rather than theproxied user, proxy_user@example.com. Both external_user@example.com andproxy_user@example.com must have valid entries in the mysql.user system table and aproxy relationship between them must be defined in the mysql.proxies_priv system table (seeSection 5.8, “Proxy Users”).

• If the client user does not proxy another user, but does match a mysql.user entry, counting usesthe CURRENT_USER() value corresponding to that entry. For example, if a user user1 connectingfrom a host host1.example.com matches a user1@host1.example.com entry, counting usesuser1@host1.example.com. If the user matches a user1@%.example.com, user1@%.com,or user1@% entry instead, counting uses user1@%.example.com, user1@%.com, or user1@%,respectively.

For the cases just described, the connection attempt matches some mysql.user entry, and whether therequest succeeds or fails depends on whether the client provides the correct authentication credentials.For example, if the client presents an incorrect password, the connection attempt fails.

If the connection attempt matches no mysql.user entry, the attempt fails. In this case, noCURRENT_USER() value is available and connection-failure counting uses the user name providedby the client and the client host as determined by the server. For example, if a client attempts toconnect as user user2 from host host2.example.com, the user name part is available in the clientrequest and the server determines the host information. The user/host combination used for counting isuser2@host2.example.com.

Note

The server maintains information about which client hosts can possibly connect tothe server (essentially the union of host values for mysql.user entries). If a clientattempts to connect from any other host, the server rejects the attempt at an earlystage of connection setup:

ERROR 1130 (HY000): Host 'host_name' is notallowed to connect to this MySQL server

Because this type of rejection occurs so early, CONNECTION_CONTROL does notsee it, and does not count it.

Connection Failure Monitoring

To monitor failed connections, use these information sources:

• The Connection_control_delay_generated status variable indicates the numberof times the server added a delay to its response to a failed connection attempt. Thisdoes not count attempts that occur before reaching the threshold defined by theconnection_control_failed_connections_threshold system variable.

• The INFORMATION_SCHEMA CONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS table providesinformation about the current number of consecutive failed connection attempts per client user/hostcombination. This counts all failed attempts, regardless of whether they were delayed.

Assigning a value to connection_control_failed_connections_threshold at runtime resets allaccumulated failed-connection counters to zero, which has these visible effects:

• The Connection_control_delay_generated status variable is reset to zero.

Connection-Control System and Status Variables

135

• The CONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS table becomes empty.

7.2.2 Connection-Control System and Status Variables

This section describes the system and status variables that the CONNECTION_CONTROL plugin provides toenable its operation to be configured and monitored.

• Connection-Control System Variables

• Connection-Control Status Variables

Connection-Control System Variables

If the CONNECTION_CONTROL plugin is installed, it exposes these system variables:

• connection_control_failed_connections_threshold

Property Value

Command-Line Format --connection-control-failed-connections-threshold=#

Introduced 5.6.35

System Variable connection_control_failed_connections_threshold

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Integer

Default Value 3

Minimum Value 0

Maximum Value 2147483647

The number of consecutive failed connection attempts permitted to clients before the server adds adelay for subsequent connection attempts:

• If the variable has a nonzero value N, the server adds a delay beginning with consecutive failedattempt N+1. If a client has reached the point where connection responses are delayed, the delay alsooccurs for the next subsequent successful connection.

• Setting this variable to zero disables failed-connection counting. In this case, the server never addsdelays.

For information about how connection_control_failed_connections_threshold interacts withother connection-control system and status variables, see Section 7.2.1, “Connection-Control PluginInstallation”.

• connection_control_max_connection_delay

Property Value

Command-Line Format --connection-control-max-connection-delay=#

Introduced 5.6.35

System Variable connection_control_max_connection_delay

Scope Global

Connection-Control System and Status Variables

136

Property Value

Dynamic Yes

Type Integer

Default Value 2147483647

Minimum Value 1000

Maximum Value 2147483647

The maximum delay in milliseconds for server response to failed connection attempts, ifconnection_control_failed_connections_threshold is greater than zero.

For information about how connection_control_max_connection_delay interacts with otherconnection-control system and status variables, see Section 7.2.1, “Connection-Control PluginInstallation”.

• connection_control_min_connection_delay

Property Value

Command-Line Format --connection-control-min-connection-delay=#

Introduced 5.6.35

System Variable connection_control_min_connection_delay

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Integer

Default Value 1000

Minimum Value 1000

Maximum Value 2147483647

The minimum delay in milliseconds for server response to failed connection attempts, ifconnection_control_failed_connections_threshold is greater than zero. This is alsothe amount by which the server increases the delay for additional successive failures once it beginsdelaying.

For information about how connection_control_min_connection_delay interacts with otherconnection-control system and status variables, see Section 7.2.1, “Connection-Control PluginInstallation”.

Connection-Control Status Variables

If the CONNECTION_CONTROL plugin is installed, it exposes this status variable:

• Connection_control_delay_generated

The number of times the server added a delay to its response to a failed connection attempt.This does not count attempts that occur before reaching the threshold defined by theconnection_control_failed_connections_threshold system variable.

This variable provides a simple counter. For more detailed connection-control monitoring information,examine the INFORMATION_SCHEMA CONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS table; seeThe INFORMATION_SCHEMA CONNECTION_CONTROL_FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS Table.

The Password Validation Plugin

137

Assigning a value to connection_control_failed_connections_threshold at runtime resetsConnection_control_delay_generated to zero.

This variable was added in MySQL 5.6.35.

7.3 The Password Validation Plugin

The validate_password plugin serves to test passwords and improve security. The plugin exposes aset of system variables that enable you to define password policy.

The validate_password plugin implements these capabilities:

• In SQL statements that assign a password supplied as a cleartext value, the plugin checks the passwordagainst the current password policy and rejects the password if it is weak (the statement returns anER_NOT_VALID_PASSWORD error). This applies to the CREATE USER, GRANT, and SET PASSWORDstatements, and passwords given as arguments to the PASSWORD() and OLD_PASSWORD() functions.

• The VALIDATE_PASSWORD_STRENGTH() SQL function assesses the strength of potential passwords.The function takes a password argument and returns an integer from 0 (weak) to 100 (strong).

For example, validate_password checks the cleartext password in the following statement. Under thedefault password policy, which requires passwords to be at least 8 characters long, the password is weakand the statement produces an error:

mysql> SET PASSWORD = PASSWORD('abc');ERROR 1819 (HY000): Your password does not satisfy the currentpolicy requirements

Passwords specified as hashed values are not checked because the original password value is notavailable for checking:

mysql> SET PASSWORD = '*0D3CED9BEC10A777AEC23CCC353A8C08A633045E';Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)

To configure password checking, modify the system variables having names of the formvalidate_password_xxx; these are the parameters that control password policy. See Section 7.3.2,“Password Validation Plugin Options and Variables”.

If validate_password is not installed, the validate_password_xxx system variables are notavailable, passwords in statements are not checked, and the VALIDATE_PASSWORD_STRENGTH()function always returns 0. For example, without the plugin installed, accounts can be assigned passwordsshorter than 8 characters.

Assuming that validate_password is installed, it implements three levels of passwordchecking: LOW, MEDIUM, and STRONG. The default is MEDIUM; to change this, modify the value ofvalidate_password_policy. The policies implement increasingly strict password tests. The followingdescriptions refer to default parameter values, which can be modified by changing the appropriate systemvariables.

• LOW policy tests password length only. Passwords must be at least 8 characters long. To change thislength, modify validate_password_length.

• MEDIUM policy adds the conditions that passwords must contain at least 1 numericcharacter, 1 lowercase character, 1 uppercase character, and 1 special (nonalphanumeric)

Password Validation Plugin Installation

138

character. To change these values, modify validate_password_number_count,validate_password_mixed_case_count, and validate_password_special_char_count.

• STRONG policy adds the condition that password substrings of length 4 or longer must not matchwords in the dictionary file, if one has been specified. To specify the dictionary file, modifyvalidate_password_dictionary_file.

7.3.1 Password Validation Plugin Installation

This section describes how to install the validate_password password-validation plugin. For generalinformation about installing plugins, see Installing and Uninstalling Plugins.

To be usable by the server, the plugin library file must be located in the MySQL plugin directory (thedirectory named by the plugin_dir system variable). If necessary, configure the plugin directory locationby setting the value of plugin_dir at server startup.

The plugin library file base name is validate_password. The file name suffix differs per platform (forexample, .so for Unix and Unix-like systems, .dll for Windows).

To load the plugin at server startup, use the --plugin-load-add option to name the library file thatcontains it. With this plugin-loading method, the option must be given each time the server starts. Forexample, put these lines in the server my.cnf file (adjust the .so suffix for your platform as necessary):

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=validate_password.so

After modifying my.cnf, restart the server to cause the new settings to take effect.

Alternatively, to register the plugin at runtime, use this statement (adjust the .so suffix as necessary):

INSTALL PLUGIN validate_password SONAME 'validate_password.so';

INSTALL PLUGIN loads the plugin, and also registers it in the mysql.plugins system table to cause theplugin to be loaded for each subsequent normal server startup.

To verify plugin installation, examine the INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS table or use the SHOWPLUGINS statement (see Obtaining Server Plugin Information). For example:

mysql> SELECT PLUGIN_NAME, PLUGIN_STATUS FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS WHERE PLUGIN_NAME LIKE 'validate%';+-------------------+---------------+| PLUGIN_NAME | PLUGIN_STATUS |+-------------------+---------------+| validate_password | ACTIVE |+-------------------+---------------+

If the plugin fails to initialize, check the server error log for diagnostic messages.

If the plugin has been previously registered with INSTALL PLUGIN or is loaded with --plugin-load-add, you can use the --validate-password option at server startup to control plugin activation. Forexample, to load the plugin at startup and prevent it from being removed at runtime, use these options:

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=validate_password.sovalidate-password=FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENT

Password Validation Plugin Options and Variables

139

If it is desired to prevent the server from running without the password-validation plugin, use --validate-password with a value of FORCE or FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENT to force server startup to fail ifthe plugin does not initialize successfully.

7.3.2 Password Validation Plugin Options and Variables

This section describes the options, system variables, and status variables that validate_passwordprovides to enable its operation to be configured and monitored.

• Password Validation Plugin Options

• Password Validation Plugin System Variables

• Password Validation Plugin Status Variables

Password Validation Plugin Options

To control activation of the validate_password plugin, use this option:

• --validate-password[=value]

Property Value

Command-Line Format --validate-password[=value]

Introduced 5.6.6

Type Enumeration

Default Value ON

Valid Values ON

OFF

FORCE

FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENT

This option controls how the server loads the validate_password plugin at startup. The value shouldbe one of those available for plugin-loading options, as described in Installing and Uninstalling Plugins.For example, --validate-password=FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENT tells the server to load the plugin atstartup and prevents it from being removed while the server is running.

This option is available only if the validate_password plugin has been previously registered withINSTALL PLUGIN or is loaded with --plugin-load-add. See Section 7.3.1, “Password ValidationPlugin Installation”.

Password Validation Plugin System Variables

If the validate_password plugin is enabled, it exposes several system variables that enableconfiguration of password checking:

mysql> SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'validate_password%';+--------------------------------------+--------+| Variable_name | Value |+--------------------------------------+--------+| validate_password_dictionary_file | || validate_password_length | 8 || validate_password_mixed_case_count | 1 || validate_password_number_count | 1 |

Password Validation Plugin Options and Variables

140

| validate_password_policy | MEDIUM || validate_password_special_char_count | 1 |+--------------------------------------+--------+

To change how passwords are checked, you can set these system variables at server startup or atruntime. The following list describes the meaning of each variable.

• validate_password_dictionary_file

Property Value

Introduced 5.6.6

System Variable validate_password_dictionary_file

Scope Global

Dynamic (>= 5.6.26) Yes

Dynamic (<= 5.6.25) No

Type File name

The path name of the dictionary file that validate_password uses for checking passwords. Thisvariable is unavailable unless validate_password is installed.

