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2hildren's ,tories in American :iterature";


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2hildren's ,tories in 8nglish :iterature.Crom Taliesin to ,hakespeare. 9ne vol."i?mo @;.?

2hildren's ,tories in 8nglish :iterature.Crom ,hakespeare to Tennyson. 9ne vol."i?mo @;.?

The !rincess :illiwinkins and 9ther ,tories.9ne vol." i?mo. Illustrated . . . . @;.?

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the recurrence of the seasons" the sun andmoon" the stars and the winds and the tides" andall things else" were only a part of the greatmystery of life" and all e(ually incomprehensible"from the flaming comet that illumined the heav$ens with unnatural brightness to the opening ofthe first bud or the fall of the first snowflakeLand it was never dreamed that the time wouldcome when man would look upon these thingswith any feeling but ama&ement.

And even when the world had grown wise inmany ways" and there were great cities ruledand kept by powerful kings and mighty armies"and while poets and painters were making im$mortal poems and pictures" and man had learnedto use the winds and the tides to guide him onhis journeys" still the unexplained marvels ofthe universe were clothed in sacred mystery"and only the priests and astrologers dared tostudy and proclaim their laws.

Crom time to time some philosopher" seekingearnestly after the truth" would assert that hehad discovered some secret of nature that wouldlead to the better understanding and use of her

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laws" but the world seemed so enchanted withits own Ignorance that the new discoveries wereeither received with unbelief" or the author ac$cused of impiety and perhaps sentenced todeath.

And so long centuries passed away while manseemed to gain knowledge of every other kind"but held the world of nature still in childishwonder" and was as much terror$stricken by thesight of a comet or the eclipse of the sun as hadbeen his remote ancestors who dwelt in cavesand went naked through the wilderness insearch of food.


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+ut there came an age at last when knowl$edge had so increased and was so widely dif$fused among people of every class" that therulers and priests of a country could no longerprevent any new discovery from being madeknown.

8very city boasted of schools and universi$ties" and in them were found not only the greatscholars and philosophers" but students fromevery class" for ignorance was no longer con$sidered desirable" and it was esteemed honor$

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able to be able to talk of history and literature"

the fine arts and philosophy. These universi$ties were fre(uented by visitors from all partsof the civi7&ed world" and thus it happened thatany newly discovered scientific truth or theorywas at once carried to remote places" and in thismanner the systems taught in one city soonbecame known to the others" and knowledgegreatly advanced by their mutual intercourse.About the middle of the sixteenth century theuniversities of Italy held a high rank among in$stitutions of learning" and within their wallscould be found some of the most earnest andenlightened thinkers of the world. #any ofthese gave their days and nights to the studyof nature" and strove with untiring &eal to graspthe secrets that had eluded the wise of otherages.

Among these restless and in(uiring spiritswas Galileo Galilei" a youth of !isa" who hadentered the university of his native town at theage of nineteen as a student of medicine.

Although the father of Galileo was notwealthy" and a university education for his son

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would call for considerable denial on his part"still the effort was cheerfully made" and therapid progress of the young student immediatelyproved the wisdom of the step.

Crom his earliest childhood Galileo had shownthe greatest talent for mechanical invention" his


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wonderful toys and little models of machinerybeing the admiration and delight of his compan$ions" and as he grew older this talent developedmore and more" and led to some of the mostimportant inventions in the history of mechan$ics.

Two years after his entrance at the universityhe noticed one day" while sitting in the cathe$dral" a lamp swinging from the roof" and keep$ing as it swung a regular and uniform motion.This circumstance" which would never have at$tracted the notice of the careless observer" atonce held the attention of the young inventor"and he watched the lamp until he became con$vinced" by comparing its motion with the beatingof his pulse" that its vibrations" whether greator small" recurred at regular and e(ual intervals.7e immediately saw that this discovery might

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lead to some useful mechanical invention" andat once set about verifying it by different experi$ments L the results proved the truth of his sup$position" and it then occurred to him that if hewere able to reckon the vibrations of a swingingbody from the beat of a normal pulse" he might ;be able to do the reverse and ascertain thepulse of a patient by comparing it with the samevibrations. 7e at once constructed a simpleinstrument to test this theory" and the experi$ment proved so satisfactory that the inventionat once passed into common use by all the phy$sicians of the day.

This first pendulum Y which was called a pul$silogy" from the use it was put to Y consistedsimply of a weight attached to a string" and agraduated scale. The string was gathered upin the hand till the vibrations of the weight co$incided with the beating of the pulse" and it wasthen reckoned from the scale whether the ratewere normal or otherwise.

Although the pendulum was invented for thesole purpose of assisting in the practice of med$icine" yet the discovery of its principle by Ga$

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Iileo led to important results L previous to thisthere had been many contrivances for the meas$urement of time" hour$glasses" sun$dials" water$dials" burning candles" and other expedientssucceeding each other in turn" but none of thesehad been able to measure time so accurately asthe pendulum" and its use in dividing the day"and in astronomical observations soon becameindispensable. Its invariable regularity was ofthe greatest service to the astronomers" who"by means of the pendulum$clock which was in$vented some years later by 7uygens" a utchastronomer" were able to make calculations moreexactly and satisfactorily than ever before" andthe same instrument in time led to the knowl$edge of the real form of the earth. Thus thefirst invention of Galileo not only served thepractical needs of daily life but was the means

of advancing scientific observation to a planeinaccessible before.

Although Galileo had entered the universityas a student of medicine this subject graduallylost all charm for him" and he devoted himselfmore and more exclusively to mathematics and

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physics. This change was at first unwelcometo his father" but as time passed and he sawthat his son was irresistibly carried on by hisnew pursuits" he no longer opposed him" andallowed him to devote his time to the study ofnatural philosophy.

An essay on physics brought Galileo to thenotice of one of the leading mathematicians ofItaly" and through his influence the young phi$losopher was appointed to the lectureship ofmathematics at !isa. This new position didnot prevent his pursuing his studies with undi$minished vigor" and his lectures attracted imme$diate attention. Almost from the beginning ofhis university career Galileo showed that bold$ness and originality of thought which distin$guished him in after$life" and won the ill$will ofseveral of the professors by his unwillingnessto accept for truth many of the dogmas whichthey held sacred.

