scly3 beliefs revision cards 2014 1. 2 a…….so cute…love it hun !!!

SCLY3 Beliefs Revision Cards

2014

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2Awwwwww…….so cute…love it hun !!!

The specification at a glance

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Relationship between religious belief and social change and stability• Functionalism• Marxism• Weber• Neo-Marxism• Feminism• Fundamentalism

Religious organisations and their relationship to religious spiritual belief and practice• Types of religious

organisation (church, denomination, sects, cults)

• NRMs and NAMs

(compare each)

The relationship between different social groups and religious organisations, beliefs and practices• Reasons why people join

NRMs etc• Gender and religion• Ethnicity and religion• Social class and religion• Age and religion

The significance of religion and religiosity in the contemporary world, including secularisation in a global context• Globalisation• Fundamentalism • Postmodernism• Secularisation (ways of

defining/measuring + arguments for/against).

Different theories of ideology, science and religion• Theories of ideology• Science as a belief

system• Links to ‘role of religion’

theories

Contents1. Role of Religion2. Religion and Social Change3. Religious organisations (incl. NRMs

etc)4. Gender and religion5. Ethnicity and religion6. Age and religion7. Social Class and religion8. Postmodernism/globalisation9. Ideology and Science10. Secularisation 4

Positive functions Negative functions

Functionalist• Maintains value consensus• Social integration – social

glue• Source of identity• Maintains social order –

stability = prevents change• Cope with uncertainty and

life crisis

New Right• Promote moral values

Marxist• Maintain capitalism• Legitimation of authority• Transmission of ruling class

ideology• Compensation• A form of alienation• Social control

Feminism• Supporting patriarchy• Maintaining traditional roles

1. Role of Religion

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Studies Evaluation

Functionalist

Durkheim • Totemism = identity/values• Collective worship - Social glue• Shared rituals = The collective

conscience and integration• Sacred and profane

Bellah• Civil religion• National identity (Americanism)

Malinowski• Explain the unexplained• Help cope with uncertainty• Reduce tension in ‘life crises’• Rites of passage/rituals

Parsons• Core values/central value system• Reinforce and promote norms• Generalisation• Prevents anomie (life crises)

• Pluralism – shared values?• Only relevant to small-scale

societies• Religion can cause conflict and

divide people• Secularisation = less important• Privatisation of religion

‘believing without belonging’

• Other sources of comfort today

• People not regulated by morality any more

Religion can cause social change/conflict

Religion as a source of harmony/stability

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Studies Evaluation

Marxist Karl Marx• Religion promotes dominant

ideology• Opium of the people – eases the

pains of oppression• Religion legitimating the power of

the ruling class• Social control – hell as punishment

Budd• Victorian capitalism – Protestantism

encouraging hard work/please God

Lenin• Spiritual gin

Leach• CofE Bishops = 80% public school• CofE = Tory party at prayer

• Religion is only an opium if people believe it

• Secularisation = less belief

• Religion can support the oppressed = revolution

• Socialist countries still religious

• Where did religion come from?

• Benefits of religion (ie, funerals/hope)

Religion as a source of compensation• Bliss in the after life• Supernatural intervention• Explains/justifies inequality• Virtue of suffering

Social ControlLegitimationIdeologyCompensation

Examples of religions Impact

• Divine Right of Kings

• Hindu Caste System

• ‘All things bright and beautiful

• Victorian protestantism

• Slavery and Christianity

Legitimate hierarchy and obedience, punishment if not conform

Legitimation and social control – reproduce social inequality

Legitimation of class differences

Work hard or displease God

Compensation – afterlife - bliss

Examples of religion supporting capitalism

8Creates obedient, docile workers

Correspondence principle

MARXISTVIEW

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Studies/examples Evaluation

Neo-Marxists

(examples of religion as a form of resistance)

Gramsci• Counter-hegemony• Organic intellectuals

Maduro• Liberation theology – Latin

America• Catholic priests fighting

dictatorship and defending the poor

Iran 1979• Islamic revolution led by

Ayatollah Khomeini against the western ‘Shah’ of Iran

Martin Luther King Jr• Black civil rights movement• Agape – love all equally

Methodism & Labour Party• Worker’s rights/equality• Jesus – love thy neighbour,

help the needy

• Pope disproved of these priests and advised them to stop

• Was this conservative… reactionary?

• Not really encouraged ‘revolutions’ just minor changes

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Studies Evaluation

Feminist Religious organisations• Karen Armstrong/Woodhead –

exclusion from priesthood• Male domination/abuse in sects

Places of worship• Segregation• Restricted involvement• Holm – devaluation of women

Sacred texts• Stereotypes/gender roles • Expectations (Mother Mary , Eve,

Delilah )• Qur’an ‘men in charge of women’

Religious laws/customs• Fewer rights for women• Genital mutilation/veiling (‘mobile

prison’ Burchill)• Domestic/reproductive expectations• Sexual expectations

(marriage/virgin)• Daly – male/sado rituals

• Simone de Beauvoir – compensation• Anderson & Gordon – witchcraft• Armstrong – decline of the Goddess

Woodhead • forms of religious

feminism- gain status• Veil = symbol against

oppression

El Sadawi – religion is not problem…only men hijacking organised religion

Holm & Bowker – forerunner of feminist movement (orgs led by women)

• High levels of female religiosity

• Women and NAMs• Female priests now• Fundamentalism offers

protection/respect• Women rabbis since

1972• Quakerism – fair

Religion Preventing ChangeFunctionalism Marxist Others

• Maintain social order

• Reinforce shared values

• Source of identity

• Source of meaning

• Emotional security

• Legitimates power and authority of ruling class

• Prevent rebellion

• Compensation

Feminism• Maintains patriarchy

• Reinforce gender roles

Fundamentalism (see slide)

2. Religion & Social Change

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Fundamentalism: Conflict & Social Change

Fundamentalism – ‘patterns of religious militancy by which self-styled true believers attempt to arrest religious identity…and create viable alternatives to secular institutions and behaviour’ (Almond et al)….(response to religion being watered down – return to tradition/authentic religion)

Features• Response to secularisation• Distrust of other faiths/dogmatic• Follow a single sacred text

Causes Conflict• Distrust/intolerant of other religions = threat to their religion• Tension with other followers of their religion – ‘sell outs!’