By default, this variable has an empty value and dictionary checks are not performed. For dictionarychecks to occur, the variable value must be nonempty. If the file is named as a relative path, it isinterpreted relative to the server data directory. File contents should be lowercase, one word per line.Contents are treated as having a character set of utf8. The maximum permitted file size is 1MB.

For the dictionary file to be used during password checking, the password policy must be set to 2(STRONG); see the description of the validate_password_policy system variable. Assuming that istrue, each substring of the password of length 4 up to 100 is compared to the words in the dictionary file.Any match causes the password to be rejected. Comparisons are not case sensitive.

For VALIDATE_PASSWORD_STRENGTH(), the password is checked against all policies,including STRONG, so the strength assessment includes the dictionary check regardless of thevalidate_password_policy value.

Before MySQL 5.6.26, changes to the dictionary file while the server is running require a restart for theserver to recognize the changes. As of MySQL 5.6.26, validate_password_dictionary_file canbe set at runtime and assigning a value causes the named file to be read without a server restart.

• validate_password_length

Property Value

Introduced 5.6.6

System Variable validate_password_length

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Integer

Default Value 8

Minimum Value 0

The minimum number of characters that validate_password requires passwords to have. Thisvariable is unavailable unless validate_password is installed.

Password Validation Plugin Options and Variables

141

The validate_password_length minimum value is a function of several other related systemvariables. The value cannot be set less than the value of this expression:

validate_password_number_count+ validate_password_special_char_count+ (2 * validate_password_mixed_case_count)

If validate_password adjusts the value of validate_password_length due to the precedingconstraint, it writes a message to the error log.

• validate_password_mixed_case_count

Property Value

Introduced 5.6.6

System Variable validate_password_mixed_case_count

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Integer

Default Value 1

Minimum Value 0

The minimum number of lowercase and uppercase characters that validate_password requirespasswords to have if the password policy is MEDIUM or stronger. This variable is unavailable unlessvalidate_password is installed.

For a given validate_password_mixed_case_count value, the password must have that manylowercase characters, and that many uppercase characters.

• validate_password_number_count

Property Value

Introduced 5.6.6

System Variable validate_password_number_count

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Integer

Default Value 1

Minimum Value 0

The minimum number of numeric (digit) characters that validate_password requires passwordsto have if the password policy is MEDIUM or stronger. This variable is unavailable unlessvalidate_password is installed.

• validate_password_policy

Property Value

Introduced 5.6.6

System Variable validate_password_policy

Password Validation Plugin Options and Variables

142

Property Value

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Enumeration

Default Value 1

Valid Values 0

1

2

The password policy enforced by validate_password. This variable is unavailable unlessvalidate_password is installed.

The validate_password_policy value can be specified using numeric values 0, 1, 2,or the corresponding symbolic values LOW, MEDIUM, STRONG. The following table describesthe tests performed for each policy. For the length test, the required length is the value of thevalidate_password_length system variable. Similarly, the required values for the other tests aregiven by other validate_password_xxx variables.

Policy Tests Performed

0 or LOW Length

1 or MEDIUM Length; numeric, lowercase/uppercase, and special characters

2 or STRONG Length; numeric, lowercase/uppercase, and special characters; dictionary file

• validate_password_special_char_count

Property Value

Introduced 5.6.6

System Variable validate_password_special_char_count

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Integer

Default Value 1

Minimum Value 0

The minimum number of nonalphanumeric characters that validate_password requirespasswords to have if the password policy is MEDIUM or stronger. This variable is unavailable unlessvalidate_password is installed.

Password Validation Plugin Status Variables

If the validate_password plugin is enabled, it exposes status variables that provide operationalinformation:

mysql> SHOW STATUS LIKE 'validate_password%';+-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+| Variable_name | Value |+-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+

MySQL Enterprise Audit

143

| validate_password_dictionary_file_last_parsed | 2015-06-29 11:08:51 || validate_password_dictionary_file_words_count | 1902 |+-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+

The following list describes the meaning of each status variable.

• validate_password_dictionary_file_last_parsed

When the dictionary file was last parsed.

This variable was added in MySQL 5.6.26.

• validate_password_dictionary_file_words_count

The number of words read from the dictionary file.

This variable was added in MySQL 5.6.26.

7.4 MySQL Enterprise AuditNote

MySQL Enterprise Audit is an extension included in MySQL Enterprise Edition,a commercial product. To learn more about commercial products, see https://www.mysql.com/products/.

MySQL Enterprise Edition includes MySQL Enterprise Audit, implemented using a server plugin namedaudit_log. MySQL Enterprise Audit uses the open MySQL Audit API to enable standard, policy-basedmonitoring and logging of connection and query activity executed on specific MySQL servers. Designedto meet the Oracle audit specification, MySQL Enterprise Audit provides an out of box, easy to useauditing and compliance solution for applications that are governed by both internal and external regulatoryguidelines.

When installed, the audit plugin enables MySQL Server to produce a log file containing an audit recordof server activity. The log contents include when clients connect and disconnect, and what actions theyperform while connected, such as which databases and tables they access.

After you install the audit plugin (see Section 7.4.1, “Installing MySQL Enterprise Audit”), it writes an auditlog file. By default, the file is named audit.log in the server data directory. To change the name of thefile, set the audit_log_file system variable at server startup.

Audit log file contents are not encrypted. See Section 7.4.2, “MySQL Enterprise Audit SecurityConsiderations”.

The audit log file is written in XML, with auditable events encoded as <AUDIT_RECORD> elements. Toselect the file format, set the audit_log_format system variable at server startup. For details on fileformat and contents, see Section 7.4.3, “Audit Log File Formats”.

For more information about controlling how logging occurs, including audit log file naming and formatselection, see Section 7.4.4, “Audit Log Logging Control”. To perform filtering of audited events, seeSection 7.4.5, “Audit Log Filtering”. For descriptions of the parameters used to configure the audit logplugin, see Section 7.4.6.2, “Audit Log Options and System Variables”.

If the audit log plugin is enabled, the Performance Schema (see MySQL Performance Schema) hasinstrumentation for it. To identify the relevant instruments, use this query:

SELECT NAME FROM performance_schema.setup_instruments

Changes from Older MySQL Enterprise Audit Versions

144

WHERE NAME LIKE '%/alog/%';

Changes from Older MySQL Enterprise Audit Versions

Several changes were made to the audit log plugin in MySQL 5.6.14 for better compatibility with OracleAudit Vault.

A new audit log file format was implemented. It is possible to select either the old or new format using theaudit_log_format system variable, which has permitted values of OLD and NEW (default OLD). The twoformats differ as follows:

• Information within <AUDIT_RECORD> elements written in the old format using attributes is written in thenew format using subelements.

• The new format includes more information in <AUDIT_RECORD> elements. Every element includes aRECORD_ID value providing a unique identifier. The TIMESTAMP value includes time zone information.Query records include HOST, IP, OS_LOGIN, and USER information, as well as COMMAND_CLASS andSTATUS_CODE values.

Example of old <AUDIT_RECORD> format:

<AUDIT_RECORD TIMESTAMP="2013-09-15T15:27:27" NAME="Query" CONNECTION_ID="3" STATUS="0" SQLTEXT="SELECT 1"/>

Example of new <AUDIT_RECORD> format:

<AUDIT_RECORD> <TIMESTAMP>2013-09-15T15:27:27 UTC</TIMESTAMP> <RECORD_ID>3998_2013-09-15T15:27:27</RECORD_ID> <NAME>Query</NAME> <CONNECTION_ID>3</CONNECTION_ID> <STATUS>0</STATUS> <STATUS_CODE>0</STATUS_CODE> <USER>root[root] @ localhost [127.0.0.1]</USER> <OS_LOGIN></OS_LOGIN> <HOST>localhost</HOST> <IP>127.0.0.1</IP> <COMMAND_CLASS>select</COMMAND_CLASS> <SQLTEXT>SELECT 1</SQLTEXT></AUDIT_RECORD>

When the audit log plugin rotates the audit log file, it uses a different file name format. For a log file namedaudit.log, the plugin previously renamed the file to audit.log.TIMESTAMP. The plugin now renamesthe file to audit.log.TIMESTAMP.xml to indicate that it is an XML file.

If you change the value of audit_log_format, use this procedure to avoid writing log entries in oneformat to an existing log file that contains entries in a different format:

1. Stop the server.

2. Rename the current audit log file manually.

3. Restart the server with the new value of audit_log_format. The audit log plugin creates a new logfile, which will contain log entries in the selected format.

Installing MySQL Enterprise Audit

145

The API for writing audit plugins has also changed. The mysql_event_general structure has newmembers to represent client host name and IP address, command class, and external user. For moreinformation, see Writing Audit Plugins.

7.4.1 Installing MySQL Enterprise Audit

This section describes how to install MySQL Enterprise Audit, which is implemented using the audit_logplugin. For general information about installing plugins, see Installing and Uninstalling Plugins.

Note

If installed, the audit_log plugin involves some minimal overhead even whendisabled. To avoid this overhead, do not install MySQL Enterprise Audit unless youplan to use it.

To be usable by the server, the plugin library file must be located in the MySQL plugin directory (thedirectory named by the plugin_dir system variable). If necessary, configure the plugin directory locationby setting the value of plugin_dir at server startup.

The plugin library file base name is audit_log. The file name suffix differs per platform (for example, .sofor Unix and Unix-like systems, .dll for Windows).

To load the plugin at server startup, use the --plugin-load-add option to name the library file thatcontains it. With this plugin-loading method, the option must be given each time the server starts. Forexample, put the following lines in the server my.cnf file (adjust the .so suffix for your platform asnecessary):

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=audit_log.so

After modifying my.cnf, restart the server to cause the new settings to take effect.

Alternatively, to register the plugin at runtime, use this statement (adjust the suffix as necessary):

INSTALL PLUGIN audit_log SONAME 'audit_log.so';

INSTALL PLUGIN loads the plugin, and also registers it in the mysql.plugins system table to cause theplugin to be loaded for each subsequent normal server startup.

To verify plugin installation, examine the INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS table or use the SHOWPLUGINS statement (see Obtaining Server Plugin Information). For example:

mysql> SELECT PLUGIN_NAME, PLUGIN_STATUS FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.PLUGINS WHERE PLUGIN_NAME LIKE 'audit%';+-------------+---------------+| PLUGIN_NAME | PLUGIN_STATUS |+-------------+---------------+| audit_log | ACTIVE |+-------------+---------------+

If the plugin fails to initialize, check the server error log for diagnostic messages.

If the plugin has been previously registered with INSTALL PLUGIN or is loaded with --plugin-load-add, you can use the --audit-log option at server startup to control plugin activation. For example, toload the plugin at startup and prevent it from being removed at runtime, use these options:

MySQL Enterprise Audit Security Considerations

146

[mysqld]plugin-load-add=audit_log.soaudit-log=FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENT

If it is desired to prevent the server from running without the audit plugin, use --audit-log with avalue of FORCE or FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENT to force server startup to fail if the plugin does not initializesuccessfully.

For additional information about the parameters used to configure operation of the audit_log plugin, seeSection 7.4.6.2, “Audit Log Options and System Variables”.

Audit log file contents are not encrypted. See Section 7.4.2, “MySQL Enterprise Audit SecurityConsiderations”.

7.4.2 MySQL Enterprise Audit Security Considerations

Contents of audit log files produced by the audit log plugin are not encrypted and may contain sensitiveinformation, such as the text of SQL statements. For security reasons, audit log files should be writtento a directory accessible only to the MySQL server and to users with a legitimate reason to view thelog. The default file name is audit.log in the data directory. This can be changed by setting theaudit_log_file system variable at server startup. Other audit log files may exist due to log rotation.

7.4.3 Audit Log File Formats

The MySQL server calls the audit log plugin to write an audit record to its log file whenever an auditableevent occurs. Typically the first audit record written after plugin startup contains the server descriptionand startup options. Elements following that one represent events such as client connect and disconnectevents, executed SQL statements, and so forth. Only top-level statements are logged, not statementswithin stored programs such as triggers or stored procedures. Contents of files referenced by statementssuch as LOAD DATA are not logged.

