SCOTTISH CENTRE: CHAIRMAN'S ADDRESS

By R. I. KINNEAR, M.B.E., Member.*

"THE TRAINING OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS IN THE SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY."

(ABSTRACT of Address delivered at GLASGOW 9th October, EDINBURGH 10//? October, and ABERDEEN 26th October, 1945.)

INTRODUCTIONDuring my long association with the shipbuilding industry, I

have frequently been asked, "Can a lad serve his apprenticeshipas an electrical engineer satisfactorily in a shipyard?", and havingpassed through that school of training myself, I naturally resentedthe inference, and replied in the affirmative forthwith.

I know of no better place to obtain all-round electrical ex-perience, provided a lad puts bis mind to his work, and pursueshis technical studies. In order to eradicate this doubt, I decidedin my Address to review the progress in the use of electricityon board ship and to describe the service it renders to the sea-travelling public, in the hope of establishing a better under-standing of the applications and importance of marine electricalengineering.

During the past fifty or sixty years much has been accomplishedin expediting and improving sea traffic and communications.

The sailing-ship with its inherent defects of slow motion orno motion, depending upon the wind, can be tolerated only forpleasure purposes. Speed and comfort are the order of the day,and the travel standard now obtainable is very high. To thisachievement electricity has added no small quota.

Looking back over my early experience, I have a clear recol-lection of the pessimistic view generally held as to the reliabilityof electricity for services other than lighting. There wasalmost a complete lack of confidence in electrical equipment forpurposes where continuity of service was essential. This lack ofconfidence was not confined to the plant side of shipbuildingestablishments; it applied equally to ship installations. For anumber of years, housed in an odd corner of the engine room, asmall steam-driven generator which supplied a few lighting pointsthroughout the vessel, completed a ship's electrical outfit. Ittook a number of years to accomplish a change, but electricpower was ultimately established in the shipyard and aboardship. •

We live to-day in an age when almost every aspect of the ship-builder's life is, in one way or another, linked up with electricity.Almost entire agreement is found in its use for numerous services,however important; it is used almost exclusively for the supplyof domestic and auxiliary services; in point of fact the modernship has become a veritable network of electric cables andequipment It demands a generating plant capacity rangingfrom a few hundred to several thousands of kilowatts, accordingto the size and type of vessel.

Turbo-electric and Diesel-electric ship propulsion is growingin favour in this country; in the United States it has been exten-sively used for many years. Ships equipped with electric pro-peller-shaft drives can compete keenly with their most economicaland up-to-date direct-steam or Diesel-driven rivals.

In view of these changed conditions, a ship's electrical installa-tion to-day is necessarily very different from that of only a fewyears ago. The fitting-out of the services on a modern linerdemands, not only a substantial increase in electrical labour,but a highly skilled technical and planning department capable

of dealing with a varied range of specialized equipment, anddeveloping the complete layout in conformity with the owner'srequirements and The Institution's "Regulations for the Elec-trical Equipment of Ships."

To illustrate progress, I have tabulated the main particulars ofthree large steam-driven liners, built respectively in 1907, 1914and 1936. The statement gives the approximate numbers andaggregate powers of electric motors, together with details of thelighting and wiring. The vessels under consideration are theLusitania (30 822 gross tons), the Aquitania (45 647 gross tons),and the Queen Mary (81 235 gross tons). Belonging to the sameshipping company, they can, I think, be considered as repre-sentative of general progress. The intervention of the war dis-organized the completion in this country of the Queen Elizabeth,so that final statistics for her are not yet available.

Engine-room machineryBoiler-room machineryMachinery space ventilationAccommodation ventilationDeck machinerySteering gearKitchen machinery motorsVarious small motors . .Elevator and hoistsRefrigerating machineryBoat-hoisting machinery

Total capacity of generators (in-cluding emergency sets), kW

Number of lamps (approx.) ..Length of cables (approximate),

milesCooking apparatus, kWRadiators, etc., kW ..

LusitaniaNo. B.H.P.