+ut Galileo had been brought up under the


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influence of a father who was accustomed togive full and free discussion to any subject thatoccupied his mind" and this training" together

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with his own original genius" made it impossiblefor the son to follow easily in the beaten pathsof university life" and thus thrown back uponhimself" and with only the help and sympathy ofone or two of his companions" he began to findout new lines of thought" and to follow pathsthat had hitherto been considered unlawful.

ew ways of solving old (uestions presentedthemselves freely to his in(uiring mind" and

were tested" and" when found satisfactory" ac$cepted with the same readiness that was ac$corded the old faiths" and this could not be for$given by the professors" who considered it themost honorable thing in the world to receivethe ancient philosophies without (uestion ordisparagement" and whose greatest ambition itwas to discover or wring some new meaningout of the old texts that would apply to alldoubts and settle all discussion. And thusfrom the beginning of his career Galileo was sur$rounded by the enemies of progress" and evenhis mechanical investigations were receivedwith cold favor.

+ut this did not daunt him" and as he ad$

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I

vanced in his studies he subjected all the propo$sitions of the old philosophy to the severe testof free investigation" glad when he could find noflaw in the world$old wisdom" but gladder stillwhen he discovered an error the righting ofwhich would lead thought into wider and purerchannels. And the responsibility of his posi$tion as a teacher made him the more anxious tosift out the good from the bad" while the oppor$tunity thus offered of influencing a younger gen$


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eration made him strive with renewed earnest$ness after the truth.

These efforts only served to increase the hos$tility that the professors had shown toward himin his student$days L but Galileo persisted in hisinvestigations" and proved the folly of some oftheir most cherished beliefs" announcing the re$sults of his experiments with a persistent deter$mination and faith that won many adherents.+ut his enemies would not listen even when hisarguments were followed by the most conclu$sive proofs L and on one occasion" when Galileoperformed the experiment of letting two bodiesof different weight" fall simultaneously from the

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leaning tower of !isa" in order to prove thatthey would reach the ground at the same time"his angry opponents refused to believe theevidence of their own eyes" and (uoted in re$ply the sentence from Aristotle which assertedthat if two different weights were let fall fromthe same height the heavier one would reachthe ground the sooner. ,uch obstinacy" com$bined with ill$will and distrust" rendered Gali$leo's position at !isa so unpleasant that" whenan opportunity offered for him to take the chairof mathematics at !adua" he did not hesitate"and left !isa after having taught there onlythree years.

7e now began to circulate his writings morefreely" one essay following another with suchrapidity" and all embodying such new and star$tling theories" that his name soon became fa$miliar to the scientific world" and his opinionswere listened to with a respect that roused thefiercest resentment of his enemies.

9ne of the most sacred beliefs of the daywas the !lotemaic theory that the earth wasthe centre of the universe" and that the sun.

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A


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moon" planets" and stars all revolved aroundit" outside of the atmospheres of air and firewhich immediately surrounded it.

#any absurd reasons were given to prove thetruth of this theory" and philosophers seemedwilling to accept anything as fact" provided it co$incided with this popular superstition" and evengravely ac(uiesced when it was asserted thatthe earth mus3 be the centre of the universebecause it was the only planet that had a moon.This theory took its name from 2laudius !tol$emy" an old astronomer and geographer" wholived at Alexandria about the middle of the sec$ond century a.d. !tolemy gave innumerablereasons for his belief" and said that it would beimpossible and absurd to believe otherwise.About four hundred and fifty years b.c" !y$thagoras" a Greek philosopher" who spent manyyears in studying in 8gypt" and who was famil$

iar with the astronomical theories of the 2hal'deans and 8gyptians" proclaimed to his disci$ples that the earth had a motion and revolvedperiodically around a great central fire" and thistheory met with the warmest approbation of

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some other Greek philosophers" who also be$lieved in two motions of the earth" an annualand daily" and claimed that the heavens onlyappeared to move because the earth turned onits axis with such rapidity.

+ut this belief was rejected with scorn by!tolemy" who said that it was impossible tobelieve that the earth turned on its axis fromwest to east during twenty$four hours L for if itwere true" then bodies lighter than the earthand suspended in the air" would have an op$posite movement" and that it would thus beimpossible for clouds or birds" or any objectthrown in the air to go toward the east" as theearth would be constantly going before themand make it seem as if everything were goingtoward the west. And for two thousand yearsthe world clung to the !tolemaic theory" in partbecause it seemed reasonable and convincing"but chiefly because it had received the sanctionof Aristotle" the greatest of the Greek philoso$phers" whose influence upon thought was sounlimited that even his most absurd theories ofmechanics were received without (uestion.


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+ut in ; MS icholas 2opernicus" a !russianastronomer" published his great work 0 e -e$volutionibus 0 Y concerning the revolutions$ Y inwhich he entirely refuted the !tolemaic theory"and asserted that the earth was not the centreof the universe" and that it had a daily rotationon its axis and an annual revolution around thesun" which two motions accounted for all theother phenomena of the heavens" and satisfac$torily explained all the hitherto unexplainablemysteries in regard to the motions of the heav$enly bodies.

The opinions of 2opernicus were receivedwith disdain by the philosophers of the oldschool" and his work was derided as the wildestnonsense L but the more thoughtful minds gavehis writings careful attention" and came grad$ually to accept his incontrovertible arguments"and among these was Galileo" who found it im$possible to hold the !tolemaic theory after be$coming familiar with the works of 2opernicus.

7is conversion to the true theory was not"however" made publicly known at once" eitherbecause he felt that he had not yet sufficiently

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,tudied it" or because he feared that the opposiNtion of his enemies might do the new systemmore harm than it would be in his power tooverbalance.

+ut in ;=BM the scientific world was startledby the sudden appearance of a new star" whosesplendor at once attracted the attention of allastronomers. ight after night its brilliantlight" changing from orange to yellow" purple"red" and white successively" illumined the heav$ens with new glory" and records were searchedand old treatises pored over in order to see howoften similar appearances had been noticedbefore.

Galileo studied the star with the greatestinterest" and his lecture$rooms were crowdedwhen it was announced that he would give a


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public explanation of the wonder L but the crowdswho had come to agree with old theories oridly speculate over ancient astronomical history"were rudely startled by Galileo's original views"which swept away many of the fondest illusionsof the age" and proclaimed clearly a new andunwelcome advance in the study of the heavens.

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It was generally believed that the new starwas a meteor having its origin in the atmos$phere" and that it was nearer the earth than themoonL but Galileo claimed that this was impos$sible" and proved" by exact calculations from thesituation and appearance" that the star must be

placed among the most distant of the heavenlybodies" and that the belief in its motion aroundthe earth was contrary to true theory of theearth's revolution around the sun.