To select the log format that the audit log plugin uses to write its log file, set the audit_log_formatsystem variable at server startup. These formats are available:

• New-style XML format (audit_log_format=NEW): An XML format that has better compatibility withOracle Audit Vault than old-style XML format. MySQL 5.7 introduced this format, which was backportedto MySQL 5.6 as of MySQL 5.6.14.

• Old-style XML format (audit_log_format=OLD): The original audit log format used by default in olderMySQL series. MySQL 5.6 uses old-style XML format by default.

Note

Changing the value of audit_log_format can result in writing log entries in oneformat to an existing log file that contains entries in a different format. To avoid thisissue, use the procedure described at Audit Log File Format.

Audit log file contents are not encrypted. See Section 7.4.2, “MySQL Enterprise Audit SecurityConsiderations”.

The following sections describe the available audit logging formats:

• New-Style XML Audit Log File Format

• Old-Style XML Audit Log File Format

Audit Log File Formats

147

New-Style XML Audit Log File Format

Here is a sample log file in new-style XML format (audit_log_format=NEW), reformatted slightly forreadability:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?><AUDIT> <AUDIT_RECORD> <TIMESTAMP>2017-10-16T14:06:33 UTC</TIMESTAMP> <RECORD_ID>1_2017-10-16T14:06:33</RECORD_ID> <NAME>Audit</NAME> <SERVER_ID>1</SERVER_ID> <VERSION>1</VERSION> <STARTUP_OPTIONS>/usr/local/mysql/bin/mysqld --socket=/usr/local/mysql/mysql.sock --port=3306</STARTUP_OPTIONS> <OS_VERSION>i686-Linux</OS_VERSION> <MYSQL_VERSION>5.6.39-log</MYSQL_VERSION> </AUDIT_RECORD> <AUDIT_RECORD> <TIMESTAMP>2017-10-16T14:09:38 UTC</TIMESTAMP> <RECORD_ID>2_2017-10-16T14:06:33</RECORD_ID> <NAME>Connect</NAME> <CONNECTION_ID>5</CONNECTION_ID> <STATUS>0</STATUS> <STATUS_CODE>0</STATUS_CODE> <USER>root</USER> <OS_LOGIN/> <HOST>localhost</HOST> <IP>127.0.0.1</IP> <COMMAND_CLASS>connect</COMMAND_CLASS> <PRIV_USER>root</PRIV_USER> <PROXY_USER/> <DB>test</DB> </AUDIT_RECORD>... <AUDIT_RECORD> <TIMESTAMP>2017-10-16T14:09:38 UTC</TIMESTAMP> <RECORD_ID>6_2017-10-16T14:06:33</RECORD_ID> <NAME>Query</NAME> <CONNECTION_ID>5</CONNECTION_ID> <STATUS>0</STATUS> <STATUS_CODE>0</STATUS_CODE> <USER>root[root] @ localhost [127.0.0.1]</USER> <OS_LOGIN/> <HOST>localhost</HOST> <IP>127.0.0.1</IP> <COMMAND_CLASS>drop_table</COMMAND_CLASS> <SQLTEXT>DROP TABLE IF EXISTS t</SQLTEXT> </AUDIT_RECORD>... <AUDIT_RECORD> <TIMESTAMP>2017-10-16T14:09:39 UTC</TIMESTAMP> <RECORD_ID>8_2017-10-16T14:06:33</RECORD_ID> <NAME>Quit</NAME> <CONNECTION_ID>5</CONNECTION_ID> <STATUS>0</STATUS> <STATUS_CODE>0</STATUS_CODE> <USER>root</USER> <OS_LOGIN/> <HOST>localhost</HOST> <IP>127.0.0.1</IP> <COMMAND_CLASS>connect</COMMAND_CLASS> </AUDIT_RECORD>...

Audit Log File Formats

148

<AUDIT_RECORD> <TIMESTAMP>2017-10-16T14:09:43 UTC</TIMESTAMP> <RECORD_ID>11_2017-10-16T14:06:33</RECORD_ID> <NAME>Quit</NAME> <CONNECTION_ID>6</CONNECTION_ID> <STATUS>0</STATUS> <STATUS_CODE>0</STATUS_CODE> <USER>root</USER> <OS_LOGIN/> <HOST>localhost</HOST> <IP>127.0.0.1</IP> <COMMAND_CLASS>connect</COMMAND_CLASS> </AUDIT_RECORD> <AUDIT_RECORD> <TIMESTAMP>2017-10-16T14:09:45 UTC</TIMESTAMP> <RECORD_ID>12_2017-10-16T14:06:33</RECORD_ID> <NAME>NoAudit</NAME> <SERVER_ID>1</SERVER_ID> </AUDIT_RECORD></AUDIT>

The audit log file is written as XML, using UTF-8 (up to 4 bytes per character). The root element is<AUDIT>. The root element contains <AUDIT_RECORD> elements, each of which provides informationabout an audited event. When the audit log plugin begins writing a new log file, it writes the XMLdeclaration and opening <AUDIT> root element tag. When the plugin closes a log file, it writes the closing</AUDIT> root element tag. The closing tag is not present while the file is open.

Elements within <AUDIT_RECORD> elements have these characteristics:

• Some elements appear in every <AUDIT_RECORD> element. Others are optional and may appeardepending on the audit record type.

• Order of elements within an <AUDIT_RECORD> element is not guaranteed.

• Element values are not fixed length. Long values may be truncated as indicated in the elementdescriptions given later.

• The <, >, ", and & characters are encoded as &lt;, &gt;, &quot;, and &amp;, respectively. NULbytes (U+00) are encoded as the ? character.

• Characters not valid as XML characters are encoded using numeric character references. Valid XMLcharacters are:

#x9 | #xA | #xD | [#x20-#xD7FF] | [#xE000-#xFFFD] | [#x10000-#x10FFFF]

The following elements are mandatory in every <AUDIT_RECORD> element:

• <NAME>

A string representing the type of instruction that generated the audit event, such as a command that theserver received from a client.

Example:

<NAME>Query</NAME>

Some common <NAME> values:

Audit When auditing starts, which may be server startup timeConnect When a client connects, also known as logging in

Audit Log File Formats

149

Query An SQL statement (executed directly)Prepare Preparation of an SQL statement; usually followed by ExecuteExecute Execution of an SQL statement; usually follows PrepareShutdown Server shutdownQuit When a client disconnectsNoAudit Auditing has been turned off

The possible values are Audit, Binlog Dump, Change user, Close stmt, Connect Out,Connect, Create DB, Daemon, Debug, Delayed insert, Drop DB, Execute, Fetch, FieldList, Init DB, Kill, Long Data, NoAudit, Ping, Prepare, Processlist, Query, Quit,Refresh, Register Slave, Reset stmt, Set option, Shutdown, Sleep, Statistics, TableDump, Time.

With the exception of Audit and NoAudit, these values correspond to the COM_xxx command valueslisted in the mysql_com.h header file. For example, Create DB and Change user correspond toCOM_CREATE_DB and COM_CHANGE_USER, respectively.

• <RECORD_ID>

A unique identifier for the audit record. The value is composed from a sequence number and timestamp,in the format SEQ_TIMESTAMP. When the audit log plugin opens the audit log file, it initializes thesequence number to the size of the audit log file, then increments the sequence by 1 for each recordlogged. The timestamp is a UTC value in YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss format indicating the date and timewhen the audit log plugin opened the file.

Example:

<RECORD_ID>12_2017-10-16T14:06:33</RECORD_ID>

• <TIMESTAMP>

A string representing a UTC value in YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss UTC format indicating the date and timewhen the audit event was generated. For example, the event corresponding to execution of an SQLstatement received from a client has a <TIMESTAMP> value occurring after the statement finishes, notwhen it was received.

Example:

<TIMESTAMP>2017-10-16T14:09:45 UTC</TIMESTAMP>

The following elements are optional in <AUDIT_RECORD> elements. Many of them occur only with specific<NAME> element values.

• <COMMAND_CLASS>

A string that indicates the type of action performed.

Example:

<COMMAND_CLASS>drop_table</COMMAND_CLASS>

The values correspond to the Com_xxx status variables that indicate command counts; for exampleCom_drop_table and Com_select count DROP TABLE and SELECT statements, respectively. Thefollowing statement displays the possible names:

SELECT LOWER(REPLACE(VARIABLE_NAME, 'COM_', '')) AS name

Audit Log File Formats

150

FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.GLOBAL_STATUSWHERE VARIABLE_NAME LIKE 'COM%'ORDER BY name;

• <CONNECTION_ID>

An unsigned integer representing the client connection identifier. This is the same as the value returnedby the CONNECTION_ID() function within the session.

Example:

<CONNECTION_ID>127</CONNECTION_ID>

• <DB>

A string representing the default database name.

Example:

<DB>test</DB>

• <HOST>

A string representing the client host name.

Example:

<HOST>localhost</HOST>

• <IP>

A string representing the client IP address.

Example:

<IP>127.0.0.1</IP>

• <MYSQL_VERSION>

A string representing the MySQL server version. This is the same as the value of the VERSION()function or version system variable.

Example:

<MYSQL_VERSION>5.6.39-log</MYSQL_VERSION>

• <OS_LOGIN>

A string representing the external user name used during the authentication process, as set by the pluginused to authenticate the client. With native (built-in) MySQL authentication, or if the plugin does not setthe value, this element is empty. The value is the same as that of the external_user system variable(see Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”).

Example:

Audit Log File Formats

151

<OS_LOGIN>jeffrey</OS_LOGIN>

• <OS_VERSION>

A string representing the operating system on which the server was built or is running.

Example:

<OS_VERSION>x86_64-Linux</OS_VERSION>

• <PRIV_USER>

A string representing the user that the server authenticated the client as. This is the user name that theserver uses for privilege checking, and may differ from the <USER> value.

Example:

<PRIV_USER>jeffrey</PRIV_USER>

• <PROXY_USER>

A string representing the proxy user (see Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”). The value is empty if user proxyingis not in effect.

Example:

<PROXY_USER>developer</PROXY_USER>

• <SERVER_ID>

An unsigned integer representing the server ID. This is the same as the value of the server_id systemvariable.

Example:

<SERVER_ID>1</SERVER_ID>

• <SQLTEXT>

A string representing the text of an SQL statement. The value can be empty. Long values may betruncated. The string, like the audit log file itself, is written using UTF-8 (up to 4 bytes per character), sothe value may be the result of conversion. For example, the original statement might have been receivedfrom the client as an SJIS string.

Example:

<SQLTEXT>DELETE FROM t1</SQLTEXT>

• <STARTUP_OPTIONS>

A string representing the options that were given on the command line or in option files when the MySQLserver was started. The first option is the path to the server executable.

Example:

Audit Log File Formats

152

<STARTUP_OPTIONS>/usr/local/mysql/bin/mysqld --port=3306 --log_output=FILE</STARTUP_OPTIONS>

• <STATUS>

An unsigned integer representing the command status: 0 for success, nonzero if an error occurred.This is the same as the value of the mysql_errno() C API function. See the description for<STATUS_CODE> for information about how it differs from <STATUS>.

The audit log does not contain the SQLSTATE value or error message. To see the associations betweenerror codes, SQLSTATE values, and messages, see Server Error Message Reference.

Warnings are not logged.

Example:

<STATUS>1051</STATUS>

• <STATUS_CODE>

An unsigned integer representing the command status: 0 for success, 1 if an error occurred.

The STATUS_CODE value differs from the STATUS value: STATUS_CODE is 0 for success and 1 forerror, which is compatible with the EZ_collector consumer for Audit Vault. STATUS is the value of themysql_errno() C API function. This is 0 for success and nonzero for error, and thus is not necessarily1 for error.

Example:

<STATUS_CODE>0</STATUS_CODE>

• <USER>

A string representing the user name sent by the client. This may differ from the <PRIV_USER> value.

Example:

<USER>root[root] @ localhost [127.0.0.1]</USER>

• <VERSION>

An unsigned integer representing the version of the audit log file format.

