Sea Power and MaritimeSea Power and Maritime Affairs Affairs

Lesson 6: The United States Navy, 1815-1860:

The Search for Professionalism

Period of ExpansionPeriod of Expansion Monroe Doctrine – 1823

Manifest Destiny – Westward expansion

Increased immigration from Europe

Naval developments reflected industrial and scientific revolutions

Reorganization of the NavyReorganization of the Navy Postwar Navy increases in size

– Pride and professionalism

SECNAV calls for “Board of Commissioners”– Civilian secretary needs help managing larger Navy

Primary mission of the Navy = “Gunboat Diplomacy”– Protect rapidly expanding U. S. commercial interests overseas -

“Showing the flag”

Naval Warfighting Doctrine– Focus on Commerce Raiding - “Guerre de Course”– Command of the sea: de-emphasized– Coastal defense - Army forts constructed at entrances to ports

Permanent Overseas Permanent Overseas SquadronsSquadrons

With increased strength, able to maintain multiple squadrons abroad:– Mediterranean Squadron– West Indies Squadron– Brazil Squadron– Pacific Squadron– East Indies Squadron– African Squadron

Permanent U.S. Navy SquadronsPermanent U.S. Navy Squadrons

Mediterranean SquadronMediterranean Squadron

Revived to deal with Barbary corsairs– Capturing of American merchantmen– U.S. declared war on Algiers in 1812– Decatur convinced Dey of Algiers and pasha of

Tripoli and Tunis that U.S. would not pay any more tribute; would not be subject to piracy

Implementing foreign policy abroad!

Leased island of Minorca until Civil WarConsidered most favorable assignment

West Indies SquadronWest Indies Squadron Created to protect shipping against piracy

– Mexico, Venezuela and Colombia revolt against Spain while Cuba and Puerto Rico remain loyal

James Biddle first commander; David Porter successful in raiding pirate’s havens in Cuba with shallow draft vessels

1824 Fajardo incident: Porter vs. Puerto Rico

By 1841, with its mission complete, the squadron was absorbed into home squadron

Other SquadronsOther Squadrons

Brazil Squadron– Formed to assist South American countries

fighting Spain’s Squadron and to prevent seizure of U.S. ships

– Enforcing Monroe DoctrinePacific Squadron

– Support diplomatic efforts with Argentina and Chile

– Recover captured U.S. ships

Other SquadronsOther Squadrons

East Indies Squadron– Protect expanding U.S. trade in Asia– Pirates in Sumatra, 1838 – American

merchantmen slaughtered– Obtain “most favored nation” status with China

African Squadron– Formed with Britain in order to suppress the

slave trade

LT Wilkes Expedition, 1838-1842LT Wilkes Expedition, 1838-1842 Squadron of 6 vessels Gathered significant amount of

scientific knowledge Charted Fiji, Samoa, Gilberts,

Antarctica, and North American West and Northwest Coast

The expedition recognized the strategic and trade importance of San Francisco and whole West Coast

Natural science collections became basis of Smithsonian Institute collections

Brought Navy favorable publicity

The “Wilkes Expedition”The “Wilkes Expedition”

LT Matthew F. MauryLT Matthew F. Maury Naval Oceanographer “Pathfinder of Seas” He studied old logs and

compiled the data – Allowed preparation of detailed

charts He determined the best routes

for maximum speeds & optimum conditions

Cut New York to San Francisco route by 47 days

The “Bureau System”The “Bureau System” Secretary of the Navy Abel P. Upshur -- 1841-42

– Proponent of expansion, modernization, and reform.

Five “bureaus” established to replace the Board of Commissioners in 1842.