This view was received with scorn by the fol$lowers of Aristotle" who held that the sky wasunchangeable" and that the stars were carriedin hollow crystalline spheres around the earth"thus making it impossible to account for thenew star in this manner. They also declaredtheir opposition to the theory of the motion ofthe earth" and Galileo was called upon to defendthe 2opernican system. 7e did this with such&eal that the university was at once divided intotwo parties" one agreeing with the Aristotelians"and the other following Galileo and acceptingthe new doctrines with delight. The disputewent on for some years" and Galileo omitted no

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chance to proclaim his belief in the 2opernicansystem" and to add new proofs to strengthen itshold upon the minds of othersL and in ;=B> anevent occurred which enabled him to completelyvindicate the truth of his new belief" and to con$vince all but the most obstinate that it would beno longer possible to hold to the old theories.This was the invention of the telescope" the useof which revealed the most startling wondersin the heavens" and demonstrated the truth ofGalileo's belief to the fullest extent

!revious to this astronomers had been obliged


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to depend entirely upon the naked eye for mak$ing all observations L and although the world hadadvanced in almost every other way" in this re$spect the Italian star$ga&er of the sixteenthcentury had no advantage over the 2haldeanshepherds who" ages before" had studied themysteries of the heavens during their lonelynight$watches. +ut the telescope changed allthis" and revolutioni&ed the study of astronomy.It brought to light unsuspected possibilities forresearch" and laid bare the secrets that hadeluded man from the earliest times. ot only

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were the planets and stars that were already

known brought nearer and rendered more fa$miliar by closer observation" but even the mostdistant of the heavenly bodies shone with a newglory" that was not diminished by the discoverythat" farther still beyond their circles" other starseven yet more beautiful swept through their lim$itless courses" and that what had before seemedonly empty space was in reality filled withvast systems of worlds" which waited only theproper moment to reveal themselves in all theirbewildering splendor.

It is claimed by some that Galileo's inventionof the telescope was not strictly original" andthat he only applied and improved upon an ideathat had already been used to some extent inthe manufacture of optical instruments.

+ut" however this may be" it is certain thatthe first telescope which Galileo made andpointed to the heavens created the greatestwonder in the scientific world" and was consid$ered almost as much of a marvel as the discov$ery of a new world would have been.

This first telescope" which was called Galileo's

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tube" aroused public curiosity to the greatestheight" and Galileo's house was thronged withvisitors eager to satisfy their curiosityL themost extravagant and absurd stories were cir$culated" and all through Kenice" where Galileohappened to be staying at the time" there was


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no talk of anything but the wonderful instru$ment which was thought to be possessed of al$most magical powers. The news spread rap$idly from place to place" and all the astronomersset themselves to making telescopes" though itwas long before anyone could produce an in$strument e(ual in excellence to those made byGalileo. And so great was the excitement overthe new invention" that small telescopes weresold in the streets as curiosities" and the observ$atories were besieged with people who gavethe astronomers no peace until they satisfiedtheir incredulous wonder.

In the meantime Galileo ascended his towernight after night" and pointed his telescopetoward the heavens which had so suddenly as$sumed such new and intense interest. And theresults showed that" although he had given his

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whole life to the study" he had really only justbegun to learn anything of the marvels of crea$tion. 9ne mystery after another was unfoldedto his wondering ga&e" and even the objectsthat had once seemed familiar to him now dis$closed such new characteristics as to appearalmost strange.

This was especially true of his observationson Fupiter" a planet which" from its great si&eand brilliant light" had always attracted the at$tention of astronomers. -egarded at first bymankind simply as a splendid star whose beautyadded another glory to the sky" it was studiedwith unusual care" and even when later philoso$phers denied its stellar character" it was still anobject of intense interest to astronomers" wholooked upon it as a mysterious presence wan$dering among the familiar stars" awing them byits majesty" and yet as little understood as theflittings of the will$o'$the$wisp among the fire$flies in the meadow. And although its plane$tary character was fully established in the timeof Galileo" the wonder in it had not yet ceased.Galileo brought it night after night under the

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range of the telescope" and was soon rewarded


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by the most startling discovery in astronomicalscience.

7e noticed" at first" that there seemed to bethree new stars situated very near to Fupiter"and further observation led to the discovery ofa fourth. 2areful study of that part of theheavens soon led to the astonishing disclosurethat these small stars revolved around Fupiter"in the same way that the moon revolved aroundthe earth L and Galileo" after verifying his theoryby elaborate and continuous observations" an$nounced the undreamed$of fact that Fupiter wasattended by four moons.

This intelligence was received with undis$guised ama&ement by all classes. The friendsof Galileo and the advocates of the 2opernicansystem" at once joyfully accepted this new proofof the harmonious motions of the heavenly bod$

ies" while his opponents were e(ually bitter intheir denunciation" refusing to look through thetelescope for fear it would convince them of theirerror" and" as usual" bringing forth the most ab$surd arguments in favor of their own obstinacy.

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lumi

Galileo had named the satellites the #edi$28can stars in honor of his patron" 2osmo di#edici" and one antagonistic philosopher gravelydenied the willingness of nature to give Fupiterfour moons simply for the sake of immortali&ingthe name of #edici" and said that the wholething was an idle dream.

Another declared solemnly that he did notmore surely know that he had a soul in hisbody" than that the moons were caused entirelyby reflected rays of light" and claimed that Gal$ileo's 0thirst for gold 0 had alone led him tosuch an announcement.

And still another astronomer seriously dem$onstrated that it was contrary to the law ofnature to have more than seven planets" andthat therefore more than seven could not exist.7e argued that there were seven windowsgiven to animals in the domicile of the head" to


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admit the air to the rest of the body to warmand nourish it" and that likewise" in the heavensthere were two favorable stars" Kenus and Fu$piterL two unfavorable. #ars and ,aturnL twoluminaries" the sun and the moon L and #er$

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cury alone undecided and indifferent. Also"that there were but seven metals" seven days inthe week" and innumerable similar phenomenato prove that there could only be seven planets Lsumming up with the conclusion that the satel$lites were invisible to the naked eye" that theytherefore could exercise no influence on theearth" that they were therefore useless" andtherefore did not exist.

To this Galileo only replied that" howeverweighty the reasons might be that no morethan seven planets could exist" they scarcelyseemed sufficient to destroy the new oneswhen actually seen" and went on observingFupiter.

7is friends supported his theories as warmlyas ever" and the controversy was kept up untilthe existence of the satellites was establishedbeyond a doubt" when his enemies went to theother extreme and claimed that Galileo's obser$vations were most imperfect" as there werereally twelve satellites instead of four L and itwas only when Fupiter moved to another partof the heavens" carrying his four moons with

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;

him" that they admitted that the original an$nouncement was correct.

Galileo's observations of the moon also ledto a fierce discussion" and philosophers againspent a great deal of time in arguing and deny$ing" with the usual results.