Example:

<VERSION>1</VERSION>

Old-Style XML Audit Log File Format

Here is a sample log file in old-style XML format (audit_log_format=OLD), reformatted slightly forreadability:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?><AUDIT> <AUDIT_RECORD

Audit Log File Formats

153

TIMESTAMP="2017-10-16T14:25:00 UTC" RECORD_ID="1_2017-10-16T14:25:00" NAME="Audit" SERVER_ID="1" VERSION="1" STARTUP_OPTIONS="--port=3306" OS_VERSION="i686-Linux" MYSQL_VERSION="5.6.39-log"/> <AUDIT_RECORD TIMESTAMP="2017-10-16T14:25:24 UTC" RECORD_ID="2_2017-10-16T14:25:00" NAME="Connect" CONNECTION_ID="4" STATUS="0" STATUS_CODE="0" USER="root" OS_LOGIN="" HOST="localhost" IP="127.0.0.1" COMMAND_CLASS="connect" PRIV_USER="root" PROXY_USER="" DB="test"/>... <AUDIT_RECORD TIMESTAMP="2017-10-16T14:25:24 UTC" RECORD_ID="6_2017-10-16T14:25:00" NAME="Query" CONNECTION_ID="4" STATUS="0" STATUS_CODE="0" USER="root[root] @ localhost [127.0.0.1]" OS_LOGIN="" HOST="localhost" IP="127.0.0.1" COMMAND_CLASS="drop_table" SQLTEXT="DROP TABLE IF EXISTS t"/>... <AUDIT_RECORD TIMESTAMP="2017-10-16T14:25:24 UTC" RECORD_ID="8_2017-10-16T14:25:00" NAME="Quit" CONNECTION_ID="4" STATUS="0" STATUS_CODE="0" USER="root" OS_LOGIN="" HOST="localhost" IP="127.0.0.1" COMMAND_CLASS="connect" <AUDIT_RECORD TIMESTAMP="2017-10-16T14:25:32 UTC" RECORD_ID="12_2017-10-16T14:25:00" NAME="NoAudit" SERVER_ID="1"/></AUDIT>

The audit log file is written as XML, using UTF-8 (up to 4 bytes per character). The root element is<AUDIT>. The root element contains <AUDIT_RECORD> elements, each of which provides informationabout an audited event. When the audit log plugin begins writing a new log file, it writes the XMLdeclaration and opening <AUDIT> root element tag. When the plugin closes a log file, it writes the closing</AUDIT> root element tag. The closing tag is not present while the file is open.

Attributes of <AUDIT_RECORD> elements have these characteristics:

Audit Log File Formats

154

• Some attributes appear in every <AUDIT_RECORD> element. Others are optional and may appeardepending on the audit record type.

• Order of attributes within an <AUDIT_RECORD> element is not guaranteed.

• Attribute values are not fixed length. Long values may be truncated as indicated in the attributedescriptions given later.

• The <, >, ", and & characters are encoded as &lt;, &gt;, &quot;, and &amp;, respectively. NULbytes (U+00) are encoded as the ? character.

• Characters not valid as XML characters are encoded using numeric character references. Valid XMLcharacters are:

#x9 | #xA | #xD | [#x20-#xD7FF] | [#xE000-#xFFFD] | [#x10000-#x10FFFF]

The following attributes are mandatory in every <AUDIT_RECORD> element:

• NAME

A string representing the type of instruction that generated the audit event, such as a command that theserver received from a client.

Example: NAME="Query"

Some common NAME values:

Audit When auditing starts, which may be server startup timeConnect When a client connects, also known as logging inQuery An SQL statement (executed directly)Prepare Preparation of an SQL statement; usually followed by ExecuteExecute Execution of an SQL statement; usually follows PrepareShutdown Server shutdownQuit When a client disconnectsNoAudit Auditing has been turned off

The possible values are Audit, Binlog Dump, Change user, Close stmt, Connect Out,Connect, Create DB, Daemon, Debug, Delayed insert, Drop DB, Execute, Fetch, FieldList, Init DB, Kill, Long Data, NoAudit, Ping, Prepare, Processlist, Query, Quit,Refresh, Register Slave, Reset stmt, Set option, Shutdown, Sleep, Statistics, TableDump, Time.

With the exception of "Audit" and "NoAudit", these values correspond to the COM_xxx commandvalues listed in the mysql_com.h header file. For example, "Create DB" and "Change user"correspond to COM_CREATE_DB and COM_CHANGE_USER, respectively.

• RECORD_ID

A unique identifier for the audit record. The value is composed from a sequence number and timestamp,in the format SEQ_TIMESTAMP. When the audit log plugin opens the audit log file, it initializes thesequence number to the size of the audit log file, then increments the sequence by 1 for each recordlogged. The timestamp is a UTC value in YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss format indicating the date and timewhen the audit log plugin opened the file.

Example: RECORD_ID="12_2017-10-16T14:25:00"

• TIMESTAMP

Audit Log File Formats

155

A string representing a UTC value in YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss UTC format indicating the date and timewhen the audit event was generated. For example, the event corresponding to execution of an SQLstatement received from a client has a TIMESTAMP value occurring after the statement finishes, notwhen it was received.

Example: TIMESTAMP="2017-10-16T14:25:32 UTC"

The following attributes are optional in <AUDIT_RECORD> elements. Many of them occur only for elementswith specific values of the NAME attribute.

• COMMAND_CLASS

A string that indicates the type of action performed.

Example: COMMAND_CLASS="drop_table"

The values correspond to the Com_xxx status variables that indicate command counts; for exampleCom_drop_table and Com_select count DROP TABLE and SELECT statements, respectively. Thefollowing statement displays the possible names:

SELECT LOWER(REPLACE(VARIABLE_NAME, 'COM_', '')) AS nameFROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.GLOBAL_STATUSWHERE VARIABLE_NAME LIKE 'COM%'ORDER BY name;

• CONNECTION_ID

An unsigned integer representing the client connection identifier. This is the same as the value returnedby the CONNECTION_ID() function within the session.

Example: CONNECTION_ID="127"

• DB

A string representing the default database name.

Example: DB="test"

• HOST

A string representing the client host name.

Example: HOST="localhost"

• IP

A string representing the client IP address.

Example: IP="127.0.0.1"

• MYSQL_VERSION

A string representing the MySQL server version. This is the same as the value of the VERSION()function or version system variable.

Example: MYSQL_VERSION="5.6.39-log"

• OS_LOGIN

Audit Log File Formats

156

A string representing the external user name used during the authentication process, as set by the pluginused to authenticate the client. With native (built-in) MySQL authentication, or if the plugin does not setthe value, this attribute is empty. The value is the same as that of the external_user system variable(see Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”).

Example: OS_LOGIN="jeffrey"

• OS_VERSION

A string representing the operating system on which the server was built or is running.

Example: OS_VERSION="x86_64-Linux"

• PRIV_USER

A string representing the user that the server authenticated the client as. This is the user name that theserver uses for privilege checking, and it may differ from the USER value.

Example: PRIV_USER="jeffrey"

• PROXY_USER

A string representing the proxy user (see Section 5.8, “Proxy Users”). The value is empty if user proxyingis not in effect.

Example: PROXY_USER="developer"

• SERVER_ID

An unsigned integer representing the server ID. This is the same as the value of the server_id systemvariable.

Example: SERVER_ID="1"

• SQLTEXT

A string representing the text of an SQL statement. The value can be empty. Long values may betruncated. The string, like the audit log file itself, is written using UTF-8 (up to 4 bytes per character), sothe value may be the result of conversion. For example, the original statement might have been receivedfrom the client as an SJIS string.

Example: SQLTEXT="DELETE FROM t1"

• STARTUP_OPTIONS

A string representing the options that were given on the command line or in option files when the MySQLserver was started.

Example: STARTUP_OPTIONS="--port=3306 --log_output=FILE"

• STATUS

An unsigned integer representing the command status: 0 for success, nonzero if an error occurred. Thisis the same as the value of the mysql_errno() C API function. See the description for STATUS_CODEfor information about how it differs from STATUS.

The audit log does not contain the SQLSTATE value or error message. To see the associations betweenerror codes, SQLSTATE values, and messages, see Server Error Message Reference.

Audit Log Logging Control

157

Warnings are not logged.

Example: STATUS="1051"

• STATUS_CODE

An unsigned integer representing the command status: 0 for success, 1 if an error occurred.

The STATUS_CODE value differs from the STATUS value: STATUS_CODE is 0 for success and 1 forerror, which is compatible with the EZ_collector consumer for Audit Vault. STATUS is the value of themysql_errno() C API function. This is 0 for success and nonzero for error, and thus is not necessarily1 for error.

Example: STATUS_CODE="0"

• USER

A string representing the user name sent by the client. This may differ from the PRIV_USER value.

• VERSION

An unsigned integer representing the version of the audit log file format.

Example: VERSION="1"

7.4.4 Audit Log Logging Control

This section describes how to control general characteristics of audit logging, such as the file to which theaudit log plugin writes events and the format of written events.

• Audit Log File Name

• Audit Log File Format

• Audit Logging Write Strategy

• Audit Log File Space Management and Name Rotation

For additional information about the system variables that affect audit logging, see Section 7.4.6.2, “AuditLog Options and System Variables”.

The audit log plugin can also control which audited events are written to the audit log file, based on theaccount from which events originate or event status. See Section 7.4.5, “Audit Log Filtering”.

Audit Log File Name

To control the audit log file name, set the audit_log_file system variable at server startup. By default,the name is audit.log in the server data directory. For security reasons, the audit log file should bewritten to a directory accessible only to the MySQL server and to users with a legitimate reason to view thelog.

When the audit plugin initializes, it checks whether a file with the audit log file name already exists. If so,the plugin checks whether the file ends with an </AUDIT> tag and truncates the tag before writing any<AUDIT_RECORD> elements. If the log file exists but does not end with </AUDIT> or the </AUDIT> tagcannot be truncated, the plugin considers the file malformed and fails to initialize. This can occur if theserver exits unexpectedly with the audit log plugin running. No logging occurs until the problem is rectified.Check the error log for diagnostic information:

Audit Log Logging Control

158

[ERROR] Plugin 'audit_log' init function returned error.

To deal with this problem, either remove or rename the malformed log file and restart the server.

Audit Log File Format

To control the audit log file format, set the audit_log_format system variable at server startup.By default, the format is OLD (old-style XML format). For information about available formats, seeSection 7.4.3, “Audit Log File Formats”.

Note

Changing the value of audit_log_format can result in writing log entries in oneformat to an existing log file that contains entries in a different format. To avoid thisissue, use the following procedure:

1. Stop the server.

2. Either change the value of the audit_log_file system variable so the pluginwrites to a different file, or rename the current audit log file manually.

3. Restart the server with the new value of audit_log_format. The audit logplugin creates a new log file and writes entries to it in the selected format.

Audit Logging Write Strategy

The audit log plugin can use any of several strategies for log writes. Regardless of strategy, logging occurson a best-effort basis, with no guarantee of consistency.

To specify a write strategy, set the audit_log_strategy system variable at server startup. By default,the strategy value is ASYNCHRONOUS and the plugin logs asynchronously to a buffer, waiting if the bufferis full. It's possible to tell the plugin not to wait (PERFORMANCE) or to log synchronously, either usingfile system caching (SEMISYNCHRONOUS) or forcing output with a sync() call after each write request(SYNCHRONOUS).

For asynchronous write strategy, the audit_log_buffer_size system variable is the buffer size inbytes. Set this variable at server startup to change the buffer size. The plugin uses a single buffer, whichit allocates when it initializes and removes when it terminates. The plugin does not allocate this buffer fornonasynchronous write strategies.

Asynchronous logging strategy has these characteristics:

• Minimal impact on server performance and scalability.

• Blocking of threads that generate audit events for the shortest possible time; that is, time to allocate thebuffer plus time to copy the event to the buffer.

• Output goes to the buffer. A separate thread handles writes from the buffer to the log file.

With asynchronous logging, the integrity of the log file may be compromised if a problem occurs during awrite to the file or if the plugin does not shut down cleanly (for example, in the event that the server hostexits unexpectedly). To reduce this risk, set audit_log_strategy to use synchronous logging.

