HDR’s safe DRinking WateR act neWsletteRSDWA

A Publication of HDR

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winter 2012

3 Drinking Water Regulatory Activities at EPA for 2012 5 Crypto Outbreak

at Summer Camp Not from Drinking Water

Bottled Water Consumers in the United States6Trace Elements

in Groundwater4Preliminary Crypto Data Shows Lower Occurrence than Expected2

Bozeman WRF Phase 1 exPansion and imPRovements | montana

[2] SDWA Newsletter | HDR

Preliminary Cryptosporidium data from the first round of monitoring under the Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2) was presented by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) at a stakeholder meeting in December.

The data suggests that Cryptosporidium is less prevalent in drinking water supplies than anticipated by the current rule. The meeting was held to review LT2 monitoring requirements prior to the second round of required monitoring, and to evaluate the LT2 in the next six-year review cycle.

The EPA requested input from stakeholders on whether they should require analytical methods improvements that would increase average oocyst recovery from 40 percent to 60 percent. Depending on source water conditions, this change in the analytical method would affect some samples more than others.

Changing this one element of the rule would impact other aspects of the rule because the rule was constructed with interdependent elements.

For example, this change in the analytical method could result in an increased likelihood that a water system would be required to install treatment based on the second round of monitoring. This raises the question of whether the treatment bin boundaries should be changed.

Preliminary summary statistics presented by the EPA included the following:• More water treatment plants (WTPs) had all non-

detects than anticipated, with 51 percent of WTPs reporting no detections

• The average concentration of oocysts was 0.016 rather than 0.053 oocysts/L as anticipated

• There were more non-detects and fewer detects than anticipated (93 percent were nondetects)

• Fewer source waters than anticipated had mean concentrations greater than 0.075 oocysts/L, meaning that no additional treatment is required

One EPA conclusion is that the lower level of observed occurrence appears to be real and not due to a

Boone, N.C., water treatment facility

systematic change in recovery. The agency has not decided how it will determine whether any changes are needed in the rule.

EPA officials pointed out that the LT2 requirements do not allow for grandfathering data for the second round of monitoring. The LT2 treatment requirements do not address what a system will have to do if Round 2 monitoring results place the WTP in a lower treatment bin.

A redacted copy of the data set is planned for release by the EPA, but it is not clear what data will be withheld. A date for release of the data has not been determined.

Stakeholders at the meeting, including AWWA, made some suggestions of items that should be addressed as the EPA moves forward:• Consider either dropping Round 2 monitoring or

modifying the monitoring in a way that provides more value to water systems and informs health risk reduction

• Identify opportunities to reduce costs where possible

• Genotype positive samples, which would be informative

• Consider improved accuracy of the analytical method and the implications for treatment requirements if the EPA is going to pursue improved oocyst recovery

EPA officials anticipate a meeting in the spring of 2012 to discuss uncovered finished water storage and other LT2 topics. v

Crypto Data Shows Lower Occurrence than Expected By Sarah Clark, P.E.sarah.clark@hdrinc.com

[3]SDWA Newsletter | HDR

Based on information coming out of a meeting with water industry organizations in early January, the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s plans for 2012 include the following activities:• Finalizing the third Unregulated Contaminant

Monitoring Rule (UCMR) cycle• Finalizing revisions to the Total Coliform Rule this

summer• Publishing the proposed third round of regulatory

determinations this summer

• Continuing the stakeholder discussion this spring on the Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR), which was initiated in December 2011

• Planning to propose revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) in late 2012

• Preparing a perchlorate standard in early 2013 v

Improving delivery of consumer confidence reports (CCR) has been identified as one element of the final plan for a retrospective regulatory review by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Optimizing CCR delivery, including potential email delivery, is a topic in both the legislative and regulatory realms. On Jan. 5, the EPA kicked off its public outreach effort on CCR delivery with a conference call with the drinking water associations.

The EPA will be holding a public meeting via the Internet on Feb. 23, 2012, to obtain stakeholder input on the consumer confidence report rule as part of the agency’s retrospective review of existing regulations.

The EPA plans to discuss electronic delivery of the reports, resource implications for implementing report delivery certification, use of reports to meet public notification requirements, and how contaminant levels are reported in the consumer confidence reports.

It appears that the EPA’s legal council does not believe that the Safe Drinking Water Act specifically requires delivery of CCRs by U.S. Postal Service, but there is an on-going debate within the agency regarding exactly what constitutes “delivery” and whether various forms of electronic communication qualify.

For example, one line of argument suggests that email delivery of a PDF would satisfy the law, but a simple email announcing the availability of a PDF on the utility website would not. It is possible that the EPA could prepare guidance that facilitates electronic delivery of CCRs by January 2013.

