screening and early diagnosis in oncology başak oyan-uluç, md yeditepe university hospital...
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Screening and Early
Diagnosis in Oncology
Başak Oyan-Uluç, MDYeditepe University Hospital
Department of Medical Oncology
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Prevention
PrimaryElimination of
risk factor• Cessation of
smoking• Colonoscopy• Vaccination• Lifestyle
modifications
Onset of disease Clinical diagnosis
Asymptomatic Clinical courseHealthy
SecondaryEarly diagnosis
and treatment• Colonoscopy
• Mamography
• Pap smear
TertiaryReducing
complications (rehabilitation)
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Cancer Screening
• Cancer screening: Early detection of asymptomatic or unrecognized disease by the application of inexpensive tests or examinations in a large number of people.
• Main objective: To reduce morbidity and mortality from a particular cancer among people screened.
• Screening procedure itself– Not diagnostic– Detects people with cancer risk – Positive or suspicious findings must be evaluated further to
determine diagnosis and appropriate treatment.
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Screening vs. Diagnosis
Screening Diagnosis
Applied to asymptomatic groups
Applied to symptomatic individuals
Lower cost per test Higher cost, all necessary tests applied to identify disease
Lower yield per test Increased probability of case detection
Lower adverse consequences of error
Failure to identify true positive can delay treatment, worsen prognosis
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Ideal screening program
Patient features• High impact: Morbidity,
mortality, economy• High incidance and high
prevelance• Predictable course and
biology • High prevelance of preclinic
phase• Effective treatment exists
Requirements of screening test
• Diagnosing disease at preclinical phase
• Acceptable sensitivity and specificy
• Acceptable to people• Simple anf cheap• Safe
Quality of primary or secondary prevention (Cheap, effective, safe)
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Cervical Cancer-Pap Smear
1. Long preinvasive period
2. Increased morbidity and mortality in invasive period
3. Treatable if early diagnosis
4. PAP smear: Sensitive, low cost, easy to apply, safe
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Benefits of Screening
• Improved prognosis for those with early-detected cancers
• Less radical treatment
• Reassurance for those with negative test results
• Reduction of treatment costs
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• Although there are more than 100 different cancers, most of them lack proven screening interventions
• Cancers that have widely accepted screening interventions
• Breast• Cervical cancer• Colorectal• Prostate ?
• Hepatocellular cancer in patients with risk factor• Lung cancer in people with defined risk factors
Cancers suitable for screening
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Breast Cancer Screening
• Most common cancer in females
• Average risk
• Increased risk– Prior thoracic RT (eg. Mantle)– Women who have a lifetime risk of >%20– Strong family history of genetic predisposition– LCIS/atypical hyperplasia– Prior history of breast cancer
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Breast Cancer ScreeningAverage risk women
Widely accepted techniques for breast cancer screening includes:– Brest self-examination: Monthly after age 20
– Clinical breast examination: • Age 20-39: Every 3 years• Every year after age 40
– Mamography: Every 1-2 years after age 40-50• In Turkey (KETEM): Every 2 years after age 40
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Mamography
Trial Age Decrease in mortality(%)
HIP 40-64 24Malmö 45-69 192-kanton, İsveç 40-74 32Edinburg 45-64 21Stockholm 40-64 26Kanada-1 40-49 -3Kanada-2 50-59 -2Gothenburg 39-59 16
All trials 39-74 24
CA Cancer J Clin 2003; 53:141
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Mamography
• Microcalcifikcations Spicular mass lesion
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0.4 cm komedo dkis 0.7 cm inv lob k
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1993 1999
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Controversial points
• Initiation of screening (age 40-49?)• Frequency (1 vs. 2 years)• Radiation dose• Side effects• Cost• High risk women
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Age of initiation of screening
• 40-49 years – Controversial– Long term follow-up results shows benefit– Decrease in mortality : 15%– Gothenburg trial: Decrease in mortality 45%– Metaanalyses: Decrease in mortality 15%
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Frequency of screening