Crom its nearness to the earth" and the in$


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teresting phenomena connected with the va$rious changes that it passed through everymonth" the moon had from the earliest timesbeen an object of the greatest interest to man"who attributed mysterious power to its influ$ence" and placed it among the divinities. Andit still held its subtle attraction long after theold religions had passed away" for with the ex$ception of the sun" it alone of all the heavenlybodies exercised an important influence in theconcerns of daily life. Cilling the heavens withits wondrous beauty long after the great god ofday had set" it seemed like a beneficent spiritsent by some protecting power to guard thelonely watches of the nightL while to the travel$ler on desert or mountain or sea" its beams camewith friendly assurance of help and companion$

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ship in braving the unseen perils of the dark$ness.

In the time of Galileo the popular belief con$cerning the moon was that it was a perfectlyspherical body" with a surface as smooth andpolished as a mirror" and that the dark parts ofits surface were either the reflections of theforests and mountains of the earth" or causedby the interposition of opa(ue bodies floatingbetween it and the sun" or" because of itsnearness to the earth" the result of contact withcertain terrestrial elements which marred itsbeauty and made it less pure than the bodiesin the more remote heavens.

+ut Galileo's observations led him to thebelief that the moon resembled the earth instructure" and that its dark portions were theshadows reflected from mountains and other in$e(ualities in its surface L while he also claimedthat it was probable that there were continentsand oceans distributed over the surface similarto those on the earth" and that the faint shadowwhich was attached to the crescent moon" andfilled out that part of the surface unlighted di$

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rectly by the sun" was caused by the reflectionof the earth's light" or earthshine. These theo$


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ries were at once attacked by his opponents"who said that Galileo took delight in ruiningthe fairest works of nature" and utterly deniedthe existence of mountains on the moon" as theirpresence there would destroy its spherical shape"Galileo replied that to conceive of the moonand the earth as perfectly spherical bodieswould only detract from their use" in the plan ofnature" for absolute smoothness and sphericitywould make of the earth only a vast" unblesseddesert" void of animals" of plants" and of men Lthe abode of silence and inaction L senseless"lifeless" soulless" and stripped of all those orna$ments which made it so beautiful. +ut thisargument was derided by his enemies" who re$plied that the moon's surface was really smoothand unalterable in spite of all that Galileo couldsay" and that the parts which appeared hollowor sunken were in reality filled up with a crystal substance perfectly imperceptible to the

senses" but still serving the purpose of givingto the moon her true spherical shape.

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Galileo agreed to accept the theory of a crys$tal substance filling all irregularities" providedthe philosophers would allow him to raise crys$tal mountains ten times higher than those hehad actually seen and measured" and this non$sense effectually put an end to the crystallinetheory.

In regard to Galileo's theory of earthshinehis critics averred that it was untenable" becausethe earth was not a planet and did not revolvearound the sun" or shine like the other planets"and ascribed the shadow to Kenus or the fixedstars" or the rays of the sun shining throughthe moon. And thus the endless dispute wenton" and all of Galileo's wonderful discoverieswere received with scorn and unbelief by theenemies of progress" who bent all the powersof their minds to the refutation of the 2operni$can theory. +ut Galileo went on with his ob$servations undisturbed by this opposition" andconstantly announced new wonders.

7e examined the #ilky ay" and was the firstto prove that its nebulous appearance wascaused by the presence of myriads of stars.

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whose light reached to infinite distances beyondthe system of the earth L and although this the$ory was of course disputed" it was firmly estab$lished by repeated observation" and thus con$firmed beyond a doubt the conjecture of !y$thagoras that countless millions of stars circledcontinuously through their distant courses farbeyond the vision of man.

Galileo subjected all of the planets in turn tohis scrutini&ing ga&e" and one discovery fol$lowed another with astounding rapidity" so thatthere never ceased to be a new marvel to won$der at.

7e detected the presence of ,aturn's rings"although his glass was not strong enough to

show him their real nature" and he supposedthe planet to have two attendant stars L and amonth later he announced the discovery of thephases of Kenus" deducing from this fact anotherproof of the 2opernican system. 7e also ex$amined the fixed stars" and by careful compari$son of their hght with that of the planets decidedthat they did not receive their light from thesun" and he added still another argument to the

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doctrine of 2opernicus by the discovery of thespots on the sun and their motion across its disc.

As early as


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couragement Galileo kept on his way" continu$ally adding to the sum of scientific knowledge"and unwearying in his efforts to place naturalscience upon a more reasonable and comprehendsible plane than it had before reached.

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SB GA:I:89" ; =M$;=M?.

7is observations included not only the phe$nomena of the heavens" but also those con$nected more intimately with the earth" and hisessays extended over a great variety of subjectswhich had hitherto been treated only with igno$rance or indifferent success.

The results of his work were published fromtime to time" and in ;=S? the labor of his lifewas given to the world in the form of a bookentitled" 0The ialogue on the !tolemaic and2opernican ,ystems"0 in which were incorpo$rated all his views on natural science" and hisarguments in favor of rejecting many of the oldtheories of the universe and accepting thenew.

And now the unpopularity which had alwaysfollowed him found a new object for its ha$tred.

The book was received with the most intenseill$will by Galileo's enemies" many of whom oc$cupied high positions in philosophical circles"and possessed an unbounded influence with thedignitaries of 2hurch and ,tate" and the 0 ia$logue of the ,ystems 0 was made the means of

GA:I:89" ; =M$;=M?. S;

bringing the (uarrel between the old and newphilosophies to an issue.

The hatred of years had at last found its op$portunity" and Galileo was summoned to -ometo answer to the charge of heresy in teachingthe doctrines of 2opernicus" which were as$sumed by the 2hurch to be in opposition to therevealed word of God.

Galileo was seventy years old" and his life had


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been spent in the reverent study of the worksof nature" but the conclusions he arrived at dif$fered from those accepted by the theologians ofthe day" and his long and faithful devotion toscience" and all his splendid discoveries" weresimply regarded by his enemies as the work ofa man who had dared to dispute the holiesttenets of the 2hurch" and to offer a scientificcreed opposed to the sacred beliefs of the Aris$totelian philosophers.

The In(uisition" which was then the judicial tri$bunal of the -oman 2atholic 2hurch" examinedGalileo upon his religious and scientific views"and pronounced them impious and heretical" andcalled upon him to renounce and abjure the

I

II

I

most cherished convictions of his soul" or sufferthe penalty that attended any persistent opposi$tion to the 7oly 9ffice.

The subject of Galileo's abjuration has alwaysbeen a matter of dispute" some contending thatit was extorted from him while undergoing tort$ure at the hands of the officers of the In(uisi$tion" and others claiming that theterms of abjura$tion were dictated by the in(uisitors themselves"and are not to be considered as expressing therecantation of Galileo.