If the file system to which the audit log is being written fills up, a “disk full” error is written to the error log.Audit logging continues until the audit log buffer is full. If free disk space has not been made available by

Audit Log Logging Control

159

the time the buffer fills, client sessions will hang, and stopping the server at the time of client sessionshanging will result in audit log corruption. To avoid this if client sessions are hung, ensure that free space isavailable on the audit logging file system before stopping the server.

A disadvantage of PERFORMANCE strategy is that it drops events when the buffer is full. For a heavilyloaded server, the audit log may have events missing.

Audit Log File Space Management and Name Rotation

The audit log file has the potential to grow very large and consume a lot of disk space. Toenable management of the space used by its log files, the audit log plugin provides theaudit_log_rotate_on_size and audit_log_flush system variables, which control audit log filerotation and flushing. Rotation can be done manually, or automatically based on file size.

Manual audit log file rotation. By default, audit_log_rotate_on_size=0 and there is no logrotation except that which you perform manually. In this case, the audit log plugin closes and reopens thelog file when the audit_log_flush value changes from disabled to enabled. Log file renaming must bedone externally to the server. Suppose that the log file name is audit.log and you want to maintain thethree most recent log files, cycling through the names audit.log.1 through audit.log.3. On Unix,perform rotation manually like this:

1. From the command line, rename the current log files:

mv audit.log.2 audit.log.3mv audit.log.1 audit.log.2mv audit.log audit.log.1

At this point, the plugin is still writing to the current log file, which has been renamed to audit.log.1.

2. Connect to the server and flush the log file so the plugin closes it and reopens a new audit.log file:

SET GLOBAL audit_log_flush = ON;

Automatic size-based audit log file rotation. If audit_log_rotate_on_size is greater than0, setting audit_log_flush has no effect. Instead, whenever a write to the log file causes its size toexceed the audit_log_rotate_on_size value, the audit log plugin closes the file, renames it, andopens a new log file.

The renamed file has a timestamp and .xml added to the end. For example, if the file name isaudit.log, the plugin renames it to a value such as audit.log.15081807937726520.xml. Thetimestamp value is similar to a Unix timestamp, with the last 7 digits representing the fractional secondpart. By inserting a decimal point, the value can be interpreted using the FROM_UNIXTIME() function:

mysql> SELECT FROM_UNIXTIME(1508180793.7726520);+-----------------------------------+| FROM_UNIXTIME(1508180793.7726520) |+-----------------------------------+| 2017-10-16 14:06:33.772652 |+-----------------------------------+

Note

With size-based log file rotation, renamed log files do not rotate off the end of thename sequence. Instead, they have unique names and accumulate indefinitely. Toavoid excessive space use, remove old files periodically, backing them up first asnecessary.

Audit Log Filtering

160

7.4.5 Audit Log Filtering

The audit log plugin can filter audited events. This enables you to control whether audited events arewritten to the audit log file based on the account from which events originate or event status. Status filteringoccurs separately for connection events and statement events.

Event Filtering by Account

As of MySQL 5.6.20, to filter audited events based on the originating account, set one of these systemvariables at server startup or runtime:

• audit_log_include_accounts: The accounts to include in audit logging. If this variable is set, onlythese accounts are audited.

• audit_log_exclude_accounts: The accounts to exclude from audit logging. If this variable is set, allbut these accounts are audited.

The value for either variable can be NULL or a string containing one or more comma-separated accountnames, each in user_name@host_name format. By default, both variables are NULL, in which case, noaccount filtering is done and auditing occurs for all accounts.

Modifications to audit_log_include_accounts or audit_log_exclude_accounts affect onlyconnections created subsequent to the modification, not existing connections.

Example: To enable audit logging only for the user1 and user2 local host account accounts, set theaudit_log_include_accounts system variable like this:

SET GLOBAL audit_log_include_accounts = 'user1@localhost,user2@localhost';

Only one of audit_log_include_accounts or audit_log_exclude_accounts can be non-NULL ata time:

• If you set audit_log_include_accounts, the server sets audit_log_exclude_accounts toNULL.

• If you attempt to set audit_log_exclude_accounts, an error occurs unlessaudit_log_include_accounts is NULL. In this case, you must first clearaudit_log_include_accounts by setting it to NULL.

-- This sets audit_log_exclude_accounts to NULLSET GLOBAL audit_log_include_accounts = value;-- This fails because audit_log_include_accounts is not NULLSET GLOBAL audit_log_exclude_accounts = value;-- To set audit_log_exclude_accounts, first set-- audit_log_include_accounts to NULLSET GLOBAL audit_log_include_accounts = NULL;SET GLOBAL audit_log_exclude_accounts = value;

If you inspect the value of either variable, be aware that SHOW VARIABLES displays NULL as an emptystring. To avoid this, use SELECT instead:

mysql> SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'audit_log_include_accounts';+----------------------------+-------+| Variable_name | Value |+----------------------------+-------+| audit_log_include_accounts | |+----------------------------+-------+mysql> SELECT @@audit_log_include_accounts;

Audit Log Filtering

161

+------------------------------+| @@audit_log_include_accounts |+------------------------------+| NULL |+------------------------------+

If a user name or host name requires quoting because it contains a comma, space, or other specialcharacter, quote it using single quotes. If the variable value itself is quoted with single quotes, double eachinner single quote or escape it with a backslash. The following statements each enable audit logging for thelocal root account and are equivalent, even though the quoting styles differ:

SET GLOBAL audit_log_include_accounts = 'root@localhost';SET GLOBAL audit_log_include_accounts = '''root''@''localhost''';SET GLOBAL audit_log_include_accounts = '\'root\'@\'localhost\'';SET GLOBAL audit_log_include_accounts = "'root'@'localhost'";

The last statement will not work if the ANSI_QUOTES SQL mode is enabled because in that mode doublequotes signify identifier quoting, not string quoting.

Event Filtering by Status

As of MySQL 5.6.20, to filter audited events based on status, set these system variables at server startupor runtime:

• audit_log_connection_policy: Logging policy for connection events

• audit_log_statement_policy: Logging policy for statement events

Each variable takes a value of ALL (log all associated events; this is the default), ERRORS (log only failedevents), or NONE (do not log events). For example, to log all statement events but only failed connectionevents, use these settings:

SET GLOBAL audit_log_statement_policy = ALL;SET GLOBAL audit_log_connection_policy = ERRORS;

Before MySQL 5.6.20, audit_log_connection_policy and audit_log_statement_policy arenot available. Instead, use audit_log_policy at server startup or runtime. It takes a value of ALL (logall events; this is the default), LOGINS (log connection events), QUERIES (log statement events), or NONE(do not log events). For any of those values, the audit log plugin logs all selected events without distinctionas to success or failure.

As of MySQL 5.6.20, audit_log_policy is still available but can be set only at server startup. Atruntime, it is a read-only variable. Its use at startup works as follows:

• If you do not set audit_log_policy or set it to its default of ALL, any explicit settings foraudit_log_connection_policy or audit_log_statement_policy apply as specified. If notspecified, they default to ALL.

• If you set audit_log_policy to a non-ALL value, that value takes precedence over and is used toset audit_log_connection_policy and audit_log_statement_policy, as indicated in thefollowing table. If you also set either of those variables to a value other than their default of ALL, theserver writes a message to the error log to indicate that their values are being overridden.

Startup audit_log_policy Value Resultingaudit_log_connection_policyValue

Resultingaudit_log_statement_policyValue

LOGINS ALL NONE

Audit Log Reference

162

Startup audit_log_policy Value Resultingaudit_log_connection_policyValue

Resultingaudit_log_statement_policyValue

QUERIES NONE ALL

NONE NONE NONE

7.4.6 Audit Log Reference

The following discussion serves as a reference to MySQL Enterprise Audit components:

• Section 7.4.6.1, “Audit Log Option and Variable Reference”

• Section 7.4.6.2, “Audit Log Options and System Variables”

• Section 7.4.6.3, “Audit Log Plugin Status Variables”

7.4.6.1 Audit Log Option and Variable Reference

Table 7.9 Audit Log Option and Variable Reference

Name Cmd-Line Option File System Var Status Var Var Scope Dynamic

audit-log Yes Yes

audit_log_buffer_size Yes Yes Yes Global No

audit_log_connection_policyYes Yes Yes Global Yes

audit_log_current_session Yes Both No

Audit_log_current_size Yes Global No

Audit_log_event_max_drop_size Yes Global No

Audit_log_events Yes Global No

Audit_log_events_filtered Yes Global No

Audit_log_events_lost Yes Global No

Audit_log_events_written Yes Global No

audit_log_exclude_accountsYes Yes Yes Global Yes

audit_log_file Yes Yes Yes Global No

audit_log_flush Yes Global Yes

audit_log_format Yes Yes Yes Global No

audit_log_include_accountsYes Yes Yes Global Yes

audit_log_policy Yes Yes Yes Global Varies

audit_log_rotate_on_sizeYes Yes Yes Global Yes

audit_log_statement_policyYes Yes Yes Global Yes

audit_log_strategy Yes Yes Yes Global No

Audit_log_total_size Yes Global No

Audit_log_write_waits Yes Global No

7.4.6.2 Audit Log Options and System Variables

This section describes the command options and system variables that control operation of MySQLEnterprise Audit. If values specified at startup time are incorrect, the audit log plugin may fail to initialize

Audit Log Reference

163

properly and the server does not load it. In this case, the server may also produce error messages for otheraudit log settings because it will not recognize them.

To control activation of the audit log plugin, use this option:

• --audit-log[=value]

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log[=value]

Introduced 5.6.10

Type Enumeration

Default Value ON

Valid Values ON

OFF

FORCE

FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENT

This option controls how the server loads the audit_log plugin at startup. It is available only if theplugin has been previously registered with INSTALL PLUGIN or is loaded with --plugin-load or --plugin-load-add. See Section 7.4.1, “Installing MySQL Enterprise Audit”.

The option value should be one of those available for plugin-loading options, as described in Installingand Uninstalling Plugins. For example, --audit-log=FORCE_PLUS_PERMANENT tells the server toload the plugin at startup and prevents it from being removed while the server is running.

If the audit log plugin is enabled, it exposes several system variables that permit control over logging:

mysql> SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'audit_log%';+-----------------------------+--------------+| Variable_name | Value |+-----------------------------+--------------+| audit_log_buffer_size | 1048576 || audit_log_connection_policy | ALL || audit_log_current_session | ON || audit_log_exclude_accounts | || audit_log_file | audit.log || audit_log_flush | OFF || audit_log_format | OLD || audit_log_include_accounts | || audit_log_policy | ALL || audit_log_rotate_on_size | 0 || audit_log_statement_policy | ALL || audit_log_strategy | ASYNCHRONOUS |+-----------------------------+--------------+

You can set any of these variables at server startup, and some of them at runtime.

• audit_log_buffer_size

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log-buffer-size=value

Introduced 5.6.10

Audit Log Reference

164

Property Value

System Variable audit_log_buffer_size

Scope Global

Dynamic No

Type Integer

Default Value 1048576

Minimum Value 4096

Maximum Value (64-bit platforms) 18446744073709547520

Maximum Value (32-bit platforms) 4294967295

When the audit log plugin writes events to the log asynchronously, it uses a buffer to store eventcontents prior to writing them. This variable controls the size of that buffer, in bytes. The server adjuststhe value to a multiple of 4096. The plugin uses a single buffer, which it allocates when it initializes andremoves when it terminates. The plugin allocates this buffer only if logging is asynchronous.

• audit_log_connection_policy

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log-connection-policy=value

Introduced 5.6.20

System Variable audit_log_connection_policy

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Enumeration

Default Value ALL

Valid Values ALL

ERRORS

NONE

The policy controlling how the audit log plugin writes connection events to its log file. The following tableshows the permitted values.

Value Description

ALL Log all connection events

ERRORS Log only failed connection events

NONE Do not log connection events

Note

At server startup, any explicit value given for audit_log_connection_policymay be overridden if audit_log_policy is also specified, as described inSection 7.4.4, “Audit Log Logging Control”.