• Decrease in distant metastases– Screening every year: 51%– Screening every 2 year: 22%
Michaelson ve ark. Radiology 1999; 212:551
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Radyasyon Dozu
• ACS guidelines:“many women are concerned about the exposure to x-rays but the level of radiation used in modern mammograms does not significantly increase the risk for breast cancer”
• Mamography: Dose < 2 mGr (~ 1 mGr)
• Ages 40-90 years, mamography every year: Total 20-40 rad– Dose of radiation exposure during a flight between New
York and California : Equlas to 1 mamography
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Radiation Risk in Breast Screening
• Risk of radiation induced cancer for screening is about 1 in 20,000 per visit
• ~170 cancers detected for every cancer induced• Mortality benefit of screening exceeds radiation
induced detriment by ~ 100:1
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Risk of mamography
Similar risks• Traveling 4000 miles by air• Traveling 600 miles by car• 15 minutes of mountain climbing• Smoking 8 cigarettes
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LIMITATIONS OF MAMMOGRAPHY
• As many as 5 – 15% of breast cancers are not detected mammographically
• A negative mammogram should not deter work-up of a clinically suspicious abnormality
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Adverse events
• False negative mamography and interval cancers
• False reassurance related to false negative mamography
• Overdiagnosis of tumors not causing mortality
• False positive mamography (recall rate %8-9) and unnecessary additionla tests and biopsy
• Anxiety
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Cervical Cancer Screening
• Second most common cancer in females worldwide particularly in the underdeveloped regions
• The incidence has declined in many countries due to the improved standard of living throughout the world
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Cervical Cancer Screening
• Pap test: Introduced in 1930s by Dr. Papanicolaou
• Screening should begin at age 21
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Cervical Cytologic Screening Guidelines from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2009
Screening not discontinued in: •In-uterine DES exposure•Personal history of cervical cancer, CIN grade 2/3•Immune insuffiency (eg. HIV) •HPV DNA (+)
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Colorectal Cancer Screening
• Causes morbidity and mortality in both men and women
• Second leading cause of death due to cancer
• The natural history of colon cancer with relatively long time from biologic onset to development of carcinoma makes it a good candidate for screening
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Adenoma-carcinoma sequence
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Risk groups for screening• Average risk
– Age ≥ 50 y– No inflammatoy bowel disease– No history of adenoma or colorectal cancer– Negative family history
• Increased risk– Personal history of
• Adenoma/sessile serrated polyp• Inflammatoy bowel disease• Colorectal cancer
– Positive family history
• High risk syndromes– Lynch syndrome/Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC)– Polyposis syndromes (familial adenomatous polyposis, Peutz-
Jeggers syndrome, Juvenile polyposis syndrome, hyperplastic polyposis syndrome)
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Screening tests for colorectal cancerAverage risk
Starts at age 50
1. Colonoscopy every 10 years • preferred if available• For every 1% increase in complete colonoscopy rate, the hazard of
death decreased by 3%.
2. Annual FOBT+/-Flexible sigmoidoscopy every 5 years
Annual Fecal occult blood test (FOBT)• Testing of stool for occult blood to detect colorectal cancer at an early
stage• Variation is observed in estimates of the sensitivity but its lower cost and
increased specificity to detect right-isded colonic lesions make it a good screening test
Flexible sigmoidoscopy every 5 years • In contrast to FOBT, has a high sensitivity and specificity • Involves the use of a 60 cm flexible sigmoidoscope• Detects left sided lesions
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Colorectal Cancer Screening Guidelines*
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Prostate Cancer Screening
• Most commonly diagnosed cancer among men and is the second leading cause of male cancer deaths
• Two main screening modalities• Serum prostate specific antigen (PSA) • Digital rectal examination (DRE)
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Prostate Cancer Screening• Benefit of screening is controversial
• Prostate cancer is common and potentially lethal; however, more patients die with, rather than from, the disease.
