Seafood – exploring benefits and risks

Catherine Violette

University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA

Correspondence:Catherine Violette,University of NewHampshire, Durham, NH03824, USA. Tel: 603862 2496; Fax: 603 8623758; E-mail:catherine.violette@unh.edu

The papers presented in this issue of the Journalof Foodservice were drawn, in part, from a con-ference on Seafood – Exploring Benefits and Risksheld on 9 November 2007 in Concord, NH. Thegoal of the conference was to provide food, nutri-tion and health professionals and educators witha forum to explore seafood’s benefits and risksfrom multiple scientific perspectives. The papersin this issue are representative of the two centralthemes of the conference: (i) to summarize theresearch literature on the benefits and risks asso-ciated with seafood consumption; and (ii) toexplore consumer-related issues such as percep-tions of seafood, the impact of advisories onseafood purchases and how to effectively commu-nicate risk to consumers.

In the past, choosing a healthful diet was rela-tively simple, or so it seems in retrospect. Foodand nutrition professionals have long recom-mended that consumers select a variety ofnutrient-rich foods in moderation from withinand among the basic food groups (US Departmentof Health and Human Services & US Departmentof Agriculture 2000, 2005). While this advicecontinues to be relevant, how food choicesaffect health and the environment is increasinglycomplex.

In a nationally representative Web-basedsurvey conducted by the International FoodInformation Council Foundation (2007a), 65%of consumers indicated that health was animportant factor in making food choices. Toimprove their diet, 36% of the survey respon-dents reported eating more of specific foods andbeverages, while 29% were consuming somefoods less often (International Food InformationCouncil Foundation 2007b). When asked anopen-ended question about which foods pro-vided health benefits beyond basic nutrition,consumers identified fruits and vegetables mostoften, followed by fish, fish oil and seafood(International Food Information Council Foun-dation 2007).

Seafood is a source of high-quality protein,minerals and vitamins (Nesheim & Yaktine2007). Compared with other protein sources,seafood is relatively low in saturated fat, whilesupplying much of the omega-3 polyunsaturatedfatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) anddocosahexaenoic acid (DHA) found in the US diet(Nesheim & Yaktine 2007). Oil-rich seafood suchas salmon, trout and herring contribute more EPAand DHA to the diet than lower-fat options suchas cod and haddock (Nesheim & Yaktine 2007).

Introduction

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Journal compilation © 2008, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Journal of Foodservice, 19, pp. 201–204

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The American Heart Association (2006) recom-mends eating fish twice a week, especially thosespecies known to be rich in omega-3 fatty acids.

Epidemiological studies and clinical trials indi-cate that seafood helps decrease the risk of coro-nary artery disease and death in the generalpopulation (Kris-Etherton et al. 2002; Nesheim& Yaktine 2007). Results of studies examiningthe effect of fish oil supplementation in adultswith a history of heart disease are mixed(Nesheim & Yaktine 2007). Other studies indi-cate that maternal consumption of omega-3 fattyacids may lengthen gestation and improve visionand brain development of the infant, althoughadditional research is needed (Nesheim & Yaktine2007).

While seafood is generally known as a healthyfood (Mozaffarian & Rimm 2006), the potentialrisks associated with seafood consumption areincreasingly the focus of media reports. Thesehealth risks include: (i) the presence of methylm-ercury in varying amounts in most fish and shell-fish (Teutsch & Cohen 2005); (ii) the presence ofdioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) insome species of seafood (Mozaffarian & Rimm2006); and (iii) naturally occurring seafoodtoxins and/or microbial contamination (NationalRestaurant Association Educational Foundation2008).

In 2004, the US Food and Drug Administra-tion and US Environmental Protection Agencyissued an advisory for mercury in fish and shell-fish for women who might become pregnant,pregnant women, nursing mothers and youngchildren. To minimize an unborn baby’s oryoung child’s exposure to methylmercury, theadvisory outlines three recommendations. Thefirst is to avoid eating species known to containhigh levels of mercury, for example, shark andswordfish. The second recommendation advisesthese subgroups to eat up to 12 ounces of fishand shellfish per week known to be lower inmercury, such as shrimp, canned light tuna andsalmon. However, no more than 6 of the 12ounces recommended per week should be cannedalbacore tuna, which is known to contain higheramounts of mercury than canned light tuna. Thethird recommendation is to check local adviso-ries before consuming fish caught in local lakes,rivers and coastal areas.