16 80016 35075 22016 140— —— 10

3 1511 677 654 56

148 1 723

1 5006600

15012

250

AquitaniaNo.17143088

5.——.1210—

2

178

1

B.H.P.333700479387

56

1311495

60

2 255

63010 000

200Very small

Queen MaryNo.773719

23528

3327840

524

578

B.H.P.46403 957

3881 1195 768

75040

256268150480

17 818

9 25029 000

1735450420

* John Brown and Co., Ltd.

From this comparison will be seen the great increase in theuse of electricity. It is interesting to note that the advance hasnot been confined to non-essential services; it extends to themost important units directly associated with propulsion, steeringand the general operation and safety of the vessel.

While the figures quoted refer to passenger liners, similarstatements could be applied equally to modern cargo vessels.Here also the general tendency is to increase the capacity of theelectrical generating machinery. The engine-room auxiliariesare invariably electrically-driven. The old steam-driven types ofdeck machinery are rapidly being replaced by modern electricwinches. Electrically-driven fans and refrigerating machineryhave made it possible to transport perishable cargoes from anypart of the world. Electric steering is common practice, whileradio is an essential requisite for precise navigation.

The modern warship has led the way in its application ofelectricity to services of fundamental importance. As far backas 1880, the Admiralty contracted with the Anglo-Brush ElectricLight Corporation to install the first lighting installation onH.M.S. Inflexible. To-day, in addition to the usual domesticand machinery services, there are many extensive and complex

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92 KINNEAR: SCOTTISH CENTRE: CHAIRMAN'S ADDRESS

systems, such as gun-fire control; torpedo control; electricaloperation and control of gun mountings; duplicate and triplicatesupplies to essential services; emergency terminals fitted through-out the vessel to ensure a quick link-up to important servicesduring action conditions; warning telephones for conveyinginstructions; a complete system of emergency lighting coming intooperation immediately the main supply fails; extensive radar andwireless installations; action-damage control 'phones; and manyothers. The advent of the Second World War brought with ita great increase in requirements, presenting many problems toboth the electrical engineer and the scientist; new types of shipsand equipment have been developed to meet new conditions."Degaussing" and "deperming" have become necessary to pro-tect our shipping against the magnetic mine. The destruction ofthe acoustic mine has been greatly assisted by suitably designedelectrical equipment. Submarine detection depends entirely forits success on the use of electricity. The revolutionary expansionof wireless and radar in their application to navigation, andgunnery has definitely advanced the technique of both theseimportant services. To-day no system of gun-fire control wouldbe complete or even adequate without some form of associatedradar equipment.

One of the most outstanding and rapid developments in modernwarfare has been that of the aeroplane as a fighting unit. Theparticular application of this new weapon to sea warfare hascreated fundamental changes. The detection and determinationof the speed and course of enemy aircraft travelling at a highvelocity have to be carried out as early as possible, so thatadequate provision may be made to deal with them on arrival.Increased speed of gun-mounting operation on account of theincreased speed of the approaching target, and the individualcontrol of equipments operating on preselected groups of aero-planes, have been found essential; these and other requirementshave brought into existence revised methods.

As a natural consequence, these changes have added greatlyto the ship's electrical installation. Additional or largergenerators have had to be installed, increased distributionthroughout the vessel has been a contingent factor, and to-dayelectricity is used in a modern warship to a greater extent thanin any other type of vessel of a similar size.

It is gratifying to learn that these additional systems have im-proved the fighting efficiency. Up-to-date fire control arrange-ments are such that it is possible to contact, range and engagethe enemy with greater precision, even on the darkest night orthrough" the densest fog, than could previously be accomplishedwith earlier types of equipment assisted by visual observation.

Summarizing these remarks, a progressive policy has beenpursued over a number of years. Revolutionary changes havebeen adopted only after considerable trial and experience, andelectricity has won its present position entirely on its merits.With this in mind, together with the knowledge that the field ofits application would appear unlimited, I feel there is a futurein shipbuilding for the young engineer which should be givenserious consideration when selecting his sphere of future labours.