+ut" however that may be" it is certain that anabjuration" that was considered sufficiently con$demning by his enemies" was sworn to by Gali$leo in the presence of the officers of the In(ui$sition" and that his recantation saved him fromimprisonment" and perhaps death.

The well$known anecdote that when Galileorose from his knees after signing the abjuration"he stamped on the ground and whispered toone of his friends Y 0 It Zthe world[ does move"though 0 Y is without foundation. Althoughcopies of his abjuration were immediately circu$lated throughout Italy" and were ordered to be


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GA:I:89" ; =M$;=M?. SS

read in the universities" the 2opernican systemstill kept its hold upon the minds of all advancedthinkers" and Galileo was still regarded as itsmost powerful advocate.

The fact that his abjuration did not cost himthe respect and admiration of his friends" is suf$ficient evidence that it was obtained under cir$cumstances that reflect little credit on the sup$porters of the 2hurch" and admits the probabilitythat" even in this terrible crisis" Galileo main$tained his character as an uncompromising ad$vocate of the new school of thought L and hisjudges can only place his whole brave and con$

sistent life against the (uestionable practices ofthe In(uisition" to give a balance largely in hisfavor.

Galileo died in ;=M?" having been blind forfive years before his death.

The malice of his enemies followed him to theend" and he was denied the privilege of makinga will" and of burial in consecrated ground.

+ut this petty spite could not interfere withthe sentence passed upon him by all the un$biased thinkers of his own and succeeding agesi

SM GA:I:89" ; =M$;=M?.

that his life was one of noble devotion to hiswork" and that through his influence scientificin(uiry was first led into the pure ways ofreasonable thought" and the world of naturemore fully and clearly revealed" and endowedwith new and unimagined beauty.

27A!T8- ;;.

18!:8- A T78 !AT7 A4, 9C T78 !:A 8T,"

The invention of the telescope prepared allminds for new wonders" and made astronomythe leading science of the day. The heavenlybodies were observed with a new interest" andtheir motions studied more intently L for" while


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the 2opernican system proved that the earthand other planets moved around the sun as acentre" it left many mysteries unexplained whichcould not be accounted for by the fact of the dailyrotation of the earth or its annual revolution.And while Galileo was startling the world byhis magnificent discoveries in the heavens" theGerman astronomer 1epler was revolving inhis mind a theory of the universe which wouldexplain some of these mysteries" and was des$tined to make his name as famous as that of hisgreat contemporary.

I

The motions and nature of the heavenly bod$

ies were (uestions that were pu&&ling the wisestheads" and many strange theories were ad$vanced to account for the apparent irregularitiesin the movements of the planets and their re$lation to the fixed stars.

Tycho +rahe" the anish astronomer" fromhis magnificent observatory" %raniberg" hadspent years in studying the order of planetarymotion" and at his death left his observationsrecorded in a set of tables which he intrusted tothe care of 1epler" his friend and pupil. %ran$iberg" the city of the heavens" was built on theIsland of 7uen" in the +altic" and under thepatronage of the 1ing of enmark had becomethe resort of many of the most earnest scientificstudents" who gladly availed themselves of theteaching of Tycho +rahe. The observatorywas furnished with the most complete set ofastronomical instruments in the world" and wasfamous for Its facilities for studying the heav$ens.

It was by means of these instruments" and byhis great knowledge of mathematics" that Tycho

18!:8-" ; R;$;=S . SR

+rahe was able to make those accurate obser$vations which gave his tables a priceless value"and enabled 1epler to work out calculationsthat it would have been impossible to makewithout them.

%nlike many great scientists" 1epler had


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shown no special liking for any particular studywhen a child" and he was led to the study ofastronomy only because he was appointed pro$fessor of that science in the university of Grat&.+ut while preparing his lectures" he becameso deeply interested in the subject that beforelong it entirely occupied his mind" and nothingelse seemed of any importance as comparedwith it.

1epler possessed a very enthusiastic nature"and was always ready to listen to new theories"no matter how wild they might seem. 7e wasamong the first to rejoice over the splendid dis$coveries of Galileo" and was an ardent supporterof the 2opernican system while it was yet beingreviled by the authority of the 2hurch and thedisciples of AristotleL and his originality andenthusiasm made him capable of turning the

I

S< 18!:8-" ; R;$;=S .

earnest work of Tycho +rahe to the very bestaccount.

The 2opernican theory had been steadilygaining ground in the estimation of astrono$mers" and" as one after another gave up the oldsystem" they ceased to speculate about the ap$parent movements of the sun and stars aroundthe earth" and began to study the planets froma new point of view.

The path which a planet takes in revolvingaround the sun is called its orbit" and astron$omers now became interested in the (uestionof the si&e of the orbits and the rate of motion.

The idea that there was always to be founda certain harmony throughout all the works ofnature" swayed the minds of men as much inthe sixteenth century as it had done in the dawnof scientific thought" and no sooner was a newtheory advanced" or a new discovery made" thanthe (uestion arose as to how it would harmon$i&e with the truths already known" or how" byfollowing out some suggestion it contained" stillother discoveries might be made.

1epler possessed more than any of his con$


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18!:8-" ; R;$;=S . S>

temporaries the gift of intuition" or the power ofgrasping a truth that has not been demonstratedby any known law of nature" and it is to thisinsight that he owed his success. 7e believedthat the entire universe was governed by onegreat law or principle" and that there was asubtle relation existing between things thatseemed to be utterly disconnected. All thegreat discoveries of science" all the wonderfuloperations of nature" every expression of beau$ty in the animal or vegetable world" and everyuseful invention of man" seemed alike to him tobe controlled by some great harmonious prin$ciples that might be applied with e(ual appro$priateness to the turning of a water$wheel" orthe rise of the tides" or the rushing of a comet

through illimitable space.

ith this idea ruling his mind every new factwas at once made a basis for calculations thatmight lead to the discovery of the great secretlaw of the universe" and no toil was consideredirksome that could help him on his way" for hebelieved that the relation existing between thedifferent forces of nature was so strong that the

18!:8-" ; R;$;=S,.

discovery of the law of one would be the mas$ter$key that would unlock the whole mystery ofcreation.

This belief" which had haunted the minds ofphilosophers of all ages" seemed to 1epler of in$ "finitely more importance than anything else" andthe discovery of a new planet in the heavensmeant to him not only a new wonder to be ad$mired and ga&ed at" but a new instance of theharmonious working of the order of creation.

