search and research: teacher education for … · teaching ‘soft skills’ in a school-university...

JUANJO MENA, ANA GARCÍA-VALCÁRCELFRANCISCO JOSÉ GARCÍA-PEÑALVO,

MARTA MARTÍN DEL POZO (EDS.)

SEARCH AND RESEARCH:TEACHER EDUCATION

FOR CONTEMPORARY CONTEXTS

AQUILAFUENTE, 227

© Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca

y los autores

1ª edición: julio, 2017ISBN: 978-84-9012-769-8 (pdf en Pen Drive) / D.L.: S 231-2017

Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca Plaza San Benito s/n

E-37002 Salamanca (España)http://www.eusal.es

[email protected]

Realizado en España-Made in Spain

Realizado por:Cícero, S. L.

Tel.: 923 123 22637007 Salamanca (España)

Maquetación:Marta Martín del Pozo

Todos los derechos reservados. Ni la totalidad ni parte de este libro

puede reproducirse ni transmitirse sin permiso escrito de Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca.

Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca es miembro de la UNEUnión de Editoriales Universitarias Españolas

www.une.es

♠

CEP. Servicio de Bibliotecas

SEARCH and research : teacher education for contemporary contexts / Juanjo Mena, Ana García-Valcárcel, Francisco José García Peñalvo, Marta Martín del Pozo (eds.).

—1a. ed.—Salamanca : Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 20171 memoria USB (1190 p.).—(Aquilafuente ; 227)

Tít. tomado de la página de inicioContiene los preprints del “18th Biennial Conference on Teachers and Teaching,

3-7 july 2017 University of Salamanca, Spain”Sistema requerido: Adobe Acrobat

1. Docentes-Formación continuada. I. Mena Marcos, Juan José, editor. II. García-Valcárcel

Muñoz-Repiso, Ana, editor. III. García Peñalvo, Francisco José, editor. IV. Martín del Pozo, Marta, editor.

3719.13

♠

ONIX diponible en DILVE https://www.dilve.es/

http://www.eusal.es

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.une.es

https://www.dilve.es/

CONTENTS

Foreword ................................................................................................... i

Preface ..................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgements .................................................................................v

Introduction ......………………………………………………... 1

PART I. The development of knowledge and understanding

of teaching practices ........................................................ 5

The universe of supervision: an inclusive approach within the teacher training domain (Elsa Morgado, Mário Cardoso, João Rodrigues, and Levi Silva) 7

Learning to be Practitioner Inquirers and Researchers: Lessons from a Teacher Education Program (Meher Rizvi) ..................................................... 17

The added value of encouraging morally courageous behavior via initial teacher education- Insights from the Stories of Israeli Educators (Roni Reingold, and Lea Baratz) ..................................................................................... 27

“Who can support me?”: Studying teacher leadership in a Hong Kong primary school (Yuen-Shan Tse, Sally Wai-Yan Wan, Thomas Wing-Ki Lee, Wing-Ki Tsang, Vincent Kin-Chung Cheung, Ylena Yan Wong, Kelvin Shing-Pan Chong, Zachary Hon-Fung Ng, and Ada Wing-Tung Wan) ................................. 37

Partnerships and relationships to support student teacher’s self-regulated learning (Lyn McDonald) .................................................................................... 55

Manifestation the levels of teachers professional agency: toward a conceptual framework (Khalil Gholami) ........................................................... 63

Perceived preparedness and teaching beliefs of differentiated instruction: From prospective teachers’ perspective (Sally Wai-Yan Wan) ..................... 73

Undergraduate degrees and basic education early years: a necessary interlocution in teacher education (Joana Paulin Romanowski, Pura Lucia Oliver Martins, and Simone Regina Manosso Cartaxo) ........................................ 101

Teacher Education Needs an Epistemology of Practice (Tom Russell, and Andrea K. Martin) .............................................................................................. 111

Evaluation of the tutoring process with teachers in elementary schools in Mexico (Juan Manuel Manzano-Torres, Leonardo David Glasserman-Morales, and Juanjo Mena) ....................................................................................................... 119

Perspectives of teachers on the reputation of their profession in society (Barbara Šteh, Jana Kalin, and Renata Čepić) ..................................................... 129

Rethinking modeling in pre-service teacher education: implications for teacher educators (Manuel Goizueta, Helena Montenegro Maggio, Francisco Rojas Sateler, and María Paz González Vallejos) ......................................................... 139

Pedagogical confrontations as a lens for reflective practice in teacher education (Wendy Moran, Robyn Brandenburg, and Sharon McDonough) ......... 149

What Counts as Expert Practice? A Discursive Analysis of Experienced Teachers’ Perceptions (Marc Turu) ................................................................ 159

A Narrative Inquiry Into Taiwanese Grade School Teachers’ Practice of Chinese as a Foreign Language in the Philippines (Chih-Pu Dai).............. 169