THE EQUIPMENT IN A LARGE PASSENGER LINER

Returning to the passenger ship, I should like to give you aorief outline of some of the applications of electricity on a vesselof this class. I will take the Queen Mary as my prototype, andbase my remarks mainly on this vessel. The extensive and com-prehensive nature of the installation, together with the timelimitation imposed on an Address of this nature will not permitme to go closely into details, but I will at least endeavour todeal with the most outstanding services.

The general layout of the electrical installation of one of these

large vessels may be readily understood from a short description.On the Queen Mary, this installation comprised two almostentirely separate power stations located at different parts of thevessel, supplying energy to the main switchboards which con-trolled the auxiliary machinery and hotel services respectively.The generating plant included seven combined turbo-generatorsets, each of 1 300-kW capacity, consisting of a ten-stage turbinedriving a d.c. generator through single reduction gearing. Theturbine speed was 5 000 r.p.m. and the generator speed 600 r.p.m.Each set was entirely self-contained, having its condensing equip-ment integral with the turbine, and designed to run in parallelunder all conditions of loading. Power was supplied through thetwo main switchboards to 32 auxiliary switchboards situated atcalculated load centres throughout the vessel, by means of semi-ring mains connected to each side of the main boards. Splitterswitches were incorporated so that these main supplies could befed simultaneously from both sides of the main switchboards orfrom either side separately.

This system of distribution has many advantages over theusual radial-mains system, and from a space-saving aspect aloneit is almost essential on vessels of this size. Reliability is in-creased and the number of small cables led throughout the shipis considerably reduced.

Machinery SpacesUndoubtedly the most important equipment in a ship is the

main propulsion machinery, and, of course, the auxiliary servicesrequired to operate in conjunction with it. Each auxiliary per-forms some vital function to secure the satisfactory operation ofthe main plant. Reliability is therefore an imperative con-sideration when selecting suitable ancilliary equipment.

In addition to the services directly associated with the mainmachinery, there are others of comparable importance in themachinery spaces. Apart altogether from the manifold servicessuch as telegraphs, telephones, warning bells, salt detectors,direction indicators, CO2 indicators, etc., on the larger vesselsthe electrically driven auxiliaries include main circulating pumps,forced-lubrication pumps, oil-cooling pumps, ballast-trimmingpumps, sanitary pumps, water-service pumps, fire pumps,emergency bilge pumps, salvage pumps, oil-fuel pumps, sewagepumps, domestic-water pumps, sprinkler pumps, brine pumps,and ventilation fans.

No further amplification is required to stress the importanceof these. It will be noticed that they include not only vitalservices connected with the main machinery, but also domesticand fire-fighting appliances. I am convinced that one of thechief reasons for the increased application of electricity to suchservices is to a large extent the improvement in design and manu-facture of modern electrical equipment to suit ship conditions,which differ considerably in many aspects from those ashore.For ship work ordinary commercial standards are inadequate;more robust construction is required. Care has to be taken toensure that leaky or burst pipes will not cause damage throughdrenching. Accessibility for inspection and overhaul has to becarefully considered, and the ventilating arrangements must besuch that the equipment can withstand the temperatures ex-perienced in any part of the world for service in which the shipis designed.

Steering GearThe steering gear is another unit of extreme importance; for

this reason, very careful consideration is given to the generalarrangements and the type of equipment fitted. On the QueenMary, such stress was placed on the necessity of maintainingcontinuity of service that the three motors, each of 250 h.p., areindividually supplied by separate cables run along differentroutes from the main switchboards to the steering compartment,

KINNEAR: SCOTTISH CENTRE: CHAIRMAN'S ADDRESS 93

while an alternative common supply to the three motors is pro-vided from the hotel-service ring-main or the emergency system.

Investigation and experience have established that the electric-hydraulic system provides a most efficient and reliable ruddercontrol. With the previously mentioned arrangement of powersupplies, combined with adequate duplication of essential partsto provide safeguards, a scheme has been evolved which hasproved highly satisfactory over several years of strenuous service.

The gyro pilot, or, as it is commonly termed, the "iron man,"is a further refinement in the steering equipment which involvesthe use of electricity. This apparatus is directly connected tothe servo system, which in turn controls the power operating therudder head, so that hand or automatic steering on a prede-termined course is at all times available. The monotony of thehelmsman's task is thus relieved, with a consequent improve-ment in the course of the vessel and a reduction of the time takento accomplish the trip. This latter consideration is of the greatestimportance for ships running to schedule and carrying mails.