The publication of a global assessment of con-taminates in farmed salmon as compared withwild salmon further fueled the debate about therisks of eating seafood. Hites et al. (2004) ana-lyzed farmed and wild salmon from major pro-duction areas worldwide for organochlorinecontaminates such as dioxin and PCBs. Resultsindicated that farmed salmon had significantlyhigher amounts of these contaminates than wildsalmon. In another study, some of these authorsfound the health risks associated with consumingfarmed salmon to be greater than that of wildsalmon, especially for girls and young women(Foran et al. 2005).

Other researchers conclude that the benefits ofeating seafood outweigh the risks. Mozaffarian& Rimm (2006) conducted a meta-analysis ofarticles and reports published through April2006. The results indicate that one to two serv-ings of seafood, particularly species rich in EPAand DHA, decrease the risk of coronary death by36%, although methylmercury content may mod-estly attenuate the benefit (Mozaffarian & Rimm2006). These authors found that dioxin and PCBcontamination of fish is low, thereby concludingthat the benefits of consumption are greater thanthe risks.

Naturally occurring biological seafood toxinsinclude histamine, ciguatoxin, saxitoxin, bre-vetoxin and domoic acid (National RestaurantAssociation Educational Foundation 2008). Sea-food is also susceptible to microbial contami-nation. The US Centers for Disease Control andPrevention monitors the incidence of foodborneillness through the FoodNet system (US Depart-ment of Health and Human Services, Centersfor Disease Control and Prevention 2008). Thepreliminary FoodNet surveillance data for 2006marked the highest incidence of Vibrio infectionssince FoodNet data collection began (US Depart-ment of Health and Human Services, Centersfor Disease Control and Prevention 2007). Vibrioinfections are commonly associated with the con-sumption of raw seafood, especially oysters (USDepartment of Health and Human Services,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention2007). The US Food and Drug Administration(2005) issued a letter to health professionalsrequesting their assistance in alerting high-riskpatients about the risk of septicemia associated

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with Vibrio vulnificus contamination in rawoysters.

Consumer reaction to media reports about thebenefits and risks of seafood likely vary, althoughmany people are confused. Consumers want toknow: Is seafood healthy? Should I avoid eatingseafood altogether or just certain species? Is farm-raised seafood riskier than wild-caught? Should Istop eating seafood while I am pregnant? Whichseafood options are healthiest for my youngchildren?

The role of food, nutrition and health profes-sionals and educators is critical in helping consum-ers answer their questions about seafood. TheSeafood – Exploring Benefits and Risks conferencespecifically targeted foodservice professionals asan important link to consumers. In 2006, consum-ers spent 48.9% of total US food expenditures onfood away from home (Martinez & Kaufman2008). While 58% of seafood is consumed athome, 40% is consumed in restaurants, fast-foodrestaurants, at work or school, or in self-servecafeterias (Nesheim & Yaktine 2007). Foodservicemanagers are integral to maintaining the safety ofseafood served in away-from-home venues.

Consumer food choices are influenced by avariety of factors, including taste, convenienceand health (International Food InformationCouncil Foundation 2007; Nesheim & Yaktine2007). However, few studies have explored howfood choice factors interact and the degreeto which each affects specific foods such asseafood. Widely publicized foodborne illness out-breaks may negatively influence food purchases.For example, survey results indicate that 38% ofrespondents stopped purchasing spinach after anationwide foodborne illness outbreak was linkedto a contaminated batch of this commodity(Palmer 2007). Pregnant women decreased fishconsumption by 17% following a mercury advi-sory issued by the Food and Drug Administration(Cohen et al. 2005). Although the advisory tar-geted pregnant women, it is not known if indi-viduals not in the targeted groups also decreasedfish consumption (Cohen et al. 2005).

One of the challenges facing food and nutritionprofessionals and educators is how to help con-sumers translate research results into health-promoting food choices. Seafood educationalapproaches and materials will be more effective if

individual decision objectives and beliefs are con-sidered (Nesheim & Yaktine 2007). Educationalefforts need to be individualized to specific targetgroups and include information on both risks andbenefits (Nesheim & Yaktine 2007).

Seafood exemplifies the increasing complexityof what was once a relatively simple diet choice.Consumers must balance risks and benefits withenvironmental concerns as well as how seafoodchoices fit their individual health needs and lif-estyles. Additional research is needed to elucidatethe relationship between seafood’s benefits andrisks. For food and nutrition professionals andeducators, effective communication strategies canhelp consumers understand the complex scienceand public policy issues when there are multipleviewpoints and divergent conclusions.

References

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Foran JA, Carpenter DO, Hamilton MC, Knuth BA,Schwager SJ (2005). Risk-based consumption advicefor farmed Atlantic and wild Pacific salmon contami-nated with dioxins and dioxin-like compounds.Environmental Health Perspective 113:552–6.

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