• audit_log_current_session

Audit Log Reference

165

Property Value

Introduced 5.6.20

System Variable audit_log_current_session

Scope Global, Session

Dynamic No

Type Boolean

Default Value depends on filtering policy

Whether audit logging is enabled for the current session. The session value of this variable is read only.It is set when the session begins based on the values of the audit_log_include_accounts andaudit_log_exclude_accounts system variables. The audit log plugin uses the session value todetermine whether to audit events for the session. (There is a global value, but the plugin does not useit.)

• audit_log_exclude_accounts

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log-exclude-accounts=value

Introduced 5.6.20

System Variable audit_log_exclude_accounts

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type String

Default Value NULL

The accounts for which events should not be logged. The value should be NULL or a string containinga list of one or more comma-separated account names. For more information, see Section 7.4.5, “AuditLog Filtering”.

Modifications to audit_log_exclude_accounts affect only connections created subsequent to themodification, not existing connections.

• audit_log_file

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log-file=file_name

Introduced 5.6.10

System Variable audit_log_file

Scope Global

Dynamic No

Type File name

Default Value audit.log

The name of the file to which the audit log plugin writes events. The default value is audit.log. If thevalue of audit_log_file is a relative path name, the plugin interprets it relative to the data directory.If the value is a full path name, the plugin uses the value as is. A full path name may be useful if it is

Audit Log Reference

166

desirable to locate audit files on a separate file system or directory. For security reasons, the audit logfile should be written to a directory accessible only to the MySQL server and to users with a legitimatereason to view the log. For more information, see Section 7.4.4, “Audit Log Logging Control”.

• audit_log_flush

Property Value

Introduced 5.6.10

System Variable audit_log_flush

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Boolean

Default Value OFF

When this variable is set to enabled (1 or ON), the audit log plugin closes and reopens its log file to flushit. (The value remains OFF so that you need not disable it explicitly before enabling it again to performanother flush.) Enabling this variable has no effect unless audit_log_rotate_on_size is 0. Formore information, see Section 7.4.4, “Audit Log Logging Control”.

• audit_log_format

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log-format=value

Introduced 5.6.14

System Variable audit_log_format

Scope Global

Dynamic No

Type Enumeration

Default Value OLD

Valid Values OLD

NEW

The audit log file format. Permitted values are OLD and NEW (default OLD). For details about each format,see Section 7.4.3, “Audit Log File Formats”.

Note

Changing the value of audit_log_format can result in writing log entries inone format to an existing log file that contains entries in a different format. Toavoid this issue, use the procedure described at Audit Log File Format.

• audit_log_include_accounts

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log-include-accounts=value

Introduced 5.6.20

System Variable audit_log_include_accounts

Audit Log Reference

167

Property Value

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type String

Default Value NULL

The accounts for which events should be logged. The value should be NULL or a string containing a listof one or more comma-separated account names. For more information, see Section 7.4.5, “Audit LogFiltering”.

Modifications to audit_log_include_accounts affect only connections created subsequent to themodification, not existing connections.

• audit_log_policy

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log-policy=value

Introduced 5.6.10

System Variable audit_log_policy

Scope Global

Dynamic (>= 5.6.20) No

Dynamic (<= 5.6.19) Yes

Type Enumeration

Default Value ALL

Valid Values ALL

LOGINS

QUERIES

NONE

The policy controlling how the audit log plugin writes events to its log file. The following table shows thepermitted values.

Value Description

ALL Log all events

LOGINS Log only login events

QUERIES Log only query events

NONE Log nothing (disable the audit stream)

As of MySQL 5.6.20, audit_log_policy can be set only at server startup. At runtime,it is a read-only variable. This is due to the introduction of two other system variables,audit_log_connection_policy and audit_log_statement_policy, that provide finercontrol over logging policy and that can be set either at startup or at runtime. If you continue to useaudit_log_policy at startup instead of the other two variables, the server uses its value to set thosevariables. For more information about the policy variables and their interaction, see Section 7.4.4, “AuditLog Logging Control”.

Audit Log Reference

168

Before MySQL 5.6.20, the audit_log_connection_policy and audit_log_statement_policysystem variables do not exist. audit_log_policy is the only policy control variable and it can be set atserver startup or runtime.

• audit_log_rotate_on_size

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log-rotate-on-size=N

Introduced 5.6.10

System Variable audit_log_rotate_on_size

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Integer

Default Value 0

If the audit_log_rotate_on_size value is 0, the audit log plugin does not perform automatic logfile rotation. Instead, use audit_log_flush to close and reopen the log on demand. In this case,manually rename the file externally to the server before flushing it.

If the audit_log_rotate_on_size value is greater than 0, automatic size-based log file rotationoccurs. Whenever a write to the log file causes its size to exceed the audit_log_rotate_on_sizevalue, the audit log plugin closes the current log file, renames it, and opens a new log file.

For more information about audit log file rotation, see Audit Log File Space Management and NameRotation.

If you set this variable to a value that is not a multiple of 4096, it is truncated to the nearest multiple.(Thus, setting it to a value less than 4096 has the effect of setting it to 0 and no rotation occurs, exceptmanually.)

• audit_log_statement_policy

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log-statement-policy=value

Introduced 5.6.20

System Variable audit_log_statement_policy

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Enumeration

Default Value ALL

Valid Values ALL

ERRORS

NONE

The policy controlling how the audit log plugin writes statement events to its log file. The following tableshows the permitted values.

Audit Log Reference

169

Value Description

ALL Log all statement events

ERRORS Log only failed statement events

NONE Do not log statement events

Note

At server startup, any explicit value given for audit_log_statement_policymay be overridden if audit_log_policy is also specified, as described inSection 7.4.4, “Audit Log Logging Control”.

• audit_log_strategy

Property Value

Command-Line Format --audit-log-strategy=value

Introduced 5.6.10

System Variable audit_log_strategy

Scope Global

Dynamic No

Type Enumeration

Default Value ASYNCHRONOUS

Valid Values ASYNCHRONOUS

PERFORMANCE

SEMISYNCHRONOUS

SYNCHRONOUS

The logging method used by the audit log plugin. These strategy values are permitted:

• ASYNCHRONOUS: Log asynchronously. Wait for space in the output buffer.

• PERFORMANCE: Log asynchronously. Drop requests for which there is insufficient space in the outputbuffer.

• SEMISYNCHRONOUS: Log synchronously. Permit caching by the operating system.

• SYNCHRONOUS: Log synchronously. Call sync() after each request.

7.4.6.3 Audit Log Plugin Status Variables

If the audit log plugin is enabled, it exposes several status variables that provide operational information.

• Audit_log_current_size

The size of the current audit log file. The value increases when an event is written to the log and is resetto 0 when the log is rotated.

• Audit_log_event_max_drop_size

Audit Log Restrictions

170

The size of the largest dropped event in performance logging mode. For a description of logging modes,see Section 7.4.4, “Audit Log Logging Control”.

• Audit_log_events

The number of events handled by the audit log plugin, whether or not they were written to the log basedon filtering policy (see Section 7.4.4, “Audit Log Logging Control”).

• Audit_log_events_filtered

The number of events handled by the audit log plugin that were filtered (not written to the log) based onfiltering policy (see Section 7.4.4, “Audit Log Logging Control”).

• Audit_log_events_lost

The number of events lost in performance logging mode because an event was larger thanthan the available audit log buffer space. This value may be useful for assessing how to setaudit_log_buffer_size to size the buffer for performance mode. For a description of loggingmodes, see Section 7.4.4, “Audit Log Logging Control”.

• Audit_log_events_written

The number of events written to the audit log.

• Audit_log_total_size

The total size of events written to all audit log files. Unlike Audit_log_current_size, the value ofAudit_log_total_size increases even when the log is rotated.

• Audit_log_write_waits

The number of times an event had to wait for space in the audit log buffer in asynchronous loggingmode. For a description of logging modes, see Section 7.4.4, “Audit Log Logging Control”.

7.4.7 Audit Log Restrictions

MySQL Enterprise Audit is subject to these general restrictions:

• Only SQL statements are logged. Changes made by no-SQL APIs, such as memcached, Node.JS, andthe NDB API, are not logged.

• Only top-level statements are logged, not statements within stored programs such as triggers or storedprocedures.

• Contents of files referenced by statements such as LOAD DATA are not logged.

NDB Cluster. It is possible to use MySQL Enterprise Audit with MySQL NDB Cluster, subject to thefollowing conditions:

• All changes to be logged must be done using the SQL interface. Changes using no-SQL interfaces, suchas those provided by the NDB API, memcached, or ClusterJ, are not logged.

• The plugin must be installed on each MySQL server that is used to execute SQL on the cluster.

• Audit plugin data must be aggregated amongst all MySQL servers used with the cluster. Thisaggregation is the responsibility of the application or user.

MySQL Enterprise Firewall

171

7.5 MySQL Enterprise Firewall

Note

MySQL Enterprise Firewall is an extension included in MySQL Enterprise Edition,a commercial product. To learn more about commercial products, see https://www.mysql.com/products/.

As of MySQL 5.6.24, MySQL Enterprise Edition includes MySQL Enterprise Firewall, an application-level firewall that enables database administrators to permit or deny SQL statement execution based onmatching against whitelists of accepted statement patterns. This helps harden MySQL Server againstattacks such as SQL injection or attempts to exploit applications by using them outside of their legitimatequery workload characteristics.

Each MySQL account registered with the firewall has its own statement whitelist, enabling protection tobe tailored per account. For a given account, the firewall can operate in recording, protecting, or detectingmode, for training in the accepted statement patterns, active protection against unacceptable statements,or passive detection of unacceptable statements. The diagram illustrates how the firewall processesincoming statements in each mode.

Figure 7.1 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Operation

The following sections describe the components of MySQL Enterprise Firewall, discuss how to install anduse it, and provide reference information for its components.

7.5.1 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Components

MySQL Enterprise Firewall is based on a plugin library that implements these components:

Installing or Uninstalling MySQL Enterprise Firewall

172

• A server-side plugin named MYSQL_FIREWALL examines SQL statements before they execute and,based on its in-memory cache, renders a decision whether to execute or reject each statement.

• Server-side plugins named MYSQL_FIREWALL_USERS and MYSQL_FIREWALL_WHITELIST implementINFORMATION_SCHEMA tables that provide views into the firewall data cache.

• System tables named firewall_users and firewall_whitelist in the mysql database providepersistent storage of firewall data.

• Stored procedures named sp_set_firewall_mode() and sp_reload_firewall_rules()perform tasks such as registering MySQL accounts with the firewall, establishing their operational mode,and managing transfer of firewall data between the cache and the underlying system tables.

• A set of user-defined functions provides an SQL-level API for lower-level tasks such as synchronizingthe cache with the underlying system tables.

• System variables enable firewall configuration and status variables provide runtime operationalinformation.

7.5.2 Installing or Uninstalling MySQL Enterprise Firewall

MySQL Enterprise Firewall installation is a one-time operation that installs the components described inSection 7.5.1, “MySQL Enterprise Firewall Components”. Installation can be performed using a graphicalinterface or manually:

• On Windows, MySQL Installer includes an option to enable MySQL Enterprise Firewall for you.

• MySQL Workbench 6.3.4 or higher can install MySQL Enterprise Firewall, enable or disable an installedfirewall, or uninstall the firewall.

• Manual MySQL Enterprise Firewall installation involves running a script located in the share directory ofyour MySQL installation.

Note

If installed, MySQL Enterprise Firewall involves some minimal overhead even whendisabled. To avoid this overhead, do not install the firewall unless you plan to use it.

Note

MySQL Enterprise Firewall does not work together with the query cache. If thequery cache is enabled, disable it before installing the firewall (see Query CacheConfiguration).

For usage instructions, see Section 7.5.3, “Using MySQL Enterprise Firewall”. For reference information,see Section 7.5.4, “MySQL Enterprise Firewall Reference”.

• Installing MySQL Enterprise Firewall

• Uninstalling MySQL Enterprise Firewall

Installing MySQL Enterprise Firewall

If MySQL Enterprise Firewall is already installed from an older version of MySQL, uninstall it using theinstructions given later in this section and restart your server before installing the current version. In thiscase, it is also necessary to register your configuration again.