Galley EquipmentIt is not surprising that advantage is now being taken of the

superior adaptability and cleanliness of electricity in the galleys,kitchens, bakery, and in the numerous serving pantries through-out large passenger liners. Many services are now performedelectrically which previously were done by other means. Theseinclude cooking, baking, refrigerating, ice-cream making, potatopeeling, dish washing, toasting, grilling, silver cleaning, etc. Byincreasing the speed at which the food can be transported,electrically-controlled service lifts secure warm meals for pas-sengers who prefer to take them in their cabins.

Apart from other economies and considerations, it will be easyto understand the vast amount of labour saved by the use ofelectrical equipment, particularly if one considers the quantityof coal that would be required for such services, and the attendantdirt and dust. This advantage alone justifies the use of electricity.

On the latest vessel for which I have particulars, the loads ofthe most important items in the cabin and tourist galleys indicatethe extensive use of electricity purely for catering purposes.They are as follows: cabin ranges, 350 kW; tourist range, 176 kW;vegetable range, 51 kW; confectioner's range, 27 kW; con-fectioner's ovens, 24 kW; baker's ovens, 60 kW; fish fryers,27 kW; salamanders, 65 kW; cofFee equipment, 60 kW; whilemany smaller units of equal importance, such as dough mixers,egg boilers, toasters, etc., complete this most important outfit.The power required by the catering department on the QueenMary totals 1 500 kW.

Other ServicesWhile the services mentioned perform essential functions for

the transport, safety and comfort of the passenger, they coveronly a portion of a ship's electrical equipment. More directlyassociated with the passenger's daily routine are the lighting ofthe cabins and public rooms; telephones; cinema; wireless; fire-fighting services; steward-calling facilities; clocks; gymnasium;broadcasting; hairdressing; and the usual services availableashore, or in one's home. The modern liner provides all these,to a standard equal to that of a first-class hotel.

Cabin AccommodationGenerally, lighting is of a much higher order than it was only

a few years ago. To-day the shipbuilder is faced with the problemof increased intensities, something of the order of 6-8 foot-candles for general illumination, and much higher intensitieswhere the illumination of special features or fittings is required.At the same time, the mounting height of the fittings in manyspaces cannot exceed 7-8 ft owing to height limitations between

decks. This obviously presents a difficulty, and applies par-ticularly to cabins and staterooms. Cabin accommodation onthe larger liners has usually 6-12 lighting points plus a numberof special plug points for ironing, shaving, curling tongs,radiators, etc.; two-, three- and even four-way switching is com-mon practice, and a great deal of thought is needed to arrangethe several services so that each will be effective and harmonizewith the general design and layout of the room.

In order to attain the most satisfactory result, it is usual toexperiment with various types of lighting schemes and fittings inone of each type of cabin until a suitable arrangement is agreedupon. The height limitations preclude the use of high-wattageand high-efficiency lamps, and tubular lighting has the disad-vantage of fragility so that it is expensive to maintain. Thepractice, therefore, has been confined largely to the provisionof a number of small-wattage lighting points with a consequentincrease in wiring and switches; this is not desirable.

Here, then, is a field for lighting experts which I have nodoubt will be explored in due course; the development offluorescent lamps of the discharge type may ultimately providea solution. In this connection, however, while it is not essentialto employ alternating current for the satisfactory operation ofthis type of lighting, it is necessary if maximum efficiency isdesired. In this country alternating current has not, so far, beenregarded with favour for ship-lighting installations.

