L/O/G/O

SECOND LANGUAGE

ACQUISITIONwww.themegallery.com

b y :

F i q i h N i n d y a P a l u p i

English DepartmentPost Graduate Program

Semarang State University

2012

Is the nature of L2 learning similar or different to first language acquisition?

Does the child bring something different to the process of second language acquisition?

Is the linguistic environment the same for both first and second language acquisition?

Three crucial issues in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) identified by Rice (1986):

1

2

3

Introduction

• First language refers to the first language people learn in the life. (p.29)

• Second language acquisition is the learning of a language by an individual who already has some degree of control over another language. (p.12)

• Second language refers to any language learned later in life and usually learned after the age of five. (p.29)

Terminology

Discussion of SLA

Learner Characteristics:

Learner Conditions:

Some factors influence in second language learning (Lightbown and Spada, 1999):

Prior language knowledge (knowing another language), Cognitive development, Metalinguistic development, and Personality factors, such as nervousness in speaking to

foreigners, etc.

Receiving instruction in the classroom learning, Doing structured homework or learning the language

through conversation with the family, Being required to speak up (in front of the class), The places where the children learn.

Theoretical Models in SLA

The three influential theoretical models for explaining second language acquisition and how language, the child and the environment connected each other, those models are:

Interactionist model

Innatist model

Behaviorist model

• The basic principles still apply:> Imitation > practice > reinforcement/ feedback, and > habit formation following stimulus-response model,

• All learning is similar (both for L1 or L2 learning)• However, in L2 learning, habits from first language are already

established, so part of L2 learning is leaning to eliminate bad habits (i.e. errors) from the first language.

Behaviorism and SLA

• Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) by Lado (1975):> elements that are similar in the 1st & 2nd language will be easy to learn, and elements that are different in two languages are difficult to learn.> buku = book > air = udara> pensil = pencil > Sunday = minggu

• CAH is too simplistic!> differences are not necessary difficult and similarities are not necessary easy. sometimes a startling new idea was easier to remember than

new information that was only slightly different from something you already know!

Queue

Behaviorism and SLA

• Instructional approach called Audiolinguism (a name coined by Prof. Nelson Brooks in 1964).

• “Grammars was taught through repetitive drills which built up in length and complexity so that good habits were developed. Grammatical rules did not have to be explained because teachers were to “teach the language, not about the language” Rivers (1981, p.42)

• Spoken language is more important than written language.

• Extensive use of dialogue memorization, repetition, and drills.

Behaviorism and Instruction

• Hello, good morning. I’m John. Are you Bill Jones?• Yes, I am.• Pleased to meet you.• Nice to meet you too.• How are you?• Fine, thanks.• How is Jane?• She’s very well, thank you.• Excuse me, I have to go now.• Good bye, John.• Good bye, Bill.• See you tomorrow.

Behaviorism and Instruction

? Is automatic recitation

the same as ‘learning’?

• No comprehension, only repetition or drills, so learners didn’t know what they were hearing or saying.

• Structures of language were learned by memorization without knowledge of how to adapt them in the real communication.

• The material used in audiolingual classes was controlled completely by the teachers.

• The role of the learner is very limited because it has little to do with learner interests.

• Markedness, this refers to the general idea that some linguistic features may be more ‘basic’ or ‘natural’ than others.

• > ekstra = extra• > sounds /x/, /z/, /v/.

Limitation of Behaviorist Model

• According to innatist theory, children are born with a special ability to systematically discover for themselves the underlying rules of a language system. This special ability enables them to learn the complexities of language in a relatively short period of time.

• This theory was proposed by Chomsky which emphasized the role of mental or psycholinguistic processes.

• He created the term Universal Grammar (UG), a kind of blueprint that the child is born with; exposure to, or to input from, a particular language sets the specific rules of the child’s language.

Innatism and SLA

Innatism and SLA

Access-issue

Two special issues in innatist model of SLA:

Full Access:The learner access UG in the same way for both 1st and 2nd language learning.

1 No Access:The learner does not access UG directly for the 2nd language learning but must go through the 1st language learning

1st Lang. 2nd Lang. 1st Lang. 2nd Lang.

Child’s mind (UG)

Child’s mind (UG)

Innatism and SLA

Age-issue

Two special issues in innatist model of SLA:

There is a critical period hypothesis (CPH) for language learning (Lenberg, 1967). This states that target-language competence in an L2 can only be achieved if learning commences before a certain age (e.g. the onset of puberty age) is reached.

However, some studies related to CPH and L2 learning found that: Adults and adolescents may learn more quickly than children in

the short term. Adult and adolescents who are good classroom learners may

learn more efficiently than young children in language classroom. Those who begin when they are younger and continue learning

may ultimately reach a higher level of proficiency than those who begin as adults.

2

• Use ‘The Natural Approach’ proposed by Terrel (1997) and the approach is supported by Krashen’s Hypothesis for SLA.