Prevent social change/conservative force• Want to reverse social changes (moral decay) and CHANGE society (but backwards) –

reactionary force

Secularisation (the cause of Fundamentalism) - BRUCE

Fundamentalism will grow when in societies where:• There is a ready supply of followers- poor• politics fails citizens – no voice• no central authority controlling religion• followers have a ‘common enemy’


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Examples• New Christian Right• Al Qaeda• Hamas

Islam and the West• Modernising too rapidly and

ignoring needs of the poor = resentment against West

• Led to rise of fundamentalism

(Armstrong)

Religion Promoting ChangeWeber Neo-Marxist

Protestant ethic led to rise of capitalism

• At war with Marx’s ghost• Social action theory - ideas• Comparative analysis – causes of

industrialisation• Calvinist Protestantism = ascetic• The elect/ A calling• Abstinence/austerity/self-discipline• Make money/being frugal – please

God• Hard work/investment• Rational behaviour = efficient and

industrious (time is money)

Evaluation• Calvinism = against wealth creation• Some Calvinist nations = slow

develop• Industry before Calvinism (Kautsky)• Exclusionism = motive to survive

Antonio Gramsci – counter hegemony

‘a voice for the oppressed’

Ernst Bloch – utopia ‘principle of hope’ (a vision of a better world)

G K Nelson notes where religion is anti-establishment:

• US civil rights movt – MLK• Iran 1979 – Islamic revolution• Labour Party and Methodism• Maduro – Liberation Theology• Poland 1980s – Solidarity movement• Levellers/diggers = early Trades

Unions

More recently• 9/11 = impact on US foreign policy (2001)• US ‘militant militia’ bombings in Oklahoma

(1995) – Christian Fundamentalist


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Other considerationsConservative force Social change

• Cultural defence (Bruce)

• Taliban in Afghanistan – ultra conservative- defending traditional values (reactionary)

• Postmodernity and uncertainty make religions certainties attractive

• Most religions are conservative where moral issues are concerned – reinforce family values

New Christian Right (Bruce):• Politically/Morally conservative in USA• Anti-abortion/homosexuality/divorce/

welfare• Traditional family values/gender roles• Televangelism/moral majority

Religion and conflict• Protestants & Catholics• Israelis and Palestinians• Catholics and Muslims in Bosnia

More recently• 9/11 = impact on US foreign policy (2001)• US ‘militant militia’ bombings in Oklahoma

(1995) – Christian Fundamentalist

McGuire – factors for a religion causing change:• Strong moral code – followers critical of soc.• Religious beliefs are central to culture• Religious orgs play role in

politics/economics

Huntington – globalisation:• Clash of civilisations in global context• Religious identities growing in importance –

cultural defence• Eg) Islam and the West (9/11)


14Reactionary = conservative change

2. Religion & Social Change (bring together)

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Religion promote social

changenoyes

WEBER

NEO-MARXISTS

Functionalism

Marxism

Feminism

Other considerations• Fundamentalism• Different NRMS• Cultural defence• Religion causing conflict• Clash of civilisations

McGuireFactors affecting whether religion can cause social change

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3. Religious organisations

Typologies – at a glance

Church and Sect• 1931 Troeltsch distinguish between a church & a sect.

Church• Universal• Linked to state ( esp. in middle Ages)• Large institutions (hierarchy/bureaucracy)• Respectable• Claimed monopoly of religious truth• Conservative• Place few demands on members

Sects• Exclusive• Small• Demand commitment of members• Hostile to wider society• Recruit from poor/oppressed• Charismatic leadership• Monopoly of religious truth

3. Religious Organisation

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Evaluation of ‘church’ typology• Bruce – pre-modern societies• Religious pluralism in Christianity (no

single church)• Today – not majority membership• Today – not always support state

(growing tension between church/state)

• Today – not always conservative• Today – pluralism – no claim on

monopoly of truth - ecumenicalismEvaluation of ‘sect’ typology• World Affirming Sects – low demand• Self-religions – pro society• Many are like bureaucracies/structure• Some are quite large (almost like

denominations)• Middle class attracted to some sects

Churches appear to be declining…sects increasing

Denomination and Cult• H.R. Neibuhr (1929) was the first to distinguish clearly between denominations &

churches.

Denominations• Does not have universal appeal• Draws members from all social classes

(but more from working class/lower middle class• Does not identify with the state (but conservative)• Do not claim a monopoly on religious truth• Formal and bureaucratic structure

Cults• Least organised religious group• Highly individualistic• Small• Loose-knit groupings• Clearly defined belief system• No monopoly on the truth/tolerate others beliefs• Mysticism (world-affirming) – spiritual powers


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Since 1960s – term cults replaced with ‘New Religious Movements’

New Religious Movements - (Roy Wallis)

World Rejecting World Accommodating

World Affirming

• Oppose wider world and see it as evil.

• members to separate from the outside world.

• Communes • Charismatic leader• Total institutions – control• Ascetic lifestyle – austere

Examples• People’s Temple• Moonies• Children of God

• Remain within wider society

• Critical of the secular nature of society

• Help followers raise awareness of their ‘inner power’.

• Deep morality• They stress that religion is

more a personal matter.