Public RoomsThe lighting of public rooms is invariably of a special nature,

necessitating the development of individual arrangements to suitthe "period" chosen and the architectural style. These,naturally, vary considerably, as each room is designed for itsown particular purpose; a scheme suitable for the lounge, forinstance, would be entirely unsatisfactory for the ballroom.Individual attention must be given to each room. The archi-tectural designer is provided with the structural plans by theshipbuilder and allowed a free hand to produce working drawingson which the lighting engineer can apply his skill. The blendingof direct and indirect lighting, laylights and concealed lightingto produce a specified intensity and satisfy the artistic taste ofthe up-to-date traveller is undoubtedly work for the expert. Thecontrol and wiring requirements necessary to comply with theseconditions must also be carefully studied, and the scheme de-veloped to comply with the conditions laid down by the classi-fication societies under whose regulations the ship is beingconstructed. The power used for public-room lighting on a shipof the Queen Mary class ranges from 40 to 100 kW per room.

It will be obvious that a very extensive field presents itself totrainees in the layout of lighting installations of a very highstandard. Their experience will not be static, for their educationwill embrace the very latest practice as each successive vessel isconstructed. I would venture to suggest that such a range andvariety of experience would be difficult to obtain outside theshipbuilding industry.

Earth LeakageIn view of the large increase in the number of cables, many

of which are of fragile construction and hidden away in casingsand behind panelling, particularly throughout the passenger ac-commodation, it is necessary to guard against damage due tothe continual movement of the ship's structure when at sea.Metal-sheathed or fire-proofed cables should be employedwherever possible. Wood casings should be constructed of fire-proof timber, care being taken to avoid sharp corners. Wiresshould not be drawn in tightly; it is of paramount importancethat they should have freedom to move without damage, par-ticularly at corners. Wires of different polarity should invariably

94 KINNEAR: SCOTTISH CENTRE: CHAIRMAN'S ADDRESS

be kept separate throughout their entire route and at the dis-tribution boxes from which they are supplied.

In this respect the "Regulations for the Electrical Equipmentof Ships" (1939) give some guidance, but I would suggest thatclauses 908 (D) and (E) should be made more embracing andcouched in stronger terms, as follows:

(D). Sharp edges should be carefully avoided, corners shouldbe rounded and the cables should be pulled in loosely, allowingfreedom of movement in the grooves and at the corners.

(E). In no circumstances should cables of opposite polaritybe bunched in the same grooves or allowed to cross each otherwithout special provision being made to ensure their entireseparation.

Even with alt this care, faults cannot be prevented. In largeships, the localization of these defects becomes a problem of nosmall magnitude. The difficulty has been a long-standinganxiety to the ship's electrical engineer, and involves a good dealof work to trace the seat of the trouble, such as splitting upsystems, etc. The result of allowing earth faults to develop istoo well known to call for further comment.

Subsidiary ServicesTelephones.

Much greater use is now being made of telephones on largemodern liners. Switchboards incorporating as many as 640 lineshave been installed, covering all accommodation, domestic de-partments and service rooms, and, in addition, a number ofspecial lines for connection to shore when the vessel is in port.By this means passengers may be connected to subscribers onthe shore telephone system and so remain in contact with friendsuntil the ship leaves the port, or make contact with them im-mediately on arrival.

The wireless telegraphy and telephony rooms are also con-nected to the ship's exchange, and passengers may send orreceive wireless telegrams or make telephone calls withoutleaving their cabins. Thus passengers have a constant means ofcontact with their friends or business associates throughout thevoyage.

Steward Call System.Following modern practice, noisy bells have been eliminated

from the service system. The increased application of telephoneshas done much to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessarystewards' journeys. When, however, the service of a steward isrequired, the call is made by a luminous signal system. In eachstateroom, pushes are fitted which operate hand-reset relays out-side the stateroom door. The relays complete the circuits of aseries of small electric lights situated at each door and at variouspoints throughout the corridors, so that the room of origin isis easily traced by the attendant. On reaching the stateroom,the steward resets the relay, thus cancelling the call by extin-guishing the lights.

Clocks.Where well-timed administration and service are called for,

the importance of keeping uniform time on board is also veryessential. This was accomplished on the Queen Mary by anelaborate system of 600 electric clocks, or repeaters, operatedfrom two electrically-wound master chronometers. The re-peaters are grouped into circuits of twelve, suitable switches beingprovided whereby defective repeaters can be cut out and anequivalent resistor substituted so as to maintain the electricalbalance of the remaining repeaters.

Broadcasting.

The development in the technique of broadcasting, and thenew conceptions of electrical methods of reproducing and re-

laying orchestral music and speech through amplifiers and loud-speakers, have revolutionized the quality of entertainment nowavailable aboard ship.

It is possible, for example, on the ship under consideration, torelay the orchestral music to which the passengers in the mainlounge may be listening to the tourist-class lounge on "A" deck,or to the third-class garden lounge on the main deck, and at thesame time provide dance music from gramophone records tothe passengers in the ballroom or verandah grill. Simulta-neously, microphones installed on board may be connected, viaamplifiers, to the ship's radio-telephone transmitter, so thatspeech or music given on the ship can be received and rebroad-cast. In effect, the ship virtually becomes a world-wide broad-casting station, where any important function on board can betransmitted through the microphones to a telephone land con-nection, and so to the B.B.C. or other land broadcasting system.

Fire Alarm Systems.Although ships built in this country have been particularly

free from fire, the serious aspect of this danger on one of theselarge liners carrying hundreds of passengers cannot be toostrongly stressed. While electricity cannot be directly employedto extinguish the flames, it can and does play an important partin detection and alarm, thereby tending to prevent the spread ofthe fire and, if possible, confine it to the place of origin.

I have now indicated what one might term the main high-powerand low-power services which constitute the major portion of aship's electrical installation. As on the main power installation,there are many additional subsidiary or low-power services, butfurther details cannot be incorporated in this Address.

INSTALLATION NOTESThe work involved in fitting out these services has developed

into a major section of modern shipbuilding. Networks of cablehave to be arranged; consequently, careful planning is essentialto ensure that the routes chosen do not foul other fitments.

The maintenance of the watertight features is another require-ment which must primarily be the responsibility of the planningorganization to ensure the minimum piercing of watertightstructures. Where it does become necessary to pass throughwatertight bulkheads or decks, suitable glands must be providedand strict supervision must be maintained to ensure that theglands are watertight after the cables have been installed.

The congested nature of the layouts on almost all ships, andthe serious aspect of fire, call for the highest integrity on thepart of those employed on electrical installation work. Thisresponsibility cannot be segregated to any one part of theorganization, but must be borne by all if the prestige of Britishshipbuilding is to retain the high standard it has earned andenjoyed for so many years.

SHIPYARD PLANTThe running and maintenance of a large industrial works plant

must be added to the extensive field represented by modernshipbuilding for the training of electrical engineers. Theelectrical load on these installations may reach 5 000-8 000 kW,being composed of the standard types of industrial a.c. and d.c.equipment, together with the lighting installation throughoutthe works. All the usual problems of installation and distribu-tion have to be tackled, together with the study of load and powerfactor in order to maintain maximum economy. It is usual forthe larger shipyards to carry out all maintenance and repairs intheir own workshops, thus providing an opportunity for thetrainee to become acquainted with the design, constructional andwiring details of a varied range of electrical and allied equip-

KINNEAR: SCOTTISH CENTRE: CHAIRMAN'S ADDRESS 95

ments. In addition, his close association with other tradesprovides an opportunity to observe much of their activities, thevalue of which I am sure must be fully appreciated.

This experience is most helpful to students attending day orevening classes, as it provides a field for the practical applicationof the technical knowledge they gain as progress in their engineer-ing studies develops. Apart from this, shipbuilders offer free,practical craft classes, giving opportunities to gain knowledge ofspecialized equipment which does not come within the scope ofthe apprentice's daily routine. Increased wages are also paid tostudents making satisfactory attendance and progress at nightclasses.

During recent years, the electrical section of the shipbuildingindustry has become still more prominent through the rapiddevelopment of electrically welded ships' structures. This de-velopment has further increased the scope for training; and it is

interesting to record that the personnel in the electrical depart-ment of large shipbuilding works to-day may represent approxi-mately 10% of the total labour employed—a clear indication ofthe vast changes in shipbuilding in a few years.

CONCLUSIONI have confined my efforts to a general and brief description

of the progress and usefulness of the applications of electricity.I have found difficulty in condensing these remarks to the limitallowed, and at the same time incorporating sufficient informa-tion to convey the relative importance of electrical work inpresent-day shipbuilding. I hope, however, I have justified myopening remarks; or at least that this brief survey has provided abackground to satisfy those interested that an extensive and com-prehensive field is available in the shipbuilding industry for thesatisfactory training of electrical engineers.

DISCUSSION AT AN INFORMAL MEETING OF THE INSTITUTION

258TH INFORMAL MEETING, 29TH OCTOBER, 1945

Chairman: The President, Dr. P. Dunsheath, M.A., C.B.E.Subject: "Should Engineering Concerns be Managed by

Engineers?" (introduced by the President).

Opening the discussion, Dr. Dunsheath said that if any reasonwere required for devoting time to the discussion of this subject,it could be found in the present inefficiency of industrial manage-ment. It had been said that an important factor in industrialmanagement in this country was the inborn British resistance tocapital expenditure and change in equipment, and a desire tosecure profits by the suppression of competition. A recentpublication, entitled "Tools for the Next Job," published by theTory Reform Committee, had shown the need for this countryto take the question of international competition seriously.Industrial efficiency as measured by physical output per headbefore the war was, in general, more than twice as great in theUnited States as it was in the United Kingdom, whilst in thecase of motor-car and radio-set manufacture it was four timesgreater.

The President referred to James Burnham's book, "The Mana-gerial Revolution," which showed that while capital had virtuallylost its power, socialism was not taking its place. What hadsprung up as the most powerful of industrial controls was therule by administration, both in business and in government.If this were so, then the engineer might have much to con-tribute.

He alleged that the weakest factor in British industry to-daywas the administrative side, and he asked those present to con-sider whether the management of engineering firms, as a whole,attained anything like the efficiency that was attained by thescientific and technical sides. He said that an indictment ofmanagement was to be found in the complete lack of that some- •thing which might be put down as loyalty to the firm and thatspirit of enthusiasm which overcame everyday difficulties.Whilst we had carried the fetish of scientific management withstop-watch and motion study a very long way, we had neglectedhuman psychology, which was much more vital. There wasstrong evidence that the time had arrived for returning to thestate of closer human contacts between manager and managed,which were such a feature of industry half a century ago.

The popular view that the sole object of management was toproduce a financial profit to the investor, he regarded as an

entirely unsatisfactory conception. The real object should beto run the concern so as to secure the greatest possible successin the furnishing of the service, whatever it might be, to the com-munity. If correctly interpreted, profit for the organization andservice to the consumer became synonymous.

Control of industries by finance or the direction of productionby finance was strongly deplored, and the President called atten-tion to the fact that whilst in the U.S.A. industry was oftenunder the control of finance, men with the widest technical ex-perience were employed, and as a result industry in the U.S.A.achieved a very high standard of efficiency.

There were many engineers who, if they were put into a positionof managerial responsibility, would be a complete failure.Equally, the lack of practical outlook on the part of the scientistcompletely unfitted him for management. Commenting that aninstitute existed solely for the purpose of formulating thestandards of knowledge, training, conduct and experience de-sirable in the practice of industrial administration, the Presidentissued the warning that a dangerous assumption existed in certaincircles that industrial administration was an activity that couldbe conducted in vacuo by an individual otherwise completelyignorant of the particular industry which he was to administer.The manager of an engineering concern must understandengineering principles in order to carry the high administrativeresponsibility with the maximum success. The main charac-teristic which made a successful manager were obviously a flairfor leadership, a capacity for securing co-operative effort from anumber of people working together, a sound judgment and a keenimagination.

The general trend of the discussion was that an engineeringtraining was a good background for a man who possessedmanagerial ambitions, although it was said that managers wereborn and not made.

A plea was made for greater attention to management mattersin engineering courses, and the qualifications for a manager weredefined by a speaker as an engineering background, a com-mercial outlook, and administrative and organizing ability.

In summing up the varied comments, the President remarkedthat it was clear that the whole question under review was linkedup with education, and that much was to be expected of theenlightened view that was now being taken of the nation'sresponsibility in this regard.