Installing or Uninstalling MySQL Enterprise Firewall

173

On Windows, you can use MySQL Installer to install MySQL Enterprise Firewall, as shown in Figure 7.2,“MySQL Enterprise Firewall Installation on Windows”. Check the Enable Enterprise Firewall checkbox.(Open Firewall port for network access has a different purpose. It refers to Windows Firewalland controls whether Windows blocks the TCP/IP port on which the MySQL server listens for clientconnections.)

Figure 7.2 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Installation on Windows

To install MySQL Enterprise Firewall using MySQL Workbench 6.3.4 or higher, see MySQL EnterpriseFirewall Interface.

To install MySQL Enterprise Firewall manually, look in the share directory of your MySQL installation andchoose the script that is appropriate for your platform. The available scripts differ in the suffix used to referto the plugin library file:

• win_install_firewall.sql: Choose this script for Windows systems that use .dll as the filename suffix.

• linux_install_firewall.sql: Choose this script for Linux and similar systems that use .so as thefile name suffix.

The installation script creates stored procedures in the default database, so choose a database to use.Then run the script as follows, naming the chosen database on the command line. The example here usesthe mysql database and the Linux installation script. Make the appropriate substitutions for your system.

Using MySQL Enterprise Firewall

174

shell> mysql -u root -p mysql < linux_install_firewall.sqlEnter password: (enter root password here)

Installing MySQL Enterprise Firewall either using a graphical interface or manually should enable thefirewall. To verify that, connect to the server and execute this statement:

mysql> SHOW GLOBAL VARIABLES LIKE 'mysql_firewall_mode';+---------------------+-------+| Variable_name | Value |+---------------------+-------+| mysql_firewall_mode | ON |+---------------------+-------+

Uninstalling MySQL Enterprise Firewall

MySQL Enterprise Firewall can be uninstalled using MySQL Workbench or manually.

To uninstall MySQL Enterprise Firewall using MySQL Workbench 6.3.4 or higher, see MySQL EnterpriseFirewall Interface.

To uninstall MySQL Enterprise Firewall manually, execute the following statements. It is assumed thatthe stored procedures were created in the mysql database. Adjust the DROP PROCEDURE statementsappropriately if the procedures were created in a different database.

DROP TABLE mysql.firewall_whitelist;DROP TABLE mysql.firewall_users;UNINSTALL PLUGIN mysql_firewall;UNINSTALL PLUGIN mysql_firewall_whitelist;UNINSTALL PLUGIN mysql_firewall_users;DROP FUNCTION set_firewall_mode;DROP FUNCTION normalize_statement;DROP FUNCTION read_firewall_whitelist;DROP FUNCTION read_firewall_users;DROP FUNCTION mysql_firewall_flush_status; # MySQL 5.6.26 and up onlyDROP PROCEDURE mysql.sp_set_firewall_mode;DROP PROCEDURE mysql.sp_reload_firewall_rules; # MySQL 5.6.26 and up only

7.5.3 Using MySQL Enterprise Firewall

Before using MySQL Enterprise Firewall, install it according to the instructions provided in Section 7.5.2,“Installing or Uninstalling MySQL Enterprise Firewall”. Also, MySQL Enterprise Firewall does not worktogether with the query cache; disable the query cache if it is enabled (see Query Cache Configuration).

This section describes how to configure MySQL Enterprise Firewall using SQL statements. Alternatively,MySQL Workbench 6.3.4 or higher provides a graphical interface for firewall control. See MySQLEnterprise Firewall Interface.

To enable or disable the firewall, set the mysql_firewall_mode system variable. By default, thisvariable is enabled when the firewall is installed. To control the initial firewall state explicitly, you can setthe variable at server startup. For example, to enable the firewall in an option file, use these lines:

[mysqld]mysql_firewall_mode=ON

It is also possible to disable or enable the firewall at runtime:

Using MySQL Enterprise Firewall

175

mysql> SET GLOBAL mysql_firewall_mode = OFF;mysql> SET GLOBAL mysql_firewall_mode = ON;

In addition to the global on/off firewall mode, each account registered with the firewall has its ownoperational mode. For an account in recording mode, the firewall learns an application's “fingerprint,” thatis, the acceptable statement patterns that, taken together, form a whitelist. After training, switch the firewallto protecting mode to harden MySQL against access by statements that deviate from the fingerprint. Foradditional training, switch the firewall back to recording mode as necessary to update the whitelist with newstatement patterns. As of MySQL 5.6.26, an intrusion-detection mode is available that writes suspiciousstatements to the error log but does not deny access.

The firewall maintains whitelist rules on a per-account basis, enabling implementation of protectionstrategies such as these:

• For an application that has unique protection requirements, configure it to use an account that is notused for any other purpose.

• For applications that are related and share protection requirements, configure them as a group to usethe same account.

Firewall operation is based on conversion of SQL statements to normalized digest form. Firewall digestsare like the statement digests used by the Performance Schema (see Performance Schema StatementDigests). However, unlike the Performance Schema, the relevant digest-related system variable ismax_digest_length.

For a connection from a registered account, the firewall converts each incoming statement to normalizedform and processes it according to the account mode:

• In recording mode, the firewall adds the normalized statement to the account whitelist rules.

• In protecting mode, the firewall compares the normalized statement to the account whitelist rules. If thereis a match, the statement passes and the server continues to process it. Otherwise, the server rejectsthe statement and returns an error to the client. As of MySQL 5.6.25, the firewall also writes the rejectedstatement to the error log if the mysql_firewall_trace system variable is enabled.

• In detecting mode, the firewall matches statements as in protecting mode, but writes nonmatchingstatements to the error log without denying access.

Accounts that have a mode of OFF or are not registered with the firewall are ignored by it.

Note

Before MySQL 5.6.25, MySQL Enterprise Firewall records prepared statementsas they are received by the server, not as normalized digests. Thus, spaces, tabs,and lettercase are significant for comparison of whitelist rules against incomingstatements.

To protect an account using MySQL Enterprise Firewall, follow these steps:

1. Register the account and put it in recording mode.

2. Connect to the MySQL server using the registered account and execute statements to be learned. Thisestablishes the account's whitelist of accepted statements.

3. Switch the registered account to protecting mode.

Using MySQL Enterprise Firewall

176

The following example shows how to register an account with the firewall, use the firewall to learnacceptable statements for that account, and protect the account against execution of unacceptablestatements. The example account, 'fwuser'@'localhost', is for use by an application that accessestables in the sakila database. (This database is available at https://dev.mysql.com/doc/index-other.html.)

Note

The user and host parts of the account name are quoted separately for statementssuch as CREATE USER and GRANT, whereas to specify an account for use with afirewall component, name it as a single quoted string 'fwuser@localhost'.

The convention for naming accounts as a single quoted string for firewallcomponents means that you cannot use accounts that have embedded @characters in the user name.

Perform the steps in the following procedure using an administrative MySQL account, except thosedesignated for execution by the account registered with the firewall. The default database should besakila for statements executed using the registered account.

1. If necessary, create the account to be protected (choose an appropriate password) and grant itprivileges for the sakila database:

mysql> CREATE USER 'fwuser'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'fWp@3sw0rd';mysql> GRANT ALL ON sakila.* TO 'fwuser'@'localhost';

2. Use the sp_set_firewall_mode() stored procedure to register the account with the firewall andplace it in recording mode (if the procedure is located in a database other than mysql, adjust thestatement accordingly):

mysql> CALL mysql.sp_set_firewall_mode('fwuser@localhost', 'RECORDING');

During the course of its execution, the stored procedure invokes firewall user-defined functions, whichmay produce output of their own.

3. Using the registered account, connect to the server, then execute some statements that are legitimatefor it:

mysql> SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer WHERE customer_id = 1;mysql> UPDATE rental SET return_date = NOW() WHERE rental_id = 1;mysql> SELECT get_customer_balance(1, NOW());

The firewall converts the statements to digest form and records them in the account whitelist.

Note

Until the account executes statements in recording mode, its whitelist is empty,which is equivalent to “deny all.” If switched to protecting mode, the account willbe effectively prohibited from executing statements.

4. At this point, the user and whitelist information is cached and can be seen in the firewallINFORMATION_SCHEMA tables:

mysql> SELECT MODE FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.MYSQL_FIREWALL_USERS WHERE USERHOST = 'fwuser@localhost';+-----------+| MODE |

Using MySQL Enterprise Firewall

177

+-----------+| RECORDING |+-----------+mysql> SELECT RULE FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.MYSQL_FIREWALL_WHITELIST WHERE USERHOST = 'fwuser@localhost';+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+| RULE |+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+| SELECT `first_name` , `last_name` FROM `customer` WHERE `customer_id` = ? || SELECT `get_customer_balance` ( ? , NOW ( ) ) || UPDATE `rental` SET `return_date` = NOW ( ) WHERE `rental_id` = ? || SELECT @@`version_comment` LIMIT ? |+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+

Note

The @@version_comment rule comes from a statement sent automatically bythe mysql client when you connect to the server as the registered user.

It is important to train the firewall under conditions matching application use. Forexample, a given MySQL connector might send statements to the server at thebeginning of a connection to determine server characteristics and capabilities.If an application normally is used through that connector, train the firewall thatway, too. That enables those initial statements to become part of the whitelist forthe account associated with the application.

5. Use the stored procedure to switch the registered user to protecting mode:

mysql> CALL mysql.sp_set_firewall_mode('fwuser@localhost', 'PROTECTING');

Important

Switching the account out of RECORDING mode synchronizes its firewall cachedata to the underlying mysql system database tables for persistent storage.If you do not switch the mode for a user who is being recorded, the cachedwhitelist data is not written to the system tables and will be lost when the serveris restarted.

6. Using the registered account, execute some acceptable and unacceptable statements. The firewallmatches each one against the account whitelist and accepts or rejects it.

This statement is not identical to a training statement but produces the same normalized statement asone of them, so the firewall accepts it:

mysql> SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer WHERE customer_id = '48';+------------+-----------+| first_name | last_name |+------------+-----------+| ANN | EVANS |+------------+-----------+

These statements do not match anything in the whitelist and each results in an error:

mysql> SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer WHERE customer_id = 1 OR TRUE;ERROR 1045 (28000): Statement was blocked by Firewallmysql> SHOW TABLES LIKE 'customer%';ERROR 1045 (28000): Statement was blocked by Firewallmysql> TRUNCATE TABLE mysql.slow_log;ERROR 1045 (28000): Statement was blocked by Firewall

MySQL Enterprise Firewall Reference

178

As of MySQL 5.6.25, the firewall also writes the rejected statements to the error log if themysql_firewall_trace system variable is enabled. For example:

[Note] Plugin MYSQL_FIREWALL reported:'ACCESS DENIED for fwuser@localhost. Reason: No match in whitelist.Statement: TRUNCATE TABLE `mysql` . `slow_log` '

You can use these log messages in your efforts to identify the source of attacks.

7. As of MySQL 5.6.26, you can log nonmatching statements as suspicious without denying access. To dothis, put the account in intrusion-detecting mode:

mysql> CALL mysql.sp_set_firewall_mode('fwuser@localhost', 'DETECTING');

8. Using the registered account, connect to the server, then execute a statement that does not match thewhitelist:

mysql> SHOW TABLES LIKE 'customer%';+------------------------------+| Tables_in_sakila (customer%) |+------------------------------+| customer || customer_list |+------------------------------+

In detecting mode, the firewall permits the nonmatching statement to execute but writes a message tothe error log:

[Note] Plugin MYSQL_FIREWALL reported:'SUSPICIOUS STATEMENT from 'fwuser@localhost'. Reason: No match in whitelist.Statement: SHOW TABLES LIKE ? '

9. To assess firewall activity, examine its status variables:

mysql> SHOW GLOBAL STATUS LIKE 'Firewall%';+----------------------------+-------+| Variable_name | Value |+----------------------------+-------+| Firewall_access_denied | 3 || Firewall_access_granted | 4 || Firewall_access_suspicious | 1 || Firewall_cached_entries | 4 |+----------------------------+-------+

The variables indicate the number of statements rejected, accepted, logged as suspicious, andadded to the cache, respectively. The Firewall_access_granted count is 4 because of the@@version_comment statement sent by the mysql client each of the three time you used it toconnect as the registered user, plus the SHOW TABLES statement that was not blocked in DETECTINGmode.