Examples• Neo-Pentecostalist• Subud

• Positive about the world• Help people unlock their

spiritual powers/reach fulfilment

• Live ‘normal’ lives – access services

• No collective worship/ no morality

Examples• TM• EST• Scientology

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New religious movements since 1970s = new categories needed.

Wallis defines them in terms of (a) relationship to the outside world(b) whether they reject/affirm/accommodate the world

Evaluation points (from Beckford):• Difficult to apply categories• Ignores diversity of views ‘within’ a sect/cult

Sects & Cults(Stark & Bainbridge)

The main distinction between different religious organisations = degree of tension between the religion & wider society

Sects• Breakaways from existing religious

organisations• Offer ‘other-worldly’ benefits, ie)

compensation, theodicy of disprivilege

Cults can be divided into:

Audience cults • least organised, • no formal membership

Client Cults• Exchange service/therapies• Client/consultant relationship• Self-improvement/fulfilment

Cultic movements• Organised• Exclusivist• Expect high levels of commitment

Cults• New religions• Or ‘imported’ religions• Offer ‘this-worldly’ benefits, ie)

unlock inner spiritual powers, psychic healing, self-improvement


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Factors Range Summary

Disillusionment with traditional religions

Deprivation

Social Change

• Resacrilisation

• Economic deprivation (MARGINALITY)

• Status deprivation (RELATIVE DEPRIVATION)

• Organismic deprivation

• Ethical deprivation

• Psychic deprivation

• Industrialisation• 1960s• Millenium• Postmodernism

• Authentic/exciting

• Poverty/theodicy of disprivilege

• Denied status/see self as failures compared to others

• Rapid change = anomie/uncertainty

3. Reasons for growth of NRMs (at a glance)

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Explanation Details Evaluation

Disillusionment with traditional religions

Marginality

Relative deprivation

Other forms of deprivation

Social Change

• NRMs appeal to young – offer a more spiritual/caring way of life (Wallis)

• Heelas – rediscover inner self/potential• Weber – re-enchantment – ‘other world’ –

as trad. Relig = watered down faith.. ’this world’

• Nelson – more genuine/joyful/less formal

• Weber – theodicy of disprivilege for deprived groups

• World rejecting sects• Comfort for those ‘left out’ by society• Offer hope/promise of reward

• Where many middle class people feel ‘deprived socially’ (lack community, love, belonging)

• See world as ‘too materialistic’, lonely and impersonal (spiritually deprived)

• Status frustration – world rejecting = support, identity, independence (suits young)

• Glock & Stark – social deprivation, organismic, ethical and psychic deprivation (SEE NEXT CARD)

• Wilson – reactionary/desire for stability and morality (end to anomie)

• Sects = community/security• Re-enchantment -‘scientif./modern’ age• Crisis of meaning (Bellah) – middle class

lost!

• But most members of WRS are middle class, white youths.

• In contemporary society – new sources of belonging, identity and expression (online communities/social networking)

• Status frustration = short lived

3. Reasons for growth of NRMs

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Type of deprivation Details

Economic • appeal to those at the ‘bottom’ of society. These people are ‘marginal’ (Weber, 1922). People lack status and power (marginality).

• Offer a ‘theodicy of disprivilege’ (explains and justifies why they are poor).

• This may give members a feeling of superiority – the chosen few!

Status • Some sects appeal to skilled working class people/white collar employees• They join because they lack power/status/ satisfaction in their work.

These are examples of ‘relative deprivation’• Compensate for boring/dead-end jobs• Gain the status ‘they think they deserve’

Organismic • Those who suffer from physical, mental and addiction problems may turn to sects

• Hope of being healed• Seeking personal fulfilment• Seeking change in their lives

EThical • World in moral decline• Retreat into fundamentalism• Feel threatened by liberal values/progress• Reject the modern world as the ‘Devil’s work’, ie) Amish/Plymouth

Brethren• Some are concerned with nature/ environment. May turn to NAMs

Psychic • Some reject dominant values of consumerism and individualism.• May not lack material wealth .but feel spiritually deprived = middle class.• They see world as too materialistic, lonely and impersonal. This has been

described as ‘relative deprivation’.• Appeal of cults/sects based on Eastern mysticism, eg) Hare Krishna

3. Reasons for growth of NRMs – GLOCK & STARK (deprivation)

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3. Growth of NRMs (bring together)

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Why have NRMS grown in

recent years?

Define/describe

Weber• Theodicy of

dispriv.

• World Rejecting Sects• Millenarian Movts

Social Change

NRMS

NAMS

Disillusioned with traditional religion

Marginality

Relative deprivation

Other Forms of deprivation

Cults/Sects

Authentic, joyful, caring

• Lack community• Status frustration• Feel ‘something missing’• Spiritually deprived

Wilson• Anomie• Uncertainty – crisis of

meaning• Traditional morality

desired

Glock & Stark• Organismic• Psychic• Ethical

Arguments for sects being short-lived

Arguments against sects being short-lived

Hard to maintain commitment & Fervour (Barker) • Neibuhr – problem beyond 1st generation – parent

converts struggle to socialize children into faith• Sects dies of becomes denomination (Neibuhr)• Less radical – members live normal lives• Becker - ‘ denomination = a sect cooled down’

Eval: Aldridge – many sects survive long time/sects can maintain standards & expel non-conformists/ Amish = long term = socialised youth

Loss of charismatic leader

3. ARE SECTS ‘SHORT-LIVED’ ?

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Why women are more religious than menExplanations In brief

Socialisation and role expectation

Women and the new age

Life expectancy

Social deprivation & marginality

Status frustration

• Submissive/passive/caring roles/close to birth, death/not take risks/wife & mother (Miller & Hoffman)

• Guardians of family life/defend tradition/children’s moral development

• God = caring/love/feminine (Davie)• Roles – close to childbirth/caring jobs (Greeley) and close to

birth and death (Davie)• Secularisation + retreat to private sphere/privatisation