• Incidence: 1/6 Mortality: 1/30
• Screening detects more cases of organ-confined disease, but there is no proof that this detection saves lives.
• In more instances, prostate cancer is not the cause of elevated PSA level.
NEJM 2009; 360:1310NEJM 2009; 360:1320
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Prostate Cancer Screening
• Localized treatment of prostate cancer is effective but is associated with complications than can include impotence and incontinence (~ 50%).
• It is likely that prostate cancer screening using the PSA level is beneficial in a subset of men; however, the characteristics of the subset have not been defined.
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Prostate Cancer Screening
• Discuss benefit and harms of screening with the patient
• In men with a life expectancy of >10 years, start screening at age 40y with: – PSA – Digital rectal examination
• In last years, it is recommended to offer a baseline DRE and PSA at age 40 y.
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Prostate Cancer Screening
• Serum PSA level• Allows earlier detection of prostate cancer• Normal PSA values are found in 1/3 of localized tumors
(false negative)• Often elevated in men with noncancerous conditions
such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (false positive)
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Prostate Cancer Screening
• NCCN recommendation– DRE yearly starting at age 40– PSA yearly starting at age 40
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Lung Cancer Screening
Target population:•Age: 55-74 years +•Smoked ≥ 30 pack/year +•Continue to smoke or have quitted smoking within 15 years
Screeninig method: Low dose thorax CT
%20 reduction in lung-cancer related mortality
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Hepatocellular Carcinoma
Cirrhosis• Hepatitis B, C• Alcohol• Genetic hemocromatosis• Non-alcoholic
steatohepatitis• Autoimmune hepatitis• Primary biliary cirrhosis
No cirrhosis• Hepatitis B carrier• Non-alcoholic
steatohepatitis
Ultrasonography
Alpha-feto protein (AFP)
Every 6-12 months
Diagnosis rate: %92
False (+): %7.5
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People not to be screened
• Life expectancy <5 years
• People who do not wish to undergo additional diagnostic tests or who do not want any treatment
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Future of Screening
• Compliance: Encourage people to adhere the proven cancer screening modalities
• New and better methods: With the discovery of cancer susceptibility genes (e.g. BRCA-1 susceptibility gene for breast cancer) lifetime risk for an individual to develop a specific cancer could be estimated.
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ROLE OF TUMOR MARKERS IN SCREENİNGi DIAGNOSIS AND
FOLLOW-UP
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Tumor Markers
• Secreted by the tumor or secreted in response to tumor
• Also secreted by normal cells and found in low concentrations in serum
• Some increase in inflammatory disease, hepatic and renal disorders
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Ideal tumor marker
• Detect small sized tumor while asymptomatic• Elevated only in malignancy• Can be used for screening and early diagnosis
• (-) test result in healthy people and patients with benign diseases (Specificity 100%)
• (+) test result in cancer patients(sensitivity 100%)
• NO IDEAL TUMOR MARKER EXISTS
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Application of Tumor Markers in Clinical Practice
1. Screening
2. Diagnosis
3. Prognosis and tumor load
4. Evaluation of treatment response and follow-up
Also: Radioactive labelled markers to detect metastatic regions
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Classification
1. Oncofetal proteins• CEA• AFP
2. Enzymes• PAP
• LDH• NSE• PLAP
3. Hormones• Calcitonin• B-HCG• Thyroglobulin
4. Antigens• CA15-3• Ca 19-9• CA125• B2-microglobulin
5. Others• 5-HIAA• VMA• Ferritin
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Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA)
• Surface glycoprotein of fetal colon epithelium• Not detected in normal adult tissues• Normal level: <5 ng/ml in non-smoker• Higher levels in smokers• Elevation