!ythagoras had claimed" two thousand yearsbefore" that he had discovered the world$secret"and that harmony" or proportion" was the lawof the universe. 7e taught that the planets re$volved around a central fire" moving with an in$conceivable swiftness that caused them to beaccompanied by mighty rushing sounds" butthat the different velocities were so beautifullyproportioned that the result was not mere noise"


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but the most ex(uisite music" which excelled insweetness and power all earthly melodies. Itwas said that the reason that these harmonieswere not heard by man was because they wereunceasingly sounding in his ears from the mo$

18!:8-" ; R;$;=S . M;

ment of birth" and that they would therefore beunnoticed by him. This notion was also heldby many of the philosophers of the #iddleAges" and even at a much later day the astrol$ogers and seers claimed that the music of thespheres might be easily distinguished by theinitiated.

7owever absurd these theories may seem" itis nevertheless a fact that the love and study of

the marvellous have in many cases led to theknowledge of some great truth of nature" andhad it not been for 1epler's belief in the pos$sibility of finding the secret that had forevereluded mankind" he might never have been ledon to the discoveries that made him famous.

2alculations whose length and intricacy wouldNhave disheartened anyone else were cheerfullycarried on by him for months and years" to beas cheerfully abandoned if found incorrect" andthe unwearied and painstaking labor of a life$time would have been counted as nothing incomparison to the discovery of some hithertounknown truth.

The possession of Tycho +rahe's tables aided

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him greatly in the work" for so accurate hadbeen the observations of the anish astrono$mer" and so reliable his deductions" that 1eplerwas able to depend upon them almost abso$lutely" and to decide that in every case his the$ories must be rejected if they did not agree withthe statements in the tables.

7aving always in mind the discovery of thelaw of harmony that governed the universe"1epler bent the whole energies of his mind tothe study of the number of the planets" theirmotions" and the si&es of their orbits. It seemed


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to him that there must be some proportion be$tween the si&es of the orbits" and he made manycalculations to prove the truth of this conjecture.There were at that time but five planets known"and after having failed to prove any relationexisting between the si&es of their orbits" 1ep$ ;ler imagined a new planet between Kenus and#ercury" and another between #ars and Fupi$ Iter" and then made a new calculation to see ifhe could discover the proportion he was lookingfor L but he failed also here" and" after manymonths spent in fruitless toil" he was obliged 5

18!:8-" ; R;$;=S . MS

to give up the work without having proved thatthere was any regular rate of increase betweenthe orbits of the planets nearest the sun and

those farthest from it.

In all his calculations 1epler started from theold theories of the relations which were sup$posed to exist between the different solid andplane figures" and when he began the study ofthe planets' orbits he pursued the same plan.

%p to this time the belief had always beenthat the motions of the heavenly bodies weredescribed in circles. The circle" which was con$sidered the most beautiful of all curves" hadalways had a mystic meaning for the old phi$losophers" and was always associated in somemanner with their religious belief. It was theemblem of eternity" and was carved on thetombs of kings" and inscribed in sacred books"and many things in nature seemed to mark itwith special significance. The arch of theheavens stretching from earth to earth again"the cycle of the seasons" the expansion of themoon" which was worshipped as a deity" fromthe crescent form to the . perfectly rounded fig$

18!:8+" ; R;$;=S .

ure" the circular disc of the sun" and many otherthings all enveloped the circle with a sacredmeaning which had by no means lost its powerwhen astronomy was invested with new interestby the genius of 2opernicus.

And when it was conceded that the planets


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revolved around the sun it was at once assumedthat their orbits were circular" for this shapealone would enable them to harmoni&e with thepopular belief in regard to the mystic impor$tance of the circle.

1epler" starting with this idea" tried in vainto account for the irregularities of the planets'motions which had pu&&led other astronomers.If the planets moved in circles about the sun"each always taking the same time for a revolu$tion and moving at a perfectly regular rate"then" by knowing their positions at any one timeand the rate at which they were moving" it wouldbe easy for an astronomer to calculate wherethey would be at any other time.

+ut this was found not to be the case. #arswas the planet most convenient for making ob$servations upon" and 1epler made this planet

18!:8-" ; R;$;=S . M

the subject of careful study for years" in order todetermine the reason for its irregularity of mo$tion. #ars" travelling round the sun in a cir$cular orbit should reach a certain point on a cer$tain date" and because this did not happen theastronomers were sorely pu&&led and inventedmany ingenious reasons to account for it

1epler made nineteen different theories toexplain the irregularity of the motion of theplanets" but none of them could be consideredentirely satisfactory. 8ach theory was madethe subject of the most careful calculation" butall failed" and planetary motion remained asgreat a mystery as ever.

At last 1epler was forced to think that possi$bly the planets did not move in circular orbits"although the circle was the most beautiful ofcurves" and he began to imagine the orbits tobe of a different shape than had hitherto beensupposed. The careful study that he had madeof the orbit of #ars seemed to show that it wasof an oval form" and as the ellipse was the sim$plest form of oval" 1epler chose this curve as abasis for new calculations.

7e had already become convinced" from hisstudy of the earth's motion" that the planets didnot move in their orbits at a regular rate of mo$


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tion" but that they moved faster when they werenearer the sun and slower when farther from itLthis in itself was a most important discovery.

9n applying this rule to calculate the motionof #ars" 1epler found" to his surprise and de$light" that when its orbit was taken to be anellipse the planet would reach any point in itspath just at the moment calculated" but thatthis would not be so if any other form of orbitwere assumed. This was also found to be thecase with the other planets.

These two great discoveries startled the worldby their originality" and placed 1epler amongthe greatest astronomers of the day. 7ithertohis theories had been regarded rather indiffer$ently" as his contemporaries thought him alwaystoo eager to run after new ideas" and his methodof starting a new hypothesis and making one

intricate calculation after another to test it" didnot correspond with their more sober way ofproceeding.

18!:8-" ; R;$;=S . MR

+ut 1epler kept on in his own manner ofworking" and continued his study of the planets'orbits. 7e was still desirous of proving his oldtheory of some proportion existing betweenthem" and after many months of unremitting toilhe was at length rewarded by the discovery ofa law which at once established a most beauti$ful harmony in the solar system L for" althoughhe had failed to find any relation existing be$tween the si&es of the orbits" he now found thatthere was a very direct and beautiful propor$tion between the times of the revolutions of theplanets and their distances from the sun" andthat one" knowing the distance of any one planetfrom the sun and the time it occupied in its rev$olution" could calculate the distance of any otherplanet whose period was given" or the periodof any planet whose distance was known.

These three great discoveries Y the shape ofthe planets' orbits" the rate of their motion" andthe relation existing between their distances andperiods of revolution Y are called 1epler's :aws"and were the basis for all astronomical calcula$tions from that time. Their discovery was of

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18!:8-" ; R;$;=S .

incalculable value to astronomers" and they con$tained" besides" the first proof of the ancient be$lief in the harmony that prevailed throughoutthe universe.