(Bruce) – W/C women (trad relig)….M/C women (new age)

• Healing role,caring/stability of trad. Role in postmodern age/desire for autonomy/Mother Earth/therapies/healing (Glendinning & Bruce)

• Widowed/support/life events/ultimate Qs• Church becomes a key source of identity

• Poverty/family problems/compensati0n/ theodicy of dispriv./ ethical deprivation/seek self improvement/ isolation in the home

• Unfulfilled/self-improvement/compensation

4. Gender & Religiosity

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Studies Evaluation

Socialisation and role expectation

Women and the new age

Life expectancy

Social deprivation & marginality

Status frustration

• Miller & Hoffman• Greely• Bruce• Davie

• Woodhead and Heelas• Hawley• Brown

• Davie

• Thompson• Glock & Stark• Weber

• Puttick• Bruce

• Many women accept traditional role (fundamentalism)

• Social class/ethnic differences

• Postmodernity and declining ‘gender’ differences

• New age mainly a M/C luxury/ Working class women not covered/expensive products

• Other ways of experiencing identity/fulfilment today

• Other sources of comfort today

• Secularisation

Puttick (1997) - ‘women have always been the greatest consumers of religion’

Women and NRMs/NAMs

Explanations In brief

Sects/Cults

• Role of women in sects

• NAMS – healing/spiritual

• Self-improvement

• Marginality

NAMs

• Close to nature

• Child bearing

• Middle class needs

• More important

• Appeal of healing/spiritual nature

• Self critical/develop the self (Puttick)• Individualised/privatised/’cult of Narcissism)

• Poverty/deprivation (Bruce)• Hope and salvation (Thompson)• Different types of deprivation (Glock and Stark

– social/organic/ethical)

• Essential femininity/caring/homeopathy/fertility/ neo-ecology

• Fertility/caring (Bruce)

• Commitment/money/time (Bruce)• Linked to educational success• Psychological underprivilege 28

Why ethnic minorities are more religious than others?

Explanations In brief

• Community cohesion & identity

• Social deprivation, marginality & status frustration

• Family structures

• Social identity

• Functionalist in flavour = shared values/identity• Identity = dress/language/diet (ethnic identity)• Community = places of worship/support• Source of socialisation/maintain tradition• Sense of stability..protect identity in a hostile

environment (cultural defence/cultural transition)

• Help cope with migration

• Lack status/frustration• Religion = identity• Mainstream society = low status/rejection• Cope with Poverty/unemployment/racism• Comfort/compensation – ‘opiate’/’theodicy of

dispriv.’

• Tight community/extended families = pressure to conform/maintain tradition

• Traditional culture carried on in UK (socialisation)

• Identity overcomes status denied by racism• Festivals and customs impportant• Blending traditions/British culture (‘Brasians’)

4. EThnicity & Religiosity

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Why ethnic minorities are more religious than others?

Studies EvaluationGrace Davie – (tradition/ identity/cohesion)

Steve Bruce – (cultural defence/cultural transition)

Modood et al – (socialisation/ maintain traditions)

John Bird – (community solidarity/identity/coping)

Chryssides - (accomodation)

Kepel - (religious revival)

Johal – (hybrid/Brasians)

Butler – (hybrid/identity)

Jacobson – (identity/stability)

• Secularisation will erode religious commitment

• Once settled into UK – no longer need support of religion/community

• 3rd generation – cultural change, ie) Brasians

• Globalisation – traditions eroded on global scale

4. EThnicity & Religiosity

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Remember to note the differences between Afro-

Caribbean and Pakistani/Bangladeshi religiosity

Steve Bruce - Cultural defence and Cultural Transition

Cultural Defence Cultural Transition Religion is a source of support and

offers a sense of cultural identity in an uncertain or hostile environment.

Bird(1999) – religion = basis of community solidarity (like Durkheim)

A means of preserving one’s culture/language

A way of coping with oppression in a racist society.

Non-assimilation

Religion is a means of easing transition into a new culture

Assimilation

Provide support and a sense of community

Herberg (1955) – USA and first generation immigrants

Bruce – similar pattern in UK.

Pentecostalism – a protestant ethic for many West Indian citizens (Pryce)

Pentecostalism – evangelical – belief in personal conversion

Once a group has made transition – religion loses its role/decline in importance

Which age groups are most religious?

Older people (more) Younger people (less)Disengagement• Detached from wider society =

privatisation/isolation• Church = support/network

Socialisation• More likely to had religious socialisation• Sunday schools/education/wider family• (the generational effect)

Ill-health and death• Sickness/concern for death = close to God

(the ageing effect- Heelas ‘Kendal Project’)• Witness death/funerals • Church = comfort/support/’meaning’

Mainstream religion losing attraction• Church = Boring/old fashioned• Issues (abortion/contraception/gay

sexuality) are seen differently by youth..clash of values

• ‘CofE -an old lady..ignored most of the time’

Expanding spiritual marketplace• Alternative faiths (pluralism) – build

beliefs, identity, lifestyles – crystals/yoga (Lynch)

Privatisation of belief• Believing without belonging (Davie)• Not belong to any organised collective

Secular spirituality• Spirituality -new ways (Lynch)

Decline in religious education/socialisation• Decline of Sunday schools/RE in ed. (Bruce)• Generational effect – less socialisation

(Voas & Crockett)/(Gill)

Pragmatic reasons• Leisure – shops/clubs/pubs• Religious = uncool/peer pressure

4. Age & Religiosity

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Under 15s high • Parental pressure

Why age groups are more religious than others?