Legislative efforts have been initiated on legislation that would allow consumers to get their CCRs electronically (H.R. 1340 and S. 1578). Some congressional staff question whether the EPA has the authority to allow electronic CCRs. v

Consumer Confidence Reports By Sarah Clark, P.E.sarah.clark@hdrinc.com

Drinking Water Regulatory Activities at EPA for 2012 By Sarah Clark, P.E.sarah.clark@hdrinc.com

[4] SDWA Newsletter | HDR

A report summarizing water quality data from 5,183 monitoring and drinking water wells collected between 1992 and 2003 was released by the U.S. Geological Survey in August 2011.

The trace elements measured include aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, lithium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silver, strontium, thallium, uranium, vanadium and zinc, along with radon gas. The report is part of the National Water Quality Assessment Program.

Influence of climate (dry regions vs. humid regions) on the occurrence and distribution of the elements was evaluated, along with the impacts of agricultural and urban environments. Concentrations of elements were characterized by the geologic composition of aquifers and aquifer geochemistry, and the levels found were compared to human-health benchmarks (HHB).

The report addresses groundwater pH and redox conditions as they affect the occurrence of the elements measured. Water samples were dated based on the measured level of tritium, with reported levels of tritium < 2.5 pCi/L assumed to be recharged prior to 1953.

Older waters (pre-1953) had more occurrences of trace elements, greater pHs, were from deeper wells, and had lower concentrations of dissolved oxygen than younger waters (water containing a fraction younger than 1953).

Overall, 19 percent of wells (962 of 5,097) exceeded an HHB for at least one trace element, with manganese occurring most often above the HHB (12 percent), followed by arsenic (7 percent), strontium (4.3 percent) and uranium (4.3 percent). More HHB exceedances occurred in groundwater in dry region wells than in humid region wells.

Figure 1 – Geographic distribution of trace-element concentrations in groundwater collected from wells as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program, 1992-2003: Chromium.

(continued on back cover)

Trace Elements in Groundwater By Sarah Clark, P.E.sarah.clark@hdrinc.com

[5]SDWA Newsletter | HDR

The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reported in its July 15, 2011, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report on a cryptosporidiosis outbreak that occurred at a summer camp in 2009. The investigation identified 46 laboratory-confirmed and probable cases of cryptosporidiosis at the camp.

A follow-up study of staff members revealed that eating ham from a sandwich bar that included raw vegetables grown at the camp and sharing a cabin with an ill person were significantly associated with illness.

In looking for the source of the Cryptosporidium, CDC researchers found that stool specimens of livestock and humans at the camp contained isolates of an identical Cryptosporidium parvum subtype. This indicates that a zoonotic (across species) transmission occurred at the camp, which is a link not normally implicated by traditional epidemiologic methods.

While the data from the outbreak suggested a point-source exposure and food was significantly associated with illness, contact with livestock at the camp was not significantly associated with illness. Nonetheless, the transmission from animals to humans occurred.

Staff and campers both participated in caring for livestock and harvesting of produce. In addition, the timing of the outbreak was associated with the arrival of two sets of calves, which may have been the source of the parasite.

Of interest to the water industry in this event is the genotyping of the C. parvum. The particular subtype (IIaA17G2R1) identified in this North Carolina camp outbreak is the same subtype that was identified as

the etiologic agent of an outbreak associated with ozonated apple cider in Ohio.

To date, subtyping has generally been limited to use as an outbreak investigative tool. Systematically subtyping Cryptosporidium isolates could identify transmission patterns and help direct prevention efforts to reduce the incidence of cryptosporidiosis.

As the industry moves forward to review the requirements of the Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2), we have an opportunity to learn about the movement of this parasite through use of genotyping of positive samples in water supplies.The American Water Works Association has suggested in stakeholder meetings that genotyping of positive Cryptosporidium samples should be under consideration in revising the LT2 Rule. v

To read the entire CDC report on this outbreak, go to: www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6027a3.htm?s_cid=mm6027a3_e&source .

Crypto Outbreak at Summer Camp Not from Drinking Water By Sarah Clark, P.E.sarah.clark@hdrinc.com

[6] SDWA Newsletter | HDR

Recent research into the national use of bottled water has identified some of the perceptions of bottled water users in the United States.

Bottled water use worldwide has increased by 10 percent every year, with the fastest growth coming in Asia and South America. The United States is the largest consumer of bottled water, with an estimated 27.8 gallons per person consumed in 2008.

Through a survey conducted between 2004 and 2009, the University of Idaho obtained data from 21 states regarding perceptions of water quality, use of bottled water, water supply type, general environmental attitudes and demographic information. The total sample size was 5,823.

Two of the survey questions regarding sources of drinking water identified those who primarily get their drinking water from purchased bottled water. Of those responses, 13 percent reported that they used bottled water as the primary source of drinking water, while 45.5 percent said they often used bottled water for drinking.

About 15 percent of respondents said they believed their home drinking water was not safe to drink, which corresponded fairly well with the percent reporting using bottled water as the primary source of drinking water.

Using regression modeling, the relationship between primary bottled water users and water quality perceptions was examined. Groundwater quality perception was found to be a significant predictor.