Studentship: Beyond normative conceptions of civic education in Québec’s ERC program (Ilham Reda, and Erin Reid) ................................... 179

Acknowledging complexity: teaching practices at the core (Kathleen Feremans, Jan Elen, Ele Holvoet and Tim Christiaens) ....................................... 189

U.S.-educated and Taiwan-educated Taiwanese Teachers of English:Capital and Agency (Pei-Chia Liao) ................................................................ 199

Continuous teacher education - a study based on the phases and cycles elaborated by Huberman (Alboni Marisa Dudeque Pianovski Vieira) ........... 209

Modeling Changes in Teacher Efficacy during In-Service Professional Development in Trinidad and Tobago (Sharon J. Jaggernauth) .................... 217

The reflexive diaries of mentors in an induction program (Carmen Gallego-Domínguez, Paulino Murillo Estepa, and Carlos Marcelo García) ....................... 227

Building teacher professional identity strategies: discourse analysis of Teacher Training Course student’s textual narratives (São Paulo/Brazil) (Luciana Maria Viviani, Verónica Marcela Guridi, and Elen Faht) .................. 237

Student Teachers’ Journey in Professionalism (Birsen Tütüniş, and Duygu Yalman) .............................................................................................................. 247

Teaching as a discursive practice: new perspectives for teacher education (Helena Montenegro) ............................................................................................ 259

Teachers' professional development in the context of a nation-wide project on reading literacy (Bara Olga Marentič Požarnik, and Fani Nolimal) ............................................................................................................................ 269

Teacher Learning with Assessment in Singapore: Classroom Assessment as Searching and Researching into Teaching (Heng Jiang) .......................... 279

Mediation Learning in Classroom: A study with teachers and trainees (Tatiane Lebre Dias, Sônia Regina Fiorim Enumo, and Kelly Ambrozio Silveira) ............................................................................................................................ 289

The mediation of Philosophy subject matter. A comparative case study (Laura Sara Agrati) ............................................................................................ 299

Investigating EFL Elementary Student Teachers’ Development in a Professional Learning Practicum (Chiou-hui Chou) ...................................... 309

Utility of the professional diary to perfect teaching practice (Paula Martín Gómez, and Mª Luisa García Rodríguez) ............................................................ 319

Confronting the problem of embodiment in education (Luiz Sanches Neto, and Alan Ovens) ................................................................................................. 329

Influence of learning attitudes and task-based interactive approach on ESL-student satisfaction and perceived learning outcomes in a research methodology course (Leah Li Echiverri, and Keith Lane) .............................. 337

Peer enhancement of learning and teaching for teacher educators (Jenene Burke, Margaret Plunkett, and Boli Li) .............................................................. 347

Responsive teachers in inclusive practices (Hafdís Guðjónsdóttir, Edda Óskarsdóttir, and Jóhanna Karlsdóttir) ............................................................... 357

An attempt to study different forms of supportive roles in school based professional development. Significant elements and similarities (George Bagakis) .............................................................................................................. 367

Thai Rural Science Teachers’ Self-Perceptions about Efficacy, Confidence and Attitude toward STEM Education (Siroj Srisarakorn, and Chatree Faikhamta) ......................................................................................................... 375

Knowing the pre-service teachers’ beliefs in order to promote equity, inclusion and quality. Validation of a scale on teachers’ motivations (MTS) (Andrea Ciani, and Ira Vannini) ........................................................................ 385

Emancipatory teaching practices in the understandings of Social Sciences teachers on a Diploma of Education programme Stephen Geofroy, Benignus Bitu, Dyann Barras, Samuel Lochan, Lennox McLeod, Lystra Stephens-James, and Antoinette Valentine Lewis) ............................................................................... 397

History curriculum and national identity: a search on teaching practices in Southern Italian School (Loredana Perla, and Viviana Vinci) ....................... 409

Narrative of experience from school physical education: the case of a Brazilian woman (Luciana Venâncio) .............................................................. 419

Teacher’ personal theories of knowledge development (Riaz Hussain, and Meher Rizvi) ........................................................................................................ 429

From fetishism to narcissism – The ideological appeal of the policies for higher education in Brazil (Rosimê da Conceição Meguins). ............................. 437

Secondary school teachers and their academic training: The opinion of its protagonists (Iria Calleja- Barcia, and Margarita Pino-Juste) ............................ 445

Primary school teachers’ professional agency in the course of an in-service training programme (Merja Kauppinen, Johanna Kainulainen, Päivi Hökkä, and Katja Vähäsantanen) ........................................................................................... 455

Teacher collaboration and professional development: findings from a case study (Maria Manuela Unas, Sandra Raquel Gonçalves Fernandes, Eusébio André Machado, and Maria Assunção Flores) ................................................................ 465

School leadership: results from a case study at a teacher training school in Benguela province (Marta Abelha, Justino Kayumbuka, Ana Sílvia Albuquerque, and Eusébio André Machado).............................................................................. 475