Studies EvaluationBrierley• average age = 37• Very few 15-19 year olds

Heelas• NAMS = middle aged/older

Voas & Crockett• Life experiences - Having

children = parents want to socialise own children (rediscover religion)

• Period effect – born in certain era = more religious

• Secularisation = each generation less religious

Gill• Less socialisation = not

churchgoing

• Some ethnic groups are highly religious

• Some young men are more likely to be more radicalised (within Islam) – Choudhury

• Young Afro-Caribbeans attracted to Baptist and Pentecostal churches = lively (Nelson)

• Gender differences not considered

• Youth see selves as ‘invincible’ and not need religion to cope in their lives

• Religion no longer a key source of identity on Pomo age

• Some parents are keen to socialise children to maintain tradition/cope with uncertain times

• Appeal of World Rejecting Sects to youths (face uncertainty/anomie)

4. Age & Religiosity

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Which faiths do different social classes join?

Working class Middle class Upper class

• Denominations (respectable) – upper working class

• Sects – (world rejecting NRMs) - radical message - disadvantaged members of society – theodicy of disprivilege, compensation

• Church (tradition and conservative ideology)

• Denominations (respectable) – lower middle class

• Cults (world affirming NRMS) – self improvement

• Cults (world rejecting sects) – relative deprivation

• NAMS – self-improvement

• Church (tradition and conservative ideology)

• Church (80% bishops = Public Schools)/Tory Party at prayer

4. Social Class & Religiosity

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Recent changesIssues In brief

Postmodernity & Religion

Religious Market Theory

Existential Security Theory

• Believing without belonging• Spiritual shopping• Impact of media and consumption

5. Religion, Renewal and Choice

(postmodernism and other stuff)

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What is Postmodernism all about?Key ideas In brief

Moving on beyond the ‘modern’ era(disillusioned with progress

De-traditionalisation

Consumption is all

Transformation of the self

• Modern era = science, rationality, structure, control, tradition, improve the world, enlightenment

• Lyotard – decline of grand theories/metanarratives – disillusionment with science and other belief systems

• People have greater choice (Bauman)• Bauman – people no longer seek universal truths –

‘loss of trust in modernity’• Morality becomes ‘privatised’ –no certainties• Greater pluralism in society = no absolutes• Loss of guidance in life (Baudrillard)

• Globalisation = no longer guided by traditional structures and expectations (Giddens)

• Surrounded by media/communication (Baudrillard)• Simulacra (simulated realities) and hyper-realities

where image= everything – no substance• Consumption of symbols = construct our identities

• Individual self is fluid (Bauman)• Changing identities/constructing selves

5. Religion, Renewal and Choice

(postmodernism and other stuff)

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Postmodernity & religion

Studies EvaluationBelieving without belonging• Davie – privatised faith – personal choice/no

pressure to conform• Traditional religion decline – personal faith grows• ‘vicarious religion’ – now a small number of clergy

serving many people (less local/communal)• Church still focal point for rites of passage

Spiritual shopping• Hervieu-Leger – personal choice • Cultural amnesia – lose tradition/collective

memory• Pluralism = equality = faith no imposed/backed

by state = loss of relig. Identity for youth• Now consumers = shop around – individualised

DIY• Pilgrims (self discovery) + Converts

(community)

Impact of media & consumerism• Lyon – Jesus in Disneyland• Relocation of religion (globalisation = beyond

nat. boundaries) – media images – instant access – ideas disembedded from context – religious signs become free floating in cyberspace – individuals adapt them

• Religious consumerism – (construct own identity from what we consume) – pick and mix – religion is now a consumable – rather than a complete faith – as consumer – we are in control – no authority

• Re-enchantment of the world recently• Jesus in Disneyland – religion moving into world

of consumption (harvest day crusade at Disneyland – distinction between religion/popular culture blurring

• Cultural defence = identity

• Globalisation is not a universal phenomena – affects some countries more than others

• Rites of passage still surround key life-crises in people’s lives

• People still need answers to ‘eternal questions’

• Beckford – religion has remained strong through history

• Voas & Crockett – both belief in God and attendance are declining

• Bruce - If authentic in belief – they would be more involved…..belief and attendance fall together

• Does the media shape religiosity? – people view religious media that reinforces existing beliefs..not entertain new ones!

• How significant are online churches/faiths ?

• Bruce – these ‘consumerist religions’ are weak – insignificant.

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Postmodernity & NRMs/NAMs

Ideas/Studies Evaluation• Hybridity = NRMs/NAMs blending religions

• Choice and consumption (Bruce) – identity – NAMs etc define individuals – statements about who you aspire to be/what you are

• Spirituality in everyday life – environmentalism etc

• Detraditionalisation – (Giddens) – many new ideas –pluralism – blending together – not tradition

• Self-Orientation – (Heelas) – self improvement – unlock inner potential (World Affirming Sects) – self as spiritual = self realisation (NAMs) – (Lasch) – cult of Narcissism

• Religion and ICT – internet allows a global audience – virtual religions – ‘cyber communities’ – spiritual services – belief without belonging

• Organisation of religion – (Clegg) – flexible, niche markets, less rigid structures

• NAMs/NRMS are still minority faiths

• NAMs manly enjoyed by middle classes and women (not universal appeal)

• Tradition is still important culturally

• Cyber-religions = more entertainment than faith

(see other evaluation points)

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Further impact on religion

Impact In briefReligious symbols lose their meaning

Spiritual choice/no absolutes

Hybridity and ‘pick n Mix’

Globalisation – split faith from cultures/locations

Rise of fundamentalism

Decline of collective worship

• Traditional symbols – disembedded from context

• Choices to suit our identity and personal search for meaning in life

• Personal choice to suit lifestyle = individual interpretation

• Immigration and movement around globe = pluralism• Internet and no boundaries• People not follow traditions (national boundaries)

• Moral vacuum – many need certainty and security

• Rise of privatised faith• Self-religions = personal focus = self-improvement

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Religious Market Theory

Studies EvaluationStark & Bainbridge – (rational choice theory)• Anti-secularisation theory• Unclear when the golden age was

The religious market theory claims:• Religion meets humans’ need/naturally

religious

• People make rational choices (costs/benefits)

• Religion = attractive = ‘supernatural compensators’ when real life rewards fail us

• There is a life-cycle for religions (decline-revival-renewal) = churches fall off – sects splinter off – denominationalise = church

• Competition between religions is healthy – forces them to adapt/re-market selves for new customers

• Demand for religion increases when there is choice

• Overemphasis on consumer choice

• Does competition = demand for religion? Bruce – diversity/pluralism = decline.