The thought of the old philosophers wasfound to be no dream" but a reality as beautifulas the conception that raised the walls of citiesby the power of music or changed the loved ofthe gods to constellations" whose solemn mo$tion through the heavens possessed infinitepower over the destinies of mankind L andalthough the great discoverer of these laws

lived a life of the greatest hardship and diedin extreme poverty" he is yet to be envied asone who reali&ed 3all the hopes of his life andsaw his greatest wish brought to a satisfyingcompletion.

T78 8 49-1r%+:I2 :I+-A-4

A


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,82-8T" ;=M?$IR?R.

Crom the time that men first began to specuNlate about the earth" one of the principal (ues$tions was how it was held in its position in theuniverse" and the ancients had many curioustheories regarding this subject.

9ne of the oldest beliefs was that the earthwas supported by Atlas" the Titan" who had re$belled against the authority of the gods and waspunished by being made to stand in the centreof the estern 9cean and bear the world onhis shoulders.

,till another theory was that the earth restedon the back of an enormous tortoiseL and athird belief" which was held by some of the 8ast$em nations" was that the world was carried by

a large whale" whose sudden movements causedearth(uakes and other such calamities. Another

8 T9 " l=M?$iL?R.

philosopher declared that the world floated inthe ocean like an egg" the half that was abovethe water being the part that was inhabited.

+ut these different speculations failed to sat$isfy even the minds of the early students of nat$ure" and as time passed and scientific knowledgeincreased" it was found necessary to account insome other way for the earth's support.

The establishment of the 2opernican systemmade the problem all the more perplexing" as itwas more difficult to imagine a support for aworld that was whirling through space than forone at rest" and after the discovery of 1epler'slaws the subject became more interesting thanever" and received a larger share of attention.

1epler himself had suggested that the mo$tion of the planets might be caused by spokesradiating from the sun and pushing the planetswith them as they rotated. And absurd as thistheory seems" 1epler spent considerable time intrying to verify it" and it was regarded as highlyplausible by many other astronomers.

escartes" the great Crench philosopher" in$vented the theory that all space was filled with


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8 T9 " ; =M?$ ; R?R. ,I

air" in which there were innumerable whirl$pools and vortices. 9ne great vortex was sup$posed to exist around the sun" which carriedthe planets around" and just as the centre of awhirlpool in a river revolves more rapidly thanits outer circles" so those planets near the sunwould be carried around faster than thosefarther away. This theory accounted for themovement of the moons around the planets bysupposing that they were carried by smallervortices around their individual centres" whilethe elliptical figure of the orbits was explainedby imagining the planets pushing one another alittle out of a circular path.

+ut although the name of escartes was cel$ebrated enough to cause his theory to be re$ceived with great respect" and although it wassupported by some of the most eminent scien$tific men" it was never fully accepted" as it wasthought impossible that nature" whose knownlaws were so simple and harmonious" shouldhave so blundered in describing the orbits ofthe planets as to make it possible for them topush one another out of their paths.

8 T9 " ;=M?$;R?R.

Those philosophers who combined scientificexperiment with a belief in astrology and thesupernatural" still held the old belief of the crys3tal spheres in which the planets were bornearound" and which had a mystic relation to theten heavens and the atmospheres of air and fire Lwhile a more common and simpler theory" whichwas admitted by some of the most learned men"was that each planet was carried through its or$bit by an angel.

+ut the sixteenth century was a time of earn$est thought" and of great men whose achieve$ments had already made it famous in the his$tory of science" and it was felt that whateverproblem might vex the human mind would besolved at last" if painstaking labor and devotionto knowledge were of any avail.

The 2opernican system had set the current


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of speculation in new directions" and on the dayof the death of Galileo" its most famous support$er" there was born in oolsthorp" :incolnshire"8ngland" a child whose name now stands asthe greatest in the history of science" and whosework it was to perfect the great theory and

8 T9 " ;=M?$;R?R. ,S

prove its truth by means of the most splendiddiscovery that the world has ever known.

This was Isaac ewton" the descendant of aline of 8nglish farmers" who passed the un$eventful years of his boyhood in a (uiet countryhome" whose humdrum life gave no hint of thebrilliant future in store for him.

A mile from his home was the little hamlet of,toke" where he attended day school" and wherehe learned to read and write L and with his firstknowledge of books" he displayed also that loveof mechanics which showed even at that earlyage the bent of his mind. 7e was always mak$ing little models of machines" finding hints forthem in his plays" and in the suggestions of theworld of nature with which he was so early famil$iarL and the little water$clocks and sun$dialswhich he made served a still greater purposethan an hour's amusement" for they developed asense of observation and accurate reasoningwhich were of the greatest service later on.

hen he was twelve years old he entered thegrammar school at Grantham" but attracted noattention for any especial talent" and had it not

M 8 T9 " ;=M?$;R?R.

been for the books which he read at home" hisschool life might have passed without leavingany particular mark upon his character.

+ut it was during this period that ewtonwas attracted by some works on chemistry" jil$chemy" and magnetism" and the reading of thesebooks made an impression upon his mind whichwas never lost" and which went far toward de$termining his career.

Crom this time a new world was opened to


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the thoughtful lad who" as he wandered overthe meadows around his home" or through thepleasant 8nglish lanes" pu&&led his head overthe (uestions that had occupied the gravestthinkers of all ages" and wondered if ever theanswers would be reached.

ewton entered Trinity 2ollege" 2ambridge"in ;==;" and almost immediately attracted theattention of his teachers by his extraordinarytalent for mathematics. ,ubjects which his fel$low$students found most difficult he grasped withapparent ease" and he soon became known asone from whom great achievements might beexpected. And this expectation was not disap$

8 T9 " ;=M?$;R?R.

pointed" for before leaving college ewton gaveproof of the originality of his mind by makingcertain discoveries in mathematics which at onceattracted the attention of scientific men" andpromised a future of renown.

It was in the same year that he left college Y;== Y that ewton conceived the great ideathat won him eternal fame" and" strange as itmay seem" this idea was something (uite apartfrom the studies in mathematics and light whichhad hitherto occupied his mind.