Plotlines in preservice teachers’ relationships with second language learners (Stefinee Pinnegar, Celina Lay, Linda Turner, Jenna Granados, and Sarah Witt) ................................................................................................................... 485

Instructional collaborative practices: a Brazilian case study (Ana Paula Bossler and Pedro Z. Caldeira) ............................................................................. 495

“It is important to look into own practice” Developing teacher education pedagogy in drama (Ása Helga Ragnarsdóttir, and Hafdís Guðjónsdóttir). ...... 505

Am I a teacher educator? Search of self identity (Manpreet Kaur) ............. 515

Integrating Theory and Practice in Initial Teacher Education (Maria Inês Marcondes, Vânia Finholdt Angelo Leite, and Rosane Karl Ramos) .................... 525

The practicum model in Teacher Education studies of the University of Girona: connecting theory and practice (Mariona Masgrau-Juanola, Víctor López-Ros, Josep Maria Serra-Bonet, and Margarida Falgàs-Isern) ..................... 535

PART II. Teacher Education and competencies: social competencies, problem-solving competences, and pedagogical competencies ............................................................. 545

Initial training of future teachers of Secondary Education: an assessment of the pedagogical competences acquired (Marcos Cabezas, and Sonia Casillas)............................................................................................................... 547

Strengthening social competencies and problem solving competencies in the children: early interventions (Anjali Shokeen) ......................................... 557

Complex theorical construction about the evaluation indicators of the permanent training plan of the teacher of the IUTPC (Katty Ramirez de Velásquez.).......................................................................................................... 567

Development of professional skills on teaching practice: student teachers’ and mentor teachers’ views (Hana Horká, and Jana Kratochvílová) .............. 579

The importance of resilience in beginning teachers (Gloria Gratacós, Santiago Sastre, Inmaculada Rodriguez, and Monika Ciesielkiewicz) ................................ 591

Function of teaching practices in the acquisition of professional knowledge (Raquel Gómez Sánchez, María Luisa García Rodríguez, and Juanjo Mena Marcos) ...................................................................................................... 605

Are researching skills taught in the practicum for the degree of early childhood education at Salamanca University? (Marisa García, and Marta Franco) ................................................................................................................ 615

Pre-service teachers’ perspectives on their experience in a school-based Practicum. A mixed methods approach (Ana Mª Pinto-Llorente, Marcos Cabezas-González, and Sonia Casillas-Martín) ................................................... 625

Integrated strategy to investigate competence-based training and teacher development in Secondary and University education (María Concepción Domínguez, Fuensanta Hernández-Pina, Antonio Medina, Ernesto López-Gómez, Vito José de Jesús Carioca, and Fernando Ribeiro Gonçalves) ............................... 637

Providing the Competencies for the Future in University. A Case Study (Andron Daniela Roxana) .................................................................................. 647

Pedagogic training disciplines of the Program for Teaching improvement in the post-graduation of the USP campus of Ribeirão Preto: challenges and possibilities (Noeli Prestes Padilha Rivas, and Glaucia Maria da Silva) .... 659

PART III. Engaging learning environments for sustainability of learning and teaching practices ............................................... 667

Inclusive classroom: Teacher–student relationships (Outi Kyrö-Ämmälä, Suvi Lakkala, and Tuija Turunen) ..................................................................... 669

Advantages of extracurricular activities for rural environment students (Margarita Pino Juste, and Lucía Pumares Lavandeira) ....................................... 679

Respondents to, or agents of, change? Teaching ‘soft skills’ in a school-university partnership project (Michelle Ludecke) .......................................... 689

Playing with LEGO-bricks as an innovative pedagogical tool at pre-university and university levels for teaching urbanism (Inmaculada Mohino, Eloy Solís, and José María Coronado) .................................................................. 701

Project-Based Learning: Three College Collaborative Learning Experiences (Alicia de la Peña, Nuria Mendoza, and Teresa Lamas) .............. 729

Designing and Implementing Engaging Learning Environments: Kindergarten Teachers’ Perceptions in three Chinese Societies (Peng Xu, Haidan Liu, Jing Li, and Beibei Shi) .................................................................. 737

Transforming Schooling Through Student Advocacy (Bernie Neville) ...... 747

Rube Goldberg machines and STEM education: a Brazilian case study (Pedro Z. Caldeira, and Ana Paula Bossler) ........................................................ 755

If two-thirds of classroom talk is still by the teacher: the kind of science teacher’s talk and use of language during teaching for all learners in any science classroom (Samuel Ouma Oyoo) .......................................................... 765

When attention to proficiency in, context of use and precision in use, and polysemy [nature of the science language] counts best during science teaching (Samuel Ouma Oyoo) ........................................................................... 773

Innovative field experiences in teacher education: An evaluation of sequential and parallel teaching by student teachers, mentors and pupils (Mathea Simons, and Marlies Baeten) .................................................................. 781

An Excel® application for calculus in Geomatics Engineering (Carlos Enríquez, María Isabel Ramos, and Manuel López). .......................................... 791

Worlds of Curriculum Making (Eliza Pinnegar) ............................................ 805

“Shared vision? It’s not my business!” Hong Kong prospective teachers’ perceptions of professional learning communities (PLC) (Sally Wai-Yan Wan, Zachary Hon-Fung Ng, Yuen-Shan Tse, Alice Hoi-Yan Hui, Rita Hau-

Kwan Lau, Ylena Yan Wong, Archie Chong-Kwai Yeung, and Heidi Hoi-Ki Chan) ............................................................................................................................ 813

Prospective teachers’ teaching beliefs about differentiated instruction in Hong Kong and Turkey (Sally Wai-Yan Wan, and Ruhan Karadag) ............ 823

Jottings for the modernization of professional practices in the first stages of the training of mathematics teachers. A screening by nodes of praxeological configuration (Juan Albadan) .................................................. 837

Theory becomes practice in community: Applying community of practice theory to doctoral education (Özge Hacifazlioglu, Kate Olson, David Lee Carlson, and Christopher Michael Clark) ............................................................ 847

Professional insertion as a reflexive process (Helena Amaral da Fontoura, and Filomena de Arruda Monteiro) ............................................................................ 855

Students’ Perceptions of Online Cultural Exchanges (Hsiao-fang Cheng) . 863

Coaching in education: what are we talking about? (M. Carmen González-Valderas)............................................................................................................. 871

Storytelling and living praxis in the pre-service teacher classroom (Brian Mundy) ................................................................................................................ 881

The Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in the school context (Luís Martins Oliveira, Marcelino Arménio Pereira, Teresa Pires Medeiros, and Ana Maria Serrano) ..................................................................................... 893

Building a Professional Community of Teacher Educators through a Self-Study Network in Chile (Rodrigo Fuentealba, Tom Russell, and Carolina Hirmas) ............................................................................................................................ 903

Could self-determined learning be a useful method to increase self-efficacy in mathematics and to reduce math anxiety? (Marcut Ioana Gabriela) ....... 911

The DidaSco Project: a training program for the teachers’ professional development (Loredana Perla, Viviana Vinci, and Laura Sara Agrati) .......... 921

How and why classroom discourse can enhance students learning and achievement (Pedro Z. Caldeira ,and Ana Paula Bossler) ................................. 931

What evaluates teachers in training and teacher in exercise of primary education about human nutrition? (Juan Carlos Rivadulla-López, María-Jesús Fuentes-Silveira, and Cristina Martínez Losada) ................................................. 941

The Development of Beginning Chemistry Teachers’ Understandings of and Ability to Translate the Nature of Science Within a PCK-Based NOS Program (Surayot Supprakob, Chatree Faikhamta, and Potjanart Suwanruji) ... 951

Developing STEM Teachers through both Informal and Formal Learning Experiences (Donna Stokes, Paige Evans, and Cheryl Craig) ........................... 961

Language and literacy development for English language learners: Exploring the potential of literacy events (Jason Jay, Mike Richardson, Alessandro Rosborough, and Brad Wilcox) .......................................................... 973

Building teacher professional identities: required knowledge according to Teacher Training Course student narratives (São Paulo/Brazil) (Celi Rodrigues Chaves Dominguez, Valéria Cazetta, Luciana Maria Viviani , Josely Cubero , and Fabiana Curtopassi Pioker-Hara) .................................................. 983

Changing teacher education scenario in india: issues and challenges (Balwant Singh, and Manpreet Kaur) ................................................................... 993

PART IV. Innovatives practices and ICT. .............................. 1003

Teachers’ Digital Skills training by using the Educational Innovation based on Evidence methodology (EIBE) (Celia Paola Sarango-Lapo, Juanjo Mena, and María-Soledad Ramírez-Montoya) .............................................................. 1005

Education, Cinema and Science Teacher Education Program: the right to gaze at the gaze of the camera (Valéria Cazetta, Celi Rodrigues Chaves Dominguez, Fabiana Curtopassi Pioker-Hara, and Josely Cubero) ..................... 1015

Use of Virtual Labs in Health Sciences Degrees (Juan José Serrano-Pérez, Isabel García-Arnandis, Nicla Flacco, Lorena González, Ana Pellín-Carcelén, Carlos Romá-Mateo, Gonzalo Pérez-López, and Alida Taberner-Cortés) .......... 1025

Can mobile devices help students improve their academic results? (Laura Cabeza García, Daniel Alonso Martínez, Nuria González Álvarez, and José Luis de Godos Díez) .................................................................................................. 1037

A proposal of indicators for assessing the digital competence of 12 year olds: a model adapted from DIGCOM 2.0 (Sonia Casillas Martín, Ana García-Valcárcel Muñoz-Repiso, Ana Mª Pinto Llorente, Luís González Rodero, and Verónica Basilotta Gómez-Pablos) .............................................................. 1051

Diagnostic assessment of the conceptual knowledge of technology in future teachers of Early Childhood Education (Sonia Casillas, Marcos Cabezas, and Ana María Pinto) ....................................................................... 1061

Study on the personal indicators that influence the development of digital competence in primary education students (Marta Martín del Pozo, and Marcos Cabezas González) ................................................................................ 1071

Video games and higher education students from the Degree in Pedagogy: Attitude towards collaborative learning with video games and other related variables (Marta Martín del Pozo, Verónica Basilotta Gómez-Pablos, and Ana García-Valcárcel Muñoz-Repiso). ...................................................................... 1081

Parallel Stories: Teachers and Facilitators in a Transformative Online Teacher Learning Community (Jing Li, Xiaohong Yang, and Cheryl J. Craig ) .......................................................................................................................... 1093

How to improve understanding using 3D objects in eBooks and augmented reality (Rocio Ruiz Rodarte) ......................................................... 1101

The reflective professor's training and the use of technology in education (Tiago Bacciotti-Moreira) ................................................................................... 1111

What skills do I need to teach online? Researching experienced teacher views of essential knowledge and skills in online pedagogy as a foundation for designing professional development for novice teachers (Catherine McLoughlin, and Maria Northcote) ................................................................... 1119

Collaborative work with Android Applications: research and practice (María Teresa González, Yuliet Coello, María José Cáceres, José Chamoso, and Myriam Codes) .................................................................................................. 1131

The use of video during professional experience for initial teacher education (Michael Cavanagh) ......................................................................... 1141

Knowledge pills skills as a resource of Learning in Blended Learning (David Caballero Franco, Margarita Hernández Sánchez, Judith Martín Lucas, and Sara Serrate González) ...................................................................................... 1151

Free Flowing Content: Unlocking the full potential for transitioning to e-learning at the institution scale (Andrew Knox Cass, and Mariia Kravchenko) .......................................................................................................................... 1161

What skills do I need to teach online? Researching experienced teacher views of essential knowledge and skills in online pedagogy as a foundation for designing professional development for novice

teachers

Catherine McLoughlin1, and Maria Northcote2

1Australian Catholic University 1st [email protected]

2Avondale College [email protected]

ABSTRACT As e-Learning continues to dominate educational services globally, the domain of online pedagogy continues to expand, and teaching in online, blended and hybrid classrooms now considered an essential element of teacher education in the many parts of Europe, Canada and the US. As a result, the need for professional development of higher education teachers has never been greater. An important precursor to designing effective teacher preparation programs is to establish what novice teachers need to know and do to be successful in virtual teaching spaces. The idea that professional development for online teaching needs to focus on instructional and communicative skills, not just the technology skills, is reinforced throughout the literature. This large international qualitative study was designed to investigate and explore the perceptions of experienced teachers of the skills and knowledge deemed essential for online teaching and the capacities they perceive as most important for effective e-Learning. Transformative learning theory formed the foundational theoretical framework for this study. The research problem identified was the lack of practitioner voices on the challenges that novice teachers experiences in their transition to online teaching and the perspective changes that happen when they reconsider their pedagogies. Results indicate that teachers need to transform their pedagogy when teaching in virtual spaces and this includes new roles, modes of interaction and discovery of engaging ways of teaching online that increase connectivity and interaction with students. Implications for professional development and practice in higher education are examined. KEYWORDS: e-learning, online, professional development, transformative learning, virtual environments

1. INTRODUCTION

The literature review is organized in order to provide insights into current thinking on online pedagogy and the challenges, skills and knowledge required to teach online. Online learning represents one of the key growth areas across



1120 CATHERINE MCLOUGHLIN, AND MARIA NORTHCOTE

all areas in the adoption of web-based technology to provide educational services (Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, & Jones, 2010). Teachers who are new to online pedagogy need to develop particular skills and face the challenges of how to best deliver learning experiences to their students in a medium which requires a distinctive pedagogy. A newcomer to online teaching where there is no co-presence has to rethink how to plan and to teach differently, sometimes described as “ways of thinking and practicing” (Entwistle, 2005), or “rules of engagement” (Shulman, 2005). Often the knowledge held by professionals is tacit or craft knowledge, and may be difficult to explicate (Otteson, 2007:41). The present research was motivated by the need to make explicit teacher thinking and description of the invisible understandings they have about online pedagogy. The study invited experienced teachers to reflect on, and articulate what effective online pedagogy consisted of in practice. The rationale for the study is the recognition that teaching online requires skills, pedagogies and specialised knowledge against a background of societal and technological change, though a slower pace of change in academic practice is common (Bonk, 2009; Picciano, Seaman, Shea & Swan, 2012);). Though online and distance education continues to expand, there is limited consensus on the skills and knowledge required for effective online pedagogy, or the implications for practice arising from social media used in the service of learning (McLoughlin & Lee, 2010). Kreber & Kanuka (2006:121) comment that because … “results of studies showing that higher levels of learning are not easily achieved in online courses, there is an imperative to advance our understanding of how to facilitate effective online learning activities”. Hence this study sought to investigate perceptions experienced teachers’ of the competencies and knowledge required by novice teachers when making the transition to online teaching. The research questions were as follows:

1. What are experienced teachers’ views of the skills and knowledge required to teach effectively online?

2. What evidence is there that teachers undergo perspective transformation when they transition to online teaching?

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Researchers have found that role change and transformation of practice is required when teaching online (Laat, Lally, Lipponen & Simons, 2007). A consistent theme in the literature is that the affordances of technology may require teachers to adopt new practices, pedagogies and mindsets (Coppola, 2002). The multimodal nature of virtual spaces mean that teachers need to change as “they can no longer rely upon sensory and expressive skills to establish and maintain relationships with students” (Major, 2010).

WHAT SKILLS DO I NEED TO TEACH ONLINE? RESEARCHING 1121

EXPERIENCED TEACHER VIEWS OF ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

IN ONLINE PEDAGOGY AS A FOUNDATION FOR DESIGNING

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR NOVICE TEACHERS

Transformative learning theory therefore provides a rich framework to analyse practitioner perspectives on how teaching online differs from face-to-face. The foundation and rationale for adopting Mezirow’s transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 1978; Mezirow & Associates, 2000) is the notion that learning and teaching in virtual environments requires rethinking of professional practice, and to a change or modification of teacher practice (Figure 1). Today, online teaching can occur asynchronously or synchronously and may be either fully online, blended with face-to-face teaching or combine elements of campus-based and hybrid forms of instruction. Teachers new to this mode may experience frustration, anxiety and confusion as they embark on a new learning journey as e-teachers. Going beyond content delivery, teachers must become a “guide on the side” who scaffolds and coaches, and often this demands a change in teachers’ skills and pedagogies, with a consequent rethinking or transformation of professional identity and role. There are several features of the online environment that require teachers to adopt new practices, to step back from their directive roles and instead become facilitators of learning. Thought leaders for this perspective are Garrison and Anderson’s (2003) ideas of creating immediacy through social and cognitive presence, and consideration of the learner as an active member of a community of practice (Rovai, 2002). Jewitt (2008) signals that online learning is different and argues that online pedagogy requires “a framework for re-thinking learning from a multimodal perspective in order to explore what real difference the use of new technology can make for learning” (p. 2). These perspectives indicate that eLearning is in constant change, and is dynamic, adapting to new social media and emerging social and educational constraints. Researchers tend to agree that virtual teaching spaces require a constructivist pedagogy, the development of distinct facilitation skills and new communicative practices (Guasch et al, 2010).

Figure 1: Mezirow’s (1978) stages of transformative learning


3. METHODOLOGY

This international study adopted a qualitative multiphase research methodology (Strauss & Corbin 1998) across three higher education settings, two in Australia and one in the USA. The research was designed to investigate the skills and concepts deemed essential for online teaching, especially focusing on those perceived as most important for novice online teachers, and whether teachers had undergone perspective transformation when adapting to online teaching. This international study was based in Australia and the US, with participants drawn from 58 university teachers from different disciplines who had experience in online teaching. Phase 1 of the data collection entailed teachers engaging in critical reflections written over a period of several months in journal format. Table 1 shows the number of participants from 2 Australian Universities and one US University.

Institution Completed responses

US University 1 17

Australian University 1

15

Australian University 2

26

TOTAL 58

Table 1: Number of valid responses to the reflection questions based on teachers from 3 Universities (N58

Teachers were asked to reflect on and write responses to the following prompts:

From your point of view as an online teacher, what have been the major concerns or challenges that have been uppermost in your mind over the past month, about online or blended learning and teaching and/or online course design?

What typical questions, if any, have you asked, or have been meaning to ask other faculty or students, about online learning and teaching or online course design?

What understandings, if any, have you developed over the past several months/years, about online learning and teaching or online course design?

What successes/concerns if any, have you experienced over the past months, about online learning and teaching or online course design?

The second phase of data collection entailed semi-structured focus groups to achieve data triangulation. Ten Australian higher education teachers from 2





universities, all with over 6 years’ experience of online teaching and 5 American teachers participated in semi-structured focus groups. Questions asked were:

What are the main challenges of teaching online?

What skills are essential in online teaching contexts?

What changes in pedagogy do you consider essential for teachers new to e-pedagogy?

Participants were informed about the goals of the study and the process followed the procedures of ethical data collection for both stages. Data collection took place from August to October 2016 and each focus group discussion lasted for approximately 60 minutes. l. During the focus groups, teachers were encouraged to talk openly about their experiences and views. To analyse data from a transformative learning perspective, Mezirow’s theory (1991) was applied to determine whether experienced teachers had shown perspective transformation in their online pedagogy and if so, how this changed their skills and perspectives. This theoretical framework provides a deep and comprehensive way to understand how adult learners examine their beliefs when confronted with dilemmas and professional demands and then shift or change their views, expectations and beliefs to incorporate new ideas, values and practices (see Figure 1). Steps taken for data analysis for each phase followed the qualitative data analysis approach of Miles & Huberman (1994) as a framework for coding and thematic analysis by following these steps:

1. Data reduction: the transcripts are coded and themes identified but the context and meaning are preserved

2. Data display: Analysis is progressed by using diagrams and charts 3. Drawing conclusions: This process is ongoing while coding and reduction

take place. Table 1 shows initial codes identified in the reflective questions and in the focus groups.

4. RESULTS

Results for phase 1, based on reflective questions are displayed in Table 2. The responses to reflective journal questions from participants from three higher education institutions were analyzed for the purposes of identifying skills and concepts for online and how approaches to pedagogy were transformed when teaching online. Some of the participants were lecturers and some were academic developers. All had experience as online teachers and course designers within a tertiary education context. As well as providing data to


enable the research team to identify key skills that experienced online teachers developed, the data also provided evidence of the skills the participants developed and the challenges they faced. Challenges and concerns Pedagogy Theme

Online teaching is different

Lack of visual cues

Online lacks the synergy of face-to-face teaching

Online teaching is not relational

Need to humanize the learning environment, personalize interaction by using multimodal technologies

Challenges and changes when teaching online

Lack of interaction

Strategies from face-to-face do not work online

Students lack confidence and skill using technology

Allow for choice and flexibility

Know the affordances of the technology

Provide help guides for students, be available to troubleshoot

Use discussion boards for peer interaction

Enhancing connection, humanizing the learning space and participation

Students not familiar with virtual teaching

Students lack self-regulation skills

Students focus only on assessment, do not interact at deep level

Be clear about expectations about participation

Encourage self-regulation through choice Use focused communication, learn to moderate discussion

Managing expectations

Students not engaged in tasks

Quality of interaction is limited- procedural mostly

Students may have learning difficulties but remain invisible

Personalise the learning environment by getting to know students

Monitor student progress, provide individual feedback

Building relationships and engaging students

Online teaching is not relational

Difficult to know if students are progressing

Less teacher control in online contexts, so monitoring learning can be challenging

Use narrated lectures to create teaching presence

Provide audio briefings for assessment

Use focused communication, learn to moderate discussion

Be online frequently and respond to emails

Creating teacher presence both social and cognitive

Time and workload to develop courses

Advance preparation is necessary

Need know-how is the best technologies for the pedagogical purpose

Designing relevant and interesting activities

Creating advance organizers for students

Use multimodal resources to convey concepts and meet learning outcomes

Designing and structuring the online program

Table 2: Emerging codes and themes from phases 1 & 2 of data collection

According to the results in Table 3, the skills with the highest scores were technological skills for eLearning, student engagement and achieving high





quality teaching and learning. Each of these nine categories displayed indicators of questioning current assumptions and seeking skills to transform practice. This is reflected in comments such as

How do I personalise teaching to suit who I am teaching?

How do I best communicate with students?

Online can be fragmented so how can I develop a sense of place and connectivity?

How can I engage students more deeply in the learning process through quality interactive discussion forums?

How might I enhance the quality of the feedback provided to distance students?

1 Distinctive nature of online pedagogy 9 7 23 15 32 (59.3) 22 (40.7)

2 Student engagement 11 6 27 11 38* (69.1) 17 (30.9)

3 Online communication 7 9 21 17 28 (51.9) 26 (48.1)

4 Relationships and getting to know students 9 8 26 12 35 (63.6) 20 (36.4)

5 Identity as a teacher 9 7 21 17 30 (55.6) 24 (44.4)

6 High quality learning and teaching 11 6 25 13 36 (65.5)* 19 (34.5)

7 Humanisation of the online environment 7 10 28 10 35 (63.6) 20 (36.4)

8 Sense of place, connection 6 10 22 16 28 (51.9) 26 (48.1)

9 Technical skills for effective e-learning 11 5 33 5 44* (81.5) 10 (218.5)

Table 3: Summary of responses to reflective questions

When participants were asked to respond with to a Likert-style scale from 1 (low) to 10 (high) about nine areas relating to online teaching concerns, the highest areas of concern were technological concerns (81.5% of participants reported concerns), student attrition (69.1% of participants reported concerns) and high quality learning (65.5% of participants reported concerns). Results for phase 2- Focus groups show that experienced staff expressed major concerns in engaging students and establishing connections through personalisation of the environment (Figure 2).


Figure 2: Concerns of teachers regarding online pedagogy

Comparing the data gathered from the teacher reflections (Stage 1 and the focus groups (Stage 2) common themes emerged. Both data sets (focus groups and reflective questions) showed teachers had undergone challenges and perspective transformation as they learned how to teach online. These transformations related to skills required to teach online, professional identity and the teacher’s role in a virtual environment. Figure 2 shows areas and skills where teachers revisited their practice and questioned their pedagogies. Engaging with and connecting with students were most common.

5. IMPLICATIONS/DISCUSSION

This paper focuses upon the results drawn from an international study where qualitative data gathered from reflective journals and focus groups discussion to investigate teacher perceptions of essential skills in online teaching and how the demands of virtual environments evoked professional transformation. The results and sample size are small and therefore limited, but nevertheless they add to the literature on changes in higher education teachers’ beliefs and practices required for online pedagogy. Some indicative statements of professional transformation are as follows:

Teaching presence is different from on-campus presence, but both require interactive elements.

Online teaching requires facilitating interaction, not simply presenting content.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14





So, in online learning, preparatory design is vital because of this fact: in face-to-face teaching, if a disaster happens, we can fix it, but online, you don’t even know that disasters are occurring!

6. CONCLUSIONS

In this research, experienced teachers voiced concerns, perspectives and insights regarding the challenges and skills required to teach online. There was agreement across both phases of data collection that online pedagogy was different, and that it pushed teachers with new ways of thinking about what effective e-pedagogy means. Overall, responses indicated that teachers had to rethink their identity and role significantly, acquire new skills and learn to cope with virtual students and online technologies. By adopting the theoretical lens of Mezirow’s transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 1978) data revealed that participants had taught online had undergone perspective transformation (Figure 1) and had to develop new communicative and moderation skills to engage and personalize teaching. While the results support the recommendations of Laat et al (2007) and Guasch et al (2010), they are limited. The principal practical contribution to research is the need to enable teachers to reflect on their learning experiences when commencing or planning to teach online and to provide targeted professional support based on identified needs. Further research on how practitioner perspectives change through teaching online would provide more insights into improved professional development to induct novice teachers into online pedagogy.

REFERENCES

BONK, C. J. (2009). The world is open: How Web technology is revolutionizing education. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

COPPOLA, N., HILTZ, S., & ROTTER, N. (2002). Becoming a virtual professor:

Pedagogical roles and asynchronous learning networks. Journal of Management Information Systems, 18(4), 169–189.

ENTWISTLE, N. (2005). Learning outcomes and ways of thinking across

contrasting disciplines and settings in Higher Education. The Curriculum Journal, 16(1), 67–82.


GARRISON, D. R. & ANDERSON, T. E-Learning in the 21st century: A framework for research and practice. London: Routledge/Falmer, 2003

GUASCH, T., ALVAREZ, I., ESPASA. (2010). University Teacher Competencies in

a Virtual Teaching/Learning Environment: Analysis of a Teacher Training Experience. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, v26 n2 pp. 199-206

JEWITT, C. (2008). Technology, literacy, learning: A multimodal approach. Abingdon,

VA: Routledge. KREBER, C., & KANUKA, H. (2006). The scholarship of teaching and learning

and the online classroom. Canadian Journal of University Continuing Education, 32 (2), 109-131.

LAAT, M.D., LALLY, V., LIPPONEN, L., & SIMONS R.J. (2007). Online teaching

in networked learning communities: A multi-method approach to studying the role of the teacher Instructional Science (2007) 35: 257. doi: 10.1007/s11251-006-9007-0

MAJOR, C. (2010). Do virtual professors dream of electric students? College

faculty experiences with online distance education. Teachers College Record, 112 (8), 2154–2208.

MEANS, B., TOYAMA, Y., MURPHY, R., BAKIA, M, & JONES, K. (2010).

Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Department of Education. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf

MCLOUGHLIN, C., & LEE, M.J.W. (2010) Personalised and self-regulated learning in the Web 2.0 era: international exemplars of innovative pedagogy using social software. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 26, 1, pp. 28-43. www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet26/mcloughlin.pdf

MEZIROW, J. (1978). Perspective transformation. Adult Education Quarterly,

28(2), 100-110.

MEZIROW, J., & ASSOCIATES. (2000). Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf



http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet26/mcloughlin.pdf





MILES, M., & HUBERMAN, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

OTTESEN, E. (2007). Reflection in teacher eduatcion. In Reflective Practice.

8(1), pp. 31-46

PICCIANO, A. G., SEAMAN, J., SHEA, P., & SWAN, K. (2012). Examining the extent and nature of online learning in American K–12 education: The research initiatives of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Internet and Higher Education, 35, 127–135.

ROVAI, A. P. (2002). Sense of community, perceived cognitive learning, and

persistence in asynchronous learning networks. The Internet and Higher Education 5(4), 319–332.

SHULMAN, L. (2005). Signature Pedagogies in the Professions. Daedalus 134 (3):

52–59. doi: 10.1162/0011526054622015 STRAUSS, A., & CORBIN, J. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and

Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: Sage Publications.

search and research: teacher education for … · teaching ‘soft skills’ in a school-university...

Documents