• They misrepresent secularisation theory – it just claims religion is in long term decline (not universal – just Europe/USA

• High levels of religiosity in Catholic countries where church has a monopoly (no choice)

• Claiming people are ‘naturally religious’ is unsociological (Beckford)

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Existential Security Theory

Studies EvaluationNorris & Inglehart – reject religious market theory – only fits USA.

• There is variety between societies• The significance of a religion is society

depends on the level of ‘existential security’ in a society (feeling of certainty/security)

• Low-income (poor) countries and groups = insecure = need for religion (hope/ compensation)

• Rich countries + groups = more secure = less need for religion

• Europe is getting more equal (so more secular)

• USA (high inequality) = more religious

• Gill supports this – high welfare spending = less religious

• Vasquez – over-focused on quantitative data and do not explore personal meanings and ‘feelings of security’ etc

• Religion only seen as a negative response to deprivation – ignores positive appeal

• Ignores appeal of religion to wealthy and successful people

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Why is globalisation important?

Societies are becoming more closely connected(religious conflict, diversity and change)

Empires and Colonies(one state dominates another = religion and cultural defence and resistance)

Cultural change from globalisation(rise of fundamentalism – defend values – desire certainty)

Religious ideas + economic growth(economic development -like Weber)

5. Globalisation & Religion

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Key issues:• Religion and development• Fundamentalism• Cultural defence• Clash of civilisations

Religion and Development

Issues/Evidence Evaluation

• Secularisation argues development damages religion …and religion can cause development

• Weber – Protestant Ethic & Spirit of Capitalism (rationality/ascetic)

Nanda – India – growth – rise of middle class – impact of Hinduism & nationalism

Hinduism & consumerismUrban educated middle class = growing more religious – tension between having wealth and Hindu belief in ‘giving up wealth’..leads to uncertainty

Tension overcome by: (1) holy men with new message about wealth (like

Calvinism)(2) Business-friendly Hinduism legitimates m/c

consumerism(3) Hinduism backs idea of success being a

nationalistic matter- India=winner in global mkt(4) Hinduism in public life, ie) Hindu sciences(5) m/c paying poor for religious rituals (charity?)

Pentecostalism (Latin America) Berger – like Calvinism – hard work/ascetic/hard work/ self discipline/work ethic/poor=socially mobile

• Faith alone is not capable of creating economic growth – need resources in place


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Religious Fundamentalism

Issues/Evidence EvaluationThis has been a recent area of focus since high profile cases of Islamist terrorism (9/11 and beyond).

Giddens – fundamentalists:• Traditionalists – return to basics of faith• Believe in infallible truth of scriptures• Believe in only one true view of the world – intolerant of

others/dogmatic/sacred texts• Avoid contact with others who think different• Rely upon clergy/elders – guardians of tradition

They detest modernity BUT use tech. to spread their beliefs (ie, Internet/televangelism/electronic church)

• Fundamentalism is a response to globalisation• Glob. Undermines tradition/norms/values• Late modernity = uncertainty/confusion = people desire

certainty/security• Cosmopolitanism = personal choice (Fund. oppose)• Bauman – fund. free people from agony of choice

Castells – 2 responses to postmodernity:• Resistant identity (defensive/retreat)• Project identity (forward-looking/new social movements)

Bruce – 2 fundamentalisms:• In West (reaction to change WITHIN society) – moral

decay• In 3rd World (react to OUTSIDE forces) – western values

imposed by foreign capitalism – anti state (Iran 1979)

Beckford argues:• Ignore hybrids movements (halfway

between cosmo. And fund.)• Fixated on fund. – ignore

globalisation and non-fundamental faiths

• All fund. Faiths ‘lumped’ together

Haynes notes:• Rise of Islamic fundamentalism may

be linked to conflicts internally- local elites failed to improve society..and not a reaction to globalisation.


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Cultural Defence


Bruce – religion unifying a community against an external threat.

• This gives religion a high profile role in politics• Religion is a symbol of ‘collective identity’• Unifies against an ‘external enemy’

Poland (1989) • Soviet Union control – communists• Catholic church supported the Solidarity

movement that overthrew communist rule there (like Liberation Theology – Neo.Mx)

Iran (1979)• Western capitalism/oil – backed the Shah =

rapid modernisation/Westernisation• Islamic resistance – Khomeini – revolution and

creation of Islamic republic (religious leaders play a role in govt.)

Cultural defence could also be linked to Cargo cults/Millenarian Movements like ‘Ghost Dance Cult’(Marvin Harris – Cows, Pigs, Wars & Witches)

Haynes • Iranian revolution not typical of

Middle East – as led by religious leaders

• Other countries = religious leaders usually back local elites who support Western imperialism.

• These leaders oppose fundamentalism


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Clash of Civilisations


Recent years = global conflicts – 9/11

Huntington• conservative view• Conflicts grew after collapse of communism 1989• Different civilisations – distinct cultures – clashing

Religion increasing as source of identity because:(1) Political differences less important (commies

gone!)(2) Globalisation = nation state less important(3) Globalisation increases contact = chance of

conflict greater

• ‘us and them’ hostility growing = competition for economic and military power globally

• Much harder to ‘resolve religious differences’

• Jackson – ‘orientalism’ – stereotyping of eastern nations as untrustworthy, inferior and fanatical.