– Bureau of Navy Yards and Docks

– Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography

– Bureau of Construction, Equipment, and Repair

– Bureau of Medicine and Surgery

– Bureau of Provisions and Clothing

The Mexican American WarThe Mexican American War

Due to Westward expansion:– Texas became part of U.S. upon their request– Independence 1836, annexed 1845, statehood 1846 – Border dispute with Mexico (Nueces vs. Rio

Grande)

U.S. annexed California and New Mexico– Not recognized by Mexico

1846 declaration of war with Mexico

Technological DevelopmentsTechnological Developments New blood officers experimented

with new technology & methods; M.C. Perry, Maury, Stockton

Advancements were made in the areas of:– Steam Propulsion– Gunnery– Armor

Industrial RevolutionIndustrial Revolution Affects naval technology:

Propulsion Sail to Steam

Armor Wood to Iron

Weapons Solid Shot to Shell

Technological DevelopmentsTechnological Developments

Fulton II, 1837– Second U.S. steamship.– Perry used this ship & convinced Congress to advocate the use of

steam– Commissioned 3,220 ton Mississippi and Missouri

Princeton, 1842– Screw propeller designed by Smith (England) and Ericcson (Sweden)– Oversaw construction of first screw driven warship.– The screw driven warship was soon deemed superior to the

paddlewheel France and England follow suit with Napoleon and Agamemnon

– US launches the Merrimack class fast screw frigate

Crimean War 1854-56Crimean War 1854-56 Russian invasion of Ottoman Empire in Europe Battle of Sinop

– Russian fleet annihilates Turkish fleet by use of shell fire– Proves wooden-hulled ships are obsolete -- unable to withstand

explosive shell fire Great Britain and France allied with Ottoman Turks Sevastopol Campaign

– Sailing ships inadequate compared to steam ships for maneuver– Importance of proper planning and coordination of amphibious

assaults Kinburn

– Ironclad (17” wooden hulls with 4.5” iron plates) armor on French ships used for protection ushered in age of armor

ArmorArmor French ironclad frigate Gloire - 1859

– 36 guns in broadside– 5,600-tons displacement– Wooden hull with iron armor plating 4.75” thick

British ironclad battleship Warrior - 1860– 40 guns in broadside– 9,000-tons displacement– Iron hull with iron armor plating

Discovered wood was too weak and constructed hull entirely of iron

– First “modern” warship -- sometimes referred to as first battleship

– Marked the end of wooden warship era

HMS HMS WarriorWarrior

Portsmouth, England

First “Modern” Warship

Ushered in era of the Battleship

OrdnanceOrdnance Primary weapon was still cast-iron, smoothbore, solid-shot

muzzle loader, 300-2500 yds USS Princeton ordnance demonstration - 1844

– Ericcson’s “Oregon” and Stockton’s “Peacemaker”– “Peacemaker” improperly reinforced, subsequent explosion kills

six, including the Secretary of State and the Secretary of the Navy– U.S. naval ordnance development suspended

John Dahlgren -- “Father of Modern Naval Ordnance”– “Dahlgren Gun” - 1850’s

Nine inch shell gun, mounted on Merrimack class frigates– Bore is smooth - still inaccurate at longer ranges– Based on curvature of gun shaft creating pressures from expanding

gas that originated from gunpowder– Experiments with “rifled” cannon begin

OrdnanceOrdnance

Built-up gun barrel replaces Dahlgren gunDevelopment of gun turret to protect

gunners MonitorEnhancement of shell shotAttempts at rifling produced intense

pressures that cannon could not withstand

Conclusion: 1815-1860Conclusion: 1815-1860Period of territorial and commercial expansionNavy grew in earlier years, but professionalism

and technology remained relatively stagnant after 1850

This was time of relative peace throughout period – U.S. held defensive and isolationist policy in

relation to Europe.– People lost interest in the Navy over the years– Sectional division over slavery paralyzed naval

development

Conclusion: 1815-1860Conclusion: 1815-1860 Heading into the Civil war the Navy unprepared once again in

1860– Ships were still mostly sail and even steamships used sail--the propeller

was mostly for auxiliary power, 8-10 knots max. speed.– There were few new weapons– The fleet was also small and aging

However, tradition of global support of commercial expansion– Porter in Caribbean– Wilkes’ exploration– Maury’s contributions to navigation– Overseas squadrons– Perry in Japan