• Those are:– 1. the acquisition/learning hypothesis– 2. the monitor hypothesis– 3. the natural order hypothesis– 4. the input hypothesis– 5. the affective filter hypothesis– 6. the reading hypothesis

Innatism and Instruction

• Teachers must focus on communication rather than memorization of rules

• Immersion in meaningful and comprehensible contexts is a must

• Using the language in meaningful interactions develops communicative competency

the acquisition/learning hypothesis

• Language acquisition refers to the natural assimilation of languages, by means of intuition and subconscious learning.

• Language acquisition is the product of real interactions between people in environments of the target language and culture, where the learner, as an active player, develops his communicative ability.

• Language learning refers to the analysis and study of the language as a system, primarily in its written form. The objective is to understand the structure of the language and produce knowledge about it.

the acquisition/learning hypothesis

acquisition vs. learning

LEARNING ACQUISITIONArtificial Natural

Technical Personal

Priority on the written language Priority on the spoken language

Theory (language analysis) Practice (language in use)

Deductive teaching (rule-driven; top-down)

Inductive coaching (rule-discovery; bottom-up)

Preset syllabus Improvised activities

Activities ABOUT the language Activities IN the language

Focus on form Focus on communication

Produces knowledge Produces an ability

When learners know language rules, they can self-correct as needed

In order to work, learners need:1. Time to think about what they need to say or

have said2. To focus on form (how do I say it correctly?)3. Knowledge of rules and be able to apply them

the monitor hypothesis

language learners acquire (rather than learn) the rules of language in a predictable sequence.

some early / some late with some variations.

the natural order hypothesis

The Input Hypothesis Input needs to be comprehensible, but slightly

above current level of competency Teachers must present materials in ways that are

not tied language1. Visuals2. Objects3. Manipulative4. Modeling5. Gesturing6. Parenthese (repeat, rephrase, slower speech)7. Charts, etc.

the input hypothesis

Most important affective variables favoring second language acquisition:

1. Low-anxiety learning environment2. Self-confidence3. Self-esteem

Students able to acquire language in an environment where they feel accepted and free to take risks; they know if they make mistakes, they will not be fooled.

the affective filter hypothesis

Reading acts as a kind of input which extends acquisition especially for “reading comprehension, writing style, vocabulary spelling, and advanced grammatical competence.” (Krashen, 1994, p.46.)

the reading hypothesis

• Some researchers argued that there is no specialised capacity for language which is inborn, such as UG in Chomskyan model, but that an inborn cognitive ability or information-processing capacity is responsible.

• This assumes that language learning is not specialised, biological capability.

• The issues about how language is used and how language learning is influenced by social communication.

Limitation of Innatist model

• Influenced by sociolinguistic views of language and by views of language use for communication.

• Addressed to linguistic environment-the way(s) that language is used to, with and around the learner.

• The research has investigated possible roles for input, negotiation, output, and interactional feedback in SLA.

• Those four aspects are related each other in L2 language learning.

Interactionism and SLA

• Input• Krashen proposed that SLA is based on comprehensible

input. Input is essential.• But, input alone might not be sufficient because the

learners also need feedback about errors in order to find out what is not possible in the L2 learning.

Interactionism and SLA

It is a banana.It is a star fruit.

• Negation, Output, and Interactional feedback.A: It’s a bona..B: What? Bona..A: It’s a fruit. Yellow..B: Oh, fruit in yellow color.A: Yes..B: Is it a banana?A: Yes. Banana.B. It’s a banana.

Interactionism and SLA

It is a banana.

• Communicative Language Teaching Approaches (CLTAs) which includes a variety of different approaches to teaching including functional-notional, thematic, content based, task-based, etc.

• However, they all advocate a few common principles:• More learner-centered,• Less memorization, drill, and rule-based learning,• Use of pair and group work,• Contextualised teaching of vocabulary and grammar,• Emphasized language for communication,

Interactionism and Instruction

• The theory is still too limited since no consideration of other aspects of the socio-cultural context that influence language learning.

• A debate: innatist would argue that evidence from interaction might show how language become comprehensible but still cannot explain acquisition without acknowledging an innate capacity.

• While interartionist might say that innatist ignore language use, innatist might say that interactionist rely on language use too much.

Limitation in Interactionist theory

SummaryBehaviorist

Innatist

Interactionist • Input, negotiation, output, and interactional feedback maybe necessary for L2 learning.

• Other sociocultural aspects may also need to be considered• Instruction approach: CLATs

• Modeling, practice and reinforcement from proficient L2 language user.

• Habits formed in first language can interfere with L2 learning

• Instructional approach: Audiolingualism.

• UG is full access or no access or UG is partially available for l2 learning – an unresolved question

• If UG is biological, there may be an optimal time period for second language acquisition (prior to puberty) because the adult mind learns language differently

• Instructional approach: The Natural Approach

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