Compared to people who believe their home drinking water is safe, those who do not trust their home drinking water are 4.8 times more likely to use bottled water as a primary source. The researchers found no significant difference in the use of bottled water by people with different surface water quality perceptions.

Age and gender were found to be significant predictors for bottled water use. The odds that a

woman would use bottled water as a primary drinking water source were 1.32 times the odds for a man. A respondent who was one year older in age was two percent less likely to use bottled water as a younger person.

Residents of larger communities are more likely to use bottled water as a primary source. People in the Midwest and West Mountain regions are far less likely to use bottled water as a primary source than residents in the Southern Pacific, South and Southeast regions.

Perceptions of ground water quality and local water supply safety are associated with the decision to purchase bottled water. If the local water is not considered safe or of high enough quality, consumers in the U.S. are more likely to use bottled water as their main water source.

The researchers found two key implications of the survey:• Public health and community leaders need to work

to assure that municipal water supplies are safe and the safety of water supplies is communicated to the public

• Environmental leaders need to inform the public about long-term impacts of plastic water bottles v

This research was completed by Hu, Z., Morton, L.W. and Mahler, R.L. (2011) and is reported in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(2); 565-578.

Bottled Water Consumers in the United States By Sarah Clark, P.E.sarah.clark@hdrinc.com

[7]SDWA Newsletter | HDR

Ninety percent of the Lone Star state is shaded crimson to burnt red, designating nearly the entire state parched by “severe” or “exceptional” drought conditions.

From October 2010 to September 2011, Texas recorded its driest year since 1895. Rainfall averaged 8.5 inches (22 cm) during the 12-month period, about 13 inches (33 cm) below normal. The three-year record-setting drought has depleted both surface and groundwater supplies by 25 inches (64 cm), and climate experts predict the drought will last from one to three more years.

During the summer of 2011, Texas had over 100 days straight of 100 degrees or higher temperatures. Groundwater is at historic low levels, and 60 percent of Texas drinking water utilities depend on groundwater.

Reported on Jan. 31, 2012, the community of Spicewood outside of Austin is out of water and will begin trucking in water for the whole community,

U.S. Drought MonitorBy Sarah Clark, P.E.sarah.clark@hdrinc.com

a procedure that could last 6 to 8 months, depending on weather.

Drought conditions in southern Georgia and northern Florida persist. In southern Georgia, rainfall has been less than 50 percent of normal, with extremely low stream flows.

In Florida, in spite of light showers recently across the panhandle, dry weather prevailed across the remainder of the state. This led to declining stream flows, elevated fire danger and severe drought conditions.

Weather conditions in Alaska have been bitterly cold, with temperatures averaging 15 to 25° F below normal. In Hawaii, much of the state remains dry, with pastures in very poor condition over a third of the island of Molokai. v

For more information, visit http://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/ . Map author: Eric Luebehusen, U.S. Department of Agriculture

The Drought Monitor focuses on broad-scale conditions. Local conditions may vary.

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13th Edition SDWA Wall Chart Now AvailableThe SDWA Update wall chart, published in February 2011, is available from HDR’s website, www.hdrinc.com/SDWA . The poster-sized chart provides an easy-to-use reference to

all drinking water regulations, including a detailed listing of contaminants and maximum contaminant levels, health effects and monitoring requirements.

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Drinking Water Operations Wall Chart Now AvailableThe Drinking Water Operations wall chart, published in May 2009, is available from HDR’s website, www.hdrinc.com/OpChart . This poster-sized chart is designed to assist

utility personnel with the operation and maintenance of their water systems. It includes a combination of reference tools and guidance information designed to improve system performance and achieve optimal water quality for both water treatment and distribution systems.

SDWA EditorSarah Clark, P.E., is the editor of SDWA. Please contact her with any comments or questions regarding this publication at (303) 764-1560. To join, change an address or be removed from the SDWA mailing list, please send requests

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Front Cover Photo: In a tough economy, innovative design, management and bidding methods were used on the largest public works project ever undertaken by the city of Bozeman. The result is a state-of-the-art water reclamation facility ready to meet upcoming stringent water quality requirements and poise the city for future growth. The new Bozeman Water Reclamation Facility, which is already exceeding typical standards, sets the stage for advanced nutrient removal systems and achievable discharge limits in the state of Montana and in cold weather regions across the nation. (Scott Dobry Pictures)

Trace Elements in Groundwater(continued from page 4)

Data from the project is presented in several useful formats. An example of one format is the presentation of occurrence data for each parameter on a national map. For one element of current concern in drinking water – chromium – the national map is shown in Figure 1. v

For further information, readers are referred to Ayotte, J.D., Gronberg, J.M., and Apodaca, L.E., 2011, Trace elements and radon in groundwater across the United States, 1992-2003: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2011-5059, 115 p. The entire report can be accessed at: http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/trace/pubs/sir2011-5059/index.html .