• Liver, colorectal, breast, gastric,pancreas cancer• Liver diseases (cirrhosis, hepatitis)• Pancreatitis• Inflamatory bowel disease• Chronic renal failure• Chronic lung disease• Rectal polyps
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CEA
• Clinical use:• Prognosis (colon cancer)• Response evaluation and follow-up (detection of
relapses)
• Not used for screening and early diagnosis
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Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
• Elevation in males and non pregnant females->Cancer
• Half life: 14-24 hour
• Elevation: • Gestational trophoblastic tm• Ovarian and testicular germ cell tm
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Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)
• Secreted from fetal yolk sac, liver, intestines
• Max. level.: Gestational 12-15. week• Not detected in healthy patients > age 1• Elevation
• Liver diseases• Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)• Testicular and ovarian germ cell tm• Teratocarcinoma
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AFP
• Clinical use:• Screening of HCC in patients with chronic active
hepatitis, cirrhosis, hepatitis B antigen carriers (every 6 month)
– >350 ng/ml
• Diagnosis• Prognosis• Response evaluation and follow-up
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CA 19-9
• Clinical use• Pancreas cancer• Gastric cancer• Colorectal: elevated in only 42%
• Used in follow-up
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CA 125
• Used in – Screening of females with family history of hereditary
ovarian cancer syndrome – Differential diagnosis of ovarian masses – Evaluation of response and follow-up of ovarian cancer
• Elevation: • Ovarian cancer• Diseases involving peritoneum• Lung, breast, cervical, endometrium, pancreas cancer• Benign diseases: Endometriosis, pregnancy, PID,
leiomyoma uteri
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Tumor Markers in Clinical PracticeCancer Tumor marker Clinical Use
Breast CEA, CA 15-3 4
GI (colorectal, gastric, pancreas) CEA
CA 19-9
3,4
4
Prostate PSA
PAP
1 (?), 3, 4
3, 4
Hepatocellular AFP
CEA
1-4
4
Ovarian CA125 3, 4
Testis (germ cell) AFP, B-HCG
LDH, PLAP (seminoma)
2-4
3, 4
Gesta trophoblastic tm B-HCG 2-4
Small cell lung cancer NSE 4
Thyroid Thyroglobulin
Calcitonin (medullary)
4
1, 2, 4
Neuroblastoma VMA, Catecholamines 1-4
Myeloma Immunoglobulins 2, 3
1. Screening 2. Diagnosis 3. Prognosis 4. Evaluation of treatment response and follow-up
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Tumor markers used in Screening
• AFP: screening for HCC in chronic hepatitis related to hepatitis B or C
• PSA
• Calcitonin in familial medullary thyroid disease
• CA 125: Screening of females with a family history of hereditary ovarian cancer syndrome
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Guidelines for ordering/interpreting tumor marker tests
• Never rely on the result of a single test
• Order every test from the same laboratory
• Consider half-life of the tumor marker when interpreting the result
• Consider how the tumor marker is removed or metabolized
• Consider presence of HAMA antibodies
![Page 56: Screening and Early Diagnosis in Oncology Başak Oyan-Uluç, MD Yeditepe University Hospital Department of Medical Oncology](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062517/56649eca5503460f94bd8b2b/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Conclusion
• Tumor markers should not be used as a tool for screening except:
• AFP for HCC in high risk patients• PSA for prostate cancer• Calcitonin in familial medullary thyroid disease
• Tumor markers are mainly a tool for response evaluation and follow-up.
• Tumor markers are not specific in most of the cases. They are also increased in several benign conditions.
![Page 57: Screening and Early Diagnosis in Oncology Başak Oyan-Uluç, MD Yeditepe University Hospital Department of Medical Oncology](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062517/56649eca5503460f94bd8b2b/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Guidelines for ordering/interpreting tumor marker tests
• Never rely on the result of a single test
• Order every test from the same laboratory
• Consider half-life of the tumor marker when interpreting the result
• Consider how the tumor marker is removed or metabolized