• Stereotyping justifies exploitation and human rights abuses by the west (ie, Guantanamo Bay)

• Casanova – ignores religious differences ‘within’ different civilisations.

• Horrie & Chippendale – misleading conservative view that portrays Islam as the enemy (Islamaphobia)

• Armstrong – hostility against west is not from fundamentalist Islam, BUT reaction to Western foreign policy in Middle East, ie) West backing oppressive regimes

• Inglehart & Norris – it isn’t a clash of civilisations dividing the world – but a clash of cultural differences over sexuality (liberal v traditional)


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5. Religion & Globalisation (bring together)

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Relationship between religion & globalisation

2.Fundamentalism4. Clash of Civilisations

Think about• Links to role of religion• Secularisation debate• Religion & conflict• Conservative force or

social change?

India

Vs cosmopolitanism

Latin America

3.Cultural defence

• Cultural defence• Source of identity

Detraditionalisation

1. Religion & Development

ConsumerismEconomic growth

AsceticEconomic growth

Response/challenge to external threat

Colonies/invasion& Cargo cults, Millenarian Movts

Poland (1989)Iran (1979) Liberation

Theology

Religious differences = source of identity today

Globalisation = increased contact

Nation state and politics less important as sources of identity

Hard to resolve religious differences = deep rooted culturally

6. Ideology as a belief system

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6. Science as a belief system

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Defining secularisation

• Bryan Wilson ‘the process whereby religious thinking, participation and institutions lose social significance’

• Steve Bruce – there is not one secularisation theory – but a ‘cluster of descriptions & explanations’

• Jose Casanova – notes 2 approaches to defining secularisation:

(a) Structural level (institution) (b) Individual level (personal belief)

• Glock & Stark – multi-dimensional and no general agreement on what a truly religious society is

• David Martin – ‘an intellectual holdall’ that should be abandoned

The classical theorists

Rise of science + industrialisation = secularisation

• Marx – communism = no classes = no religion needed

• Durkheim – industrialisation = organic solidarity = shared beliefs from other sources – education replace religion

• Weber – rationalisation = control of environment/efficiency – rise of science = bureaucratic organisation = actions driven by rational goals

7. Secularisation

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Decline in participation

Decline in belief

Decline in religious institutions

• Less and less people attending church

• Crockett – church attendance in 1851 (40%) – ‘Golden Age’ (Victorian UK)

• Only 6.3% attend church on Sunday today

• Sunday schools, church weddings, baptisms all declined

• Belief without belonging

• Gill – big drop in belief in a personal God/ ideas about the afterlife

• Many people claim to belong to a religion

• Hard to measure ‘authentic’ belief in surveys (ie, 390’000 claimed to be Jedi in census)

• Changes in social attitudes – sex outside of marriage, cohabitation, divorce, less marriage, rise in crime etc

Bruce notes:

• Religion losing influence

• State performs many roles that the church once did, ie) welfare

• Clergy/population ratio has dramatically fallen

Secularisation – the big picture

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Evidence/Explanation In brief

• Decline in Religious Participation

• Decline in beliefs

• Religious pluralism

• Disengagement/ differentiation

• Disenchantment

• Disneyfication/loss of meaning

• Fewer people attend church/less ceremonies

• Changing attitudes on issues• Less belief in God

• Many faiths = no universal faith in society

• Fragmented – less influence

• Church withdrawn from society• Less power and influence• Church not focal point of community

• Rational attitude – faith in science• Man control of the world

• Marketisation of religion has lessened its authenticity in a postmodern age

Support for Secularisation

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Studies/Evidence EvaluationParticipation • Crockett – low attendance

• Drop in baptism, church weddings, Sunday school etc

• Golden age?• Unreliable stats in past – motives• Diff. religs measure member in diff

ways• Believing without belonging (Davie)• Identity/cultural defence – ethnic min.• Not all countries have low participation• Brierley – non-christ. Religions

increased

Pluralism • Wilson – 1 faith = strong (Durkheim)

• Decline of community (Bruce) – diversity and bonds decline

• Immigration – many faiths = waters down impact of single faith

• Religion can’t support all values..no monopoly on truth (Berger)

• Greater choice and diversity• Different beliefs = greater

commitment• Faith not dictated by tradition but by

true/meaningful choice

Disengagement and Diffentiation

• Bruce – church has less power and influence in wider society

• Specialisation of church’s roles by other institutions (Parsons)

• Church‘/spirituality marginalised in society – not focal point of community

• Religion still source of education and welfare (nationally and globally)

• Education Trusts linked to religions• Church - more effective in role• Civil religious experiences/media

coverage• Generalisation of relig. Values

(Parsons)• Casanova – religion in public life still

Disenchantment

• Rationalisation = scientific outlook• Desacrilisation – less driven by

mystical/supernatural beliefs (Weber)

• Technology = greater control of world (Bruce)

• Significant interest in ghosts, UFOs, spoon bending, ESP, mediums…still

• Recent growth in alternative beliefs and a ‘spiritual revolution’

• Pomo – rejection of metanarratives

Evidence/Explanation In brief

• Resacrilisation & the spiritual revolution

• Believing without belonging

• Rise of fundamentalism

• Existential security theory

• Cultural defence/transition

• Structural differentiation (the flip side)

• Pluralism (the flip side)

• A religious revivalism – more individualist spirituality

• Growth in NAMs and sects

• Private sphere = religion• No longer need ‘collective worship’

• People turning to fundamentalism rather than traditional faiths

• Certain people/places have a greater need for religion, ie) poorer societies

• Richer countries are more ‘secure’ so have less need = certainty

• Religion can be important source of identity• Religion provides support/community for

migrants

• Religion specialises role now/more effective in spiritual matters

• Greater diversity and choice – not dictated by tradition links to resacrilisation)