The great (uestion of the motion of the earthwas ever before men's minds" and ewton's ex$periments in light and his mathematical discov$eries still left room for thoughts of the problemthat had not yet been solved by ancient ormodern philosophers" although from time totime some hint of the meaning had been given.The old Greeks had claimed that all motion inthe universe was caused by the action of twoforces which they called love and hate3 and the al$chemists had taught that all nature was pervadedby a subtle power which could not only changebase metals to gold and give man an infinite ex$

,= 8 T9 " ;=M?$;R?R.

istence on the earth" but also held sway overthe remotest regions of space" and bound thestars and planets in its mystic rule.

ewton's early studies had made him familiarwith the older theories" and also with the laws


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of chemistry" which demonstrated the close re$lation which existed between different forms ofmatter. 1epler's laws exactly described themotions of the heavenly bodies which Galileo'stelescope had first proven" but the (uestion stillremained Y what gave the planets their motion"and carried them around the sun Y $and ewton"in his twenty$fourth year" gave evidence of themasterly powers of his mind by offering anexplanation so clear and yet so simple asto perfectly harmoni&e with the known lawsof nature" and place its probability beyond adoubt.

8xperiments had shown that magnetism" orthe power of attraction" existed between certainbodies" but the nature and power of this forcewere (uite unknown. The ancients were con$tent to say that certain bodies had a breath" orlife" which attracted other bodies" and so let the

8 T9 " ;=M?$IR?R. R

mysterious power aloneL and in later times"while it was known that this power of attractionexisted in a far greater degree than had formerlybeen supposed" it was still an almost unknownsubject. 1epler and other astronomers evenwent so far as to say that the planets attractedone another" but how great this attraction wasand what result it would have were not demon$strated.

,till the subject was one of intense interest tophilosophers" and was ever present in theirthoughts" and as the smallest incident oftenleads to great results" so in the case of ewton"the simple circumstance of an apple fallingfrom a tree in the garden in which he was sitting"suggested a train of thought which finally ledto the discovery of the great law which holdsthe planets in their courses and governs the re$motest stars.

It was an accepted fact in philosophy" that allobjects on the earth were held there by magne$tism" or the force of attraction" and that in factthe earth was a great magnet which held allthings upon it in their places" and kept them

,


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from flying off into space" just as surely as theloadstone attracted steel.

The fall of the apple from the tree led ew$ton to the thought that the magnetic power ofthe earth must also extend to things beyond itssurface" and not in actual contact with it" and 5this suggested the still greater idea that" if the Uearth had any attractive power at all" this power jmust be felt to the farthest limit of the solar Wsystem" though in a much less degree. ewtonat once perceived that if this were true theearth would exert an attraction over the moon"and he immediately undertook to see if thiswere so.

8ver since the establishment of the 2operni$can system" astronomers had been trying to findout what power kept the moon revolving aroundthe earth L for it was evident that" according tothe laws of motion" the moon would fly off intospace were it not for the action of some power$ful but unknown force.

ewton decided that whatever this powerwas" it must also exist between Fupiter and hismoons in order to agree with the harmonious

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working of the universe" and he therefore madea calculation which proved that Fupiter's moonsrevolved around him and were kept in their orbitsby the same power which the earth exerted overall objects on and near it" and that this powerwas greater or less according to the distance ofthe satellite from the planet L or that Fupiter ex$erted a certain power over the nearest moon"less power over the next in order" and so on.This being established" it was an easy matterto determine if the earth kept her moon in placein the same way. +ut the most accurate cal$culations failed to prove the truth of the theory"and ewton was obliged to own to himselfthat his reasoning had been at fault. 7e there$fore said nothing of his hope or disappointment"resolving to keep both secret until time shouldhave given better opportunities for a study ofthe problem.


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Ten years afterward a Crench mathematicianannounced that the accepted theory of the moon'sdistance from the earth was incorrect" and thatthe moon was in reality farther from the earththan had been supposed. This discovery at

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once led ewton back to his old theory in re$gard to the attractive power of the earth" for"since the degree of attraction depended uponthe distance" he saw that his former hope mightstill be reali&ed. 7e therefore began anothercalculation based upon the new value of themoon's distance" and so great was his joy onfinding that the numbers were coming out as

he wished" that his excitement prevented himfrom finishing the calculation" and he had to askthe aid of a friend. This success was imme$diately followed up by calculations on the satel$lites of ,aturn" and the same result was obtained.

ewton then extended his observations to therevolution of the planets around the sun" and tothe motion of comets L and finally" after innumer$able experiments and calculations" gave to theworld his great law of attraction" vi&." thatevery particle of matter in the universe attractsevery other particle with a force depending uponthe weight and ike distance Y a body twice asheavy as another body exerting twice the force"and a body at twice the distance exerting one$fourth the force.

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This law" which is generally known as thelaw of gravitation" is considered the greatest dis$covery ever made by the human mind.

ot only did it solve the (uestion of themeans by which the planets were carried aroundthe sun" but it proved that the planets had thismotion simply because of their mutual attrac$tion" and the attraction of the sun L and that thewhole universe was governed by the same law"which kept the planets in their orbits" governedthe movement of comets" and controlled theentire mechanism of the heavens.

ewton also deduced from this law the cor$rect figure of the earth" proving that gravitation"


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which caused the earth to rotate on its axis"would also give it a spheroidal shape" and notmake it the perfect sphere which it had beensupposed to beL the simple experiment of acircular elastic hoop made to rotate arounda fixed axis being sufficient to prove that a ro$tating body always tends to assume a sphe$roidal form" and to be flattened at its poles inproportion to the rapidity of movement. Andalthough at this time there was no means of

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finding' out the figure of the earth by actualmeasurement" later on it was proven by con$clusive experiment that ew$ton's theory in re$

gard to it was so correct as to approach verynearly to the actual amount of oblateness.

ewton also proved that tides were causedby the attraction exerted by the sun and moonupon the earth" the moon exerting much moreforce than the sun" because of its nearness tothe earth. hen the sun and moon are bothon the same side of the earth their force isunited" and they draw the water away from theearth toward them" and the earth away fromthe water at the point directly opposite L andwhen the sun and moon are on opposite sides ofthe earth the same thing happens L so that atthese times Y at new and full moonY the highesttides occur L the lowest tides occurring whenthe sun and moon are at right angles" for thentheir forces do not act together" one drawingin one line and the other in a line perpen$dicular to it" so that much of the attraction islost.

These and many other phenomena were exN

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plained by ewton as having their origin inthe attraction of gravitation" and the results ofhis investigations" together with his work onother subjects" were finally summed up in hisgreat work called the NN !rincipia"0 which waspublished in ;=


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Although it might have been supposed thatthe grand" yet simple" principles laid down inthe 0 !rincipia 0 would appeal to every scientificmind" yet such was not the case" and ewton hadto suffer from that misapprehension and preju$dice which fall to the lot of every original thinker.+ut few people were capable of understandingthe new ways of reasoning which ewton in$troduced" and some of the most celebrated as$tronomers of the day derided the conclusionsas absurd and false. +ooks were written toprove that the phenomena of the heavens couldbe explained on entirely different principlesