Search Strategies In Mass

Communication Third Edition

Jean Ward University of Minnesota

Kathleen A. Hansen University of Minnesota

LONGMAN

An Imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

NewYork • Reading, Massachusetts • Menlo Park, California • Harlow, England Don Mills, Ontario • Sydney • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam

Contents

Foreword vii

Preface ix

CHAPTER 1 COMMUNICATORS AS INFORMATION SEEKERS: MODELS OF THE SEARCH PROCESS 1

Information-Related Changes in Mass Communication 2 Technology Convergence 2, New Language 2, New Jobs 5, New Connections 6, New Quality Demands 6, New Content Demands 8, New Time Problems 8, New Phobia 8, Constancy, along with Change 9

The Search Strategy: An Intellectual Tool for Communicators 11 The Roles and Uses of Models 12 Search-Strategy Models: Simple and Expanded 14

Question Analysis 15, Potential Contributors of Information 17, Interviews 24, Selection and Synthesis 25, Message 26

Literary Conventions: Storytelling and the Media 27 Constraints on Communicators 28

Legal and Social Constraints 28, Time and Resource Constraints 29 Information Needs of the Audience 30 The Search-Strategy Model in a Mass-Communication Context 31 Notes 31

iv CONTENTS

CHAPTER 2 WHAT'S THE QUESTION? 33

How to Talk about the Topic 37 Drawing Disciplinary Boundaries 39 Narrowing the Topic 42 What's New about the Topic? 45 Question Analysis and Information Subsidies 46 Links to the Search Strategy 48 Notes 49

CHAPTER 3 CONSULTING PEOPLE AND OBSERVING THE WORLD 51

Networks of Informal Sources 52 The Virtual Watercooler 55 Informal Files and References 58 Casual Reading 59 Personal Memory as an Informal Source 61 Communicators as Observers 62

Types of Observation 63, Developing Observation Techniques 71, Recording the Observations 73

Recognizing Conditions for Distortion 73 Links to the Search Strategy 74 Notes 75

CHAPTER 4 DIGGING INTO INSTITUTIONS 77

How and Why Institutions Produce Information 80 Public and Private Information 81 Institutional Bias in Information 82 Major Types of Institutions 84

Private-Sector Institutions 85, Public-Sector Institutions 94 Following the Paper and Electronic Trails 104 Publicity and Privacy 109 Links to the Search Strategy 111 Notes 112

CHAPTER 5 APPROACHING LIBRARIES: TACTICS AND TOOLS 113

The Library's Place in the Search Process 115 Public Libraries 117 Academic Libraries 118

CONTENTS v

Special Libraries 119 Archives 220 Media-Organization Libraries 121 Decoding the Structure of Information in Library Collections 125 How Libraries Organize Information 227

Classification Systems 127, Subject Classification of Information in Libraries 129, What Library Organization Schemes Mean to the Communicator 131

Major Tools for Access to Information in Libraries 232 One-Step Library Tools 132, Two-Step Library Tools 139

The Library and the Librarian in the Message-Making Process 259 Links to the Search Strategy 262 Notes 161

CHAPTER 6 USING ELECTRONIC INFORMATION AND DATA TOOLS 163

What Communicators Can Do with Electronic Information and Data Tools 265

Information-Surfing Tools in Depth 267 Local or Stand-Alone Bulletin Board Systems 168, Commercial Database Services 170, Inter-networked Systems 178

Data-Crunching Tools in Depth 289 Quality Issues and Caveats 292 Using Electronic Information and Data Tools in Media

Organizations 294 Electronic Information and Data Tools in News 194, Electronic Information and Data Tools in Public Relations 201, Electronic Information and Data Tools in Advertising 204, Electronic Information and Data Tools in Academic Settings 208

Links to the Search Strategy 220 Notes 222

CHAPTER 7 INTERVIEWING 213

Types of Interviews 225 The Place of Interviews in the Search Process 229 Preparing for Interviews 222

Selecting Interviewees 222, Planning Interviews 225 Conducting Interviews 230

Rituals and Routines for Interviewers 230, Sources of Interview Error 231, Being Interviewed 236

Mass-Communication Interviews 236

vi CONTENTS

Group Interviews 236, Investigative Interviezos 239, News Conferences 240, Verbatim Interviews 241, Survey Interviews 241

Listening to and Recording Interviews 242 Links to the Search Strategy 247 Notes 248

CHAPTER 8 USING POLLS AND SURVEYS 251

The Search Strategy and the Poll or Survey 253 Uses of Polls and Surveys 253

Organizations That Conduct Polls and Surveys 255, Where to Locate Poll and Survey Information 259, Evaluating Polls and Surveys 262, Interpreting Poll and Survey Information 270

Caveats to the Communicator 272 Links to the Search Strategy 283 Notes 283

CHAPTER 9 SELECTING AND SYNTHESIZING INFORMATION 285

Selecting and Appraising Information 288 Critical Thinking 288, Climate of Ofrinion 294, Standards 295

Synthesizing and Organizing Information 305 Links to the Search Strategy 308 Notes 309

CHAPTER 10 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND THE SEARCH STRATEGY 311

The Social Responsibility Context 320 The Societal Perspective 321, The Professional and Organizational Perspectives 329, The Individual Perspective 335

The Search Strategy and Social Responsibility 337 Notes 338

Afterword 341

Following the Model: A Case Study of the Search-Strategy Process in Action 343

General Index 359

Topical Tool Index 368