Should additional training for an account be necessary, switch it to recording mode again, then back toprotecting mode after executing statements to be added to the whitelist.

7.5.4 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Reference

The following discussion serves as a reference to MySQL Enterprise Firewall components:

MySQL Enterprise Firewall Reference

179

• Section 7.5.4.1, “MySQL Enterprise Firewall Tables”

• Section 7.5.4.2, “MySQL Enterprise Firewall Procedures and Functions”

• Section 7.5.4.3, “MySQL Enterprise Firewall System Variables”

• Section 7.5.4.4, “MySQL Enterprise Firewall Status Variables”

7.5.4.1 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Tables

MySQL Enterprise Firewall maintains account and whitelist information. It uses INFORMATION_SCHEMAtables to provide views into cached data, and tables in the mysql system database to store this data inpersistent form. When enabled, the firewall bases its operational decisions on the cached data.

The INFORMATION_SCHEMA tables are accessible by anyone. The mysql tables can be accessed only byusers with privileges for that database.

The INFORMATION_SCHEMA.MYSQL_FIREWALL_USERS and mysql.firewall_users tables listregistered firewall accounts and their operational modes. The tables have these columns:

• USERHOST

An account registered with the firewall. Each account has the format user_name@host_name andrepresents actual user and host names as authenticated by the server. Patterns and netmasks shouldnot be used when registering users.

• MODE

The current firewall operational mode for the account. The permitted mode values are OFF, DETECTING(as of MySQL 5.6.26), PROTECTING, RECORDING, and RESET. For details about their meanings, see thedescription of sp_set_firewall_mode() in Section 7.5.4.2, “MySQL Enterprise Firewall Proceduresand Functions”.

The INFORMATION_SCHEMA.MYSQL_FIREWALL_WHITELIST and mysql.firewall_whitelist tableslist registered firewall accounts and their whitelists. The tables have these columns:

• USERHOST

An account registered with the firewall. The format is the same as for the user account tables.

• RULE

A normalized statement indicating an acceptable statement pattern for the account. An account whitelistis the union of its rules.

7.5.4.2 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Procedures and Functions

MySQL Enterprise Firewall has stored procedures that perform tasks such as registering MySQL accountswith the firewall, establishing their operational mode, and managing transfer of firewall data between thecache and the underlying system tables. It also has a set of user-defined functions (UDFs) that provides anSQL-level API for lower-level tasks such as synchronizing the cache with the underlying system tables.

Under normal operation, the stored procedures implement the user interface. The UDFs are invoked by thestored procedures, not directly by users.

To invoke a stored procedure when the default database is not the database that contains the procedure,qualify the procedure name with the database name. For example:

MySQL Enterprise Firewall Reference

180

CALL mysql.sp_set_firewall_mode(user, mode);

The following list describes each firewall stored procedure and UDF:

• sp_reload_firewall_rules(user)

This stored procedure uses firewall UDFs to reset a registered account and reload the in-memory rulesfor it from the rules stored in the mysql.firewall_whitelist table. This procedure provides controlover firewall operation for individual accounts.

The user argument names the affected account, as a string in user_name@host_name format.

Example:

CALL mysql.sp_reload_firewall_rules('fwuser@localhost');

Warning

This procedure sets the account mode to RESET, which clears the accountwhitelist and sets its mode to OFF. If the account mode was not OFF prior tothe sp_reload_firewall_rules() call, use sp_set_firewall_mode()to restore its previous mode after reloading the rules. For example, if theaccount was in PROTECTING mode, that is no longer true after callingsp_reload_firewall_rules() and you must set it to PROTECTING againexplicitly.

• sp_set_firewall_mode(user, mode)

This stored procedure registers a MySQL account with the firewall and establishes its operational mode.The procedure also invokes firewall UDFs as necessary to transfer firewall data between the cache andthe underlying system tables. This procedure may be called even if the mysql_firewall_mode systemvariable is OFF, although setting the mode for an account has no operational effect while the firewall isdisabled.

The user argument names the affected account, as a string in user_name@host_name format.

The mode is the operational mode for the user, as a string. These mode values are permitted:

• OFF: Disable the firewall for the account.

• DETECTING: Intrusion-detection mode: Write suspicious (nonmatching) statements to the error log butdo not deny access.

• PROTECTING: Protect the account by matching incoming statements against the account whitelist.

• RECORDING: Training mode: Record acceptable statements for the account. Incoming statements thatdo not immediately fail with a syntax error are recorded to become part of the account whitelist rules.

• RESET: Clear the account whitelist and set the account mode to OFF.

Switching the mode for an account to any mode but RECORDING synchronizes the firewall cache datato the underlying mysql system database tables for persistent storage. Switching the mode from OFF toRECORDING reloads the whitelist from the mysql.firewall_whitelist table into the cache.

If an account has an empty whitelist, setting its mode to PROTECTING produces an error message that isreturned in a result set, but not an SQL error:

MySQL Enterprise Firewall Reference

181

mysql> CALL mysql.sp_set_firewall_mode('a@b','PROTECTING');+----------------------------------------------------------------------+| set_firewall_mode(arg_userhost, arg_mode) |+----------------------------------------------------------------------+| ERROR: PROTECTING mode requested for a@b but the whitelist is empty. |+----------------------------------------------------------------------+1 row in set (0.02 sec)Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.02 sec)

• mysql_firewall_flush_status()

This UDF resets several firewall status variables to 0:

Firewall_access_deniedFirewall_access_grantedFirewall_access_suspicious

Example:

SELECT mysql_firewall_flush_status();

• normalize_statement(stmt)

This UDF normalizes an SQL statement into the digest form used for whitelist rules.

Example:

SELECT normalize_statement('SELECT * FROM t1 WHERE c1 > 2');

• read_firewall_users(user, mode)

This aggregate UDF updates the firewall user cache through a SELECT statement on themysql.firewall_users table.

Example:

SELECT read_firewall_users('fwuser@localhost', 'RECORDING')FROM mysql.firewall_users;

• read_firewall_whitelist(user, rule)

This aggregate UDF updates the recorded statement cache through a SELECT statement on themysql.firewall_whitelist table.

Example:

SELECT read_firewall_whitelist('fwuser@localhost', 'RECORDING')FROM mysql.firewall_whitelist;

• set_firewall_mode(user, mode)

This UDF manages the user cache and establishes the user operational mode.

Example:

MySQL Enterprise Firewall Reference

182

SELECT set_firewall_mode('fwuser@localhost', 'RECORDING');

7.5.4.3 MySQL Enterprise Firewall System Variables

MySQL Enterprise Firewall supports the following system variables. Use them to configure firewalloperation. These variables are unavailable unless the firewall is installed (see Section 7.5.2, “Installing orUninstalling MySQL Enterprise Firewall”).

• mysql_firewall_max_query_size

Property Value

Command-Line Format --mysql-firewall-max-query-size=size

Introduced 5.6.24

Removed 5.6.26

System Variable mysql_firewall_max_query_size

Scope Global

Dynamic No

Type Integer

Default Value 4096

Minimum Value 0

Maximum Value 4294967295

The maximum size of a normalized statement that can be inserted in the MySQL Enterprise Firewallcache. Normalized statements longer than this size are truncated. Truncated statements are discarded ifthe firewall mode for the current user is RECORDING and rejected if the mode is PROTECTING.

mysql_firewall_max_query_size was removed in MySQL 5.6.26. max_digest_length shouldbe set large enough to avoid statement truncation.

• mysql_firewall_mode

Property Value

Command-Line Format --mysql-firewall-mode={OFF|ON}

Introduced 5.6.24

System Variable mysql_firewall_mode

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Boolean

Default Value ON

Whether MySQL Enterprise Firewall is enabled (the default) or disabled.

• mysql_firewall_trace

Property Value

Command-Line Format --mysql-firewall-trace={OFF|ON}

Introduced 5.6.24

MySQL Enterprise Firewall Reference

183

Property Value

System Variable mysql_firewall_trace

Scope Global

Dynamic Yes

Type Boolean

Default Value OFF

Whether the MySQL Enterprise Firewall trace is enabled or disabled (the default). When enabled,mysql_firewall_trace has this effect:

• In MySQL 5.6.24, the firewall writes a file named firewall_trace.txt in the data directory.

• In MySQL 5.6.25 and higher, for PROTECTING mode, the firewall writes rejected statements to theerror log.

7.5.4.4 MySQL Enterprise Firewall Status Variables

MySQL Enterprise Firewall supports the following status variables. Use them to obtain informationabout firewall operational status. These variables are unavailable unless the firewall is installed (seeSection 7.5.2, “Installing or Uninstalling MySQL Enterprise Firewall”). Firewall status variables are set to0 whenever the MYSQL_FIREWALL plugin is installed or the server is started. Many of them are reset tozero by the mysql_firewall_flush_status() UDF (see Section 7.5.4.2, “MySQL Enterprise FirewallProcedures and Functions”).

• Firewall_access_denied

The number of statements rejected by MySQL Enterprise Firewall.

• Firewall_access_granted

The number of statements accepted by MySQL Enterprise Firewall.

• Firewall_access_suspicious

The number of statements logged by MySQL Enterprise Firewall as suspicious for users who are inDETECTING mode.

• Firewall_cached_entries

The number of statements recorded by MySQL Enterprise Firewall, including duplicates.

184

185

Appendix A MySQL 5.6 FAQ: SecurityQuestions

• A.1: Where can I find documentation that addresses security issues for MySQL?

• A.2: What is the default authentication plugin in MySQL 5.6?

• A.3: Does MySQL 5.6 have native support for SSL?

• A.4: Is SSL support built into MySQL binaries, or must I recompile the binary myself to enable it?

• A.5: Does MySQL 5.6 have built-in authentication against LDAP directories?

• A.6: Does MySQL 5.6 include support for Roles Based Access Control (RBAC)?

Questions and Answers

A.1: Where can I find documentation that addresses security issues for MySQL?

The best place to start is Chapter 1, Security.

Other portions of the MySQL Documentation which you may find useful with regard to specific securityconcerns include the following:

• Section 2.1, “Security Guidelines”.

• Section 2.3, “Making MySQL Secure Against Attackers”.

• How to Reset the Root Password.

• Section 2.5, “How to Run MySQL as a Normal User”.

• UDF Security Precautions.

• Section 2.4, “Security-Related mysqld Options and Variables”.

• Section 2.6, “Security Issues with LOAD DATA LOCAL”.

• Chapter 3, Postinstallation Setup and Testing.

• Chapter 6, Using Encrypted Connections.

A.2: What is the default authentication plugin in MySQL 5.6?

The default authentication plugin in MySQL 5.6 is mysql_native_password. For information aboutthis plugin, see Section 7.1.1, “Native Pluggable Authentication”. For general information about pluggableauthentication and other available authentication plugins, see Section 5.7, “Pluggable Authentication”, andSection 7.1, “Authentication Plugins”.

A.3: Does MySQL 5.6 have native support for SSL?

Most 5.6 binaries have support for SSL connections between the client and server. See Chapter 6, UsingEncrypted Connections.

You can also tunnel a connection using SSH, if (for example) the client application does not support SSLconnections. For an example, see Section 6.7, “Connecting to MySQL Remotely from Windows with SSH”.

186

A.4: Is SSL support built into MySQL binaries, or must I recompile the binary myself to enable it?

Most 5.6 binaries have SSL enabled for client/server connections that are secured, authenticated, or both.See Chapter 6, Using Encrypted Connections.

A.5: Does MySQL 5.6 have built-in authentication against LDAP directories?

The Enterprise edition includes a PAM Authentication Plugin that supports authentication against an LDAPdirectory.

A.6: Does MySQL 5.6 include support for Roles Based Access Control (RBAC)?

Not at this time.