Challenges to Secularisation

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Studies/Evidence EvaluationResacrilisation

• Heelas – move from trad. religion• Religious renewal – individualistic

spirituality ‘self religions’ (World Affirming NRMS/NAMs)

• Personalised – hybrids – pick n mix• Spiritual market is growing.. Personal

choice/less demanding • Evangelic faith’s appeal = healing and

self improvement

• Bruce – very few into ‘New Age’• Wilson – ‘sects = last gasp for religiosity’• Wilson – NRMs etc = middle class indulgence

– ‘meditation & sushi’

Believing without belonging

• Davie – privatised faith• Less community focused nature

• Voas & Crockett – continual decline in believing as well as belonging

• Attendance = commitment

Rise of fundamentalism

(see Fundamentalism slides)

• Almond – global rise in fundamentalism• Need for certainty/tradition• Roof & McKinney – USA – New

Christian Right = Conservatives – tradition/morality

• Bruce – slowed down secularisation but lack power/influence and impact

• Only gained attention because they are so ‘extreme’…in a secular world

Existential security theory

• Norris & Inglehart – 3rd world religion is strong = high risks and need for security (compensation)

• Vasquez – over reliance on income data• See religion as a negative response• Ignore positive appeal to wealthy too

Cultural defence/transition

• Bruce – focal point for identity for some groups – under threat (cult. defence)

• Help migrants/eth, min. with support and community (cult. Transition)

• Bruce – religion only survives because of identity role (not about spirituality)

Structural differentiation

• Parsons – religion more specialised and generalisation of values

• Are values so generalised today?

Pluralism • Greater choice/diversity – religiosity = more meaningful

• More diversity = fragmented and weak• Ecumenicalism is proof of weakness of faiths

(Wilson)

International comparisons

• USA – high religiosity• Most Europe – 40%• Brierley (only small drop

in Christianity globally)• Islam increasing globally• Christianity in Ireland• USA – New Christian

Right/Televangelism• It is not a single process

equal to all societies (Martin)

MartinStrength of religion depends on :• link to identity (ethnic,

national and regional)• Link between church/state• Degree of pluralism

Kepel• Religious revivals around

the world (Islamization, Christian fundamentalism)

• Reactions to ‘secular’ governments & modernity

Different social groups

• Ethnic minorities maintain religiosity (although 2nd generation less so)

• Women more religious than men• Different groups = different needs,

ie) cultural defence/transition, compensation etc

Problems defining secularisation

• Shiner – at least 6 definitions of secularisation in use

• Glock and Stark – multidimensional

• Martin – ‘abandon the term’• This theory underestimates the

level of diversity in practice/belief• ‘inclusive’ definitions are vague

and allow religiosity to ‘trap’ more religiosity

• How far religious institutions are religious? (Herberg/Bellah) – ‘secularisation from within’ (Bruce)

Sects/Cults/NRMS/NAMS

• Greeley – renewed interest in spiritual in the West

• Brierley – rise in non-trinitarian christian churches/other faiths

• Heelas & Woodhead – spiritual revolution – New Age rise – meet personal choice/self-religions/suit lifestyle/hybridity/self-improve.

• Bruce ‘irrelevant with little impact in society’ – new age beliefs are weak/personal

• Berger ‘islands in a secular sea’

Problems measuring secularisation

Church participation• Under-estimates/over-estimates• Self collected data issues• Using different definitions/criteria• People attending in past for ‘social’

reasons/status/pressure (Martin)• Problem defining ‘golden age’

Opinion polls• Measuring belief =problem –

abstract• Interpretation of questions• How far do actions match beliefs?

(Haddaway et al)

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Secularisation – Other considerations

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Secularisation – top tips for angles in questions

1. Look out for those 18 markers (that look at a small part of the debate) remember these 18 markers give ‘big marks’ for blending different ideas together

2. Those short questions on ‘problems with using statistics on belief’

3. Essays on ‘there is a spiritual revolution’ ( where you look at evidence of resacrilisation/NRMs/evangelical churches/fundamentalism etc and then evaluate in a secularisation capacity with Pomo considerations)

4. Essays on ‘secularisation only in the USA/Europe’ (explore the secularisation argument but pay clear focus to international comparisons/globalisation/ resacrilisation / fundamentalism/existential security etc)

Religion no longer = shared values/universe of meaning- A kind of role of religion meets elements of secularisation + postmodernity Q

Church of England declining..other religions getting popular- Resacrilisation question/focus on participation evaluation/cultural defence/ - pluralism/fundamentalism

Key words

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Learn definitions for these concepts….

AlienationAsceticAudience cultsBureaucracyCalvinism Charismatic leaderChurchCivil religionClient cultsCollective conscienceCongregationConsumer cultureCounter cultureCultsCultural defenceCulture transitionDenominationDetraditionalisation Differentiation (structural)DisenchantmentDisengagement

Dual consciousnessElectFeudalismFundamentalismGeneralisationGlobalisationHegemonyHierarchyHolistic milieuHyperrealityIdeologyIslamophobiaLegitimationLiberation theologyLife crisisMarginalMetanarrativeNew Age movementOrientalism Patriarchy Pluralism

Positivist StagePostmodernismPrivate spherePrivatised religionProfaneProtestant ethicRationalityRationalisationRelative autonomyRelative deprivationResacrilisationSacredSectsSecularisationSelf-religionsSocial solidaritySpirit of capitalismSpiritual shoppersTheodicy of disprivilegeTheological stageValue consensusWorld accommodating sectsWorld affirming sectsWorld rejecting sects

scly3 beliefs revision cards 2014 1. 2 a…….so cute…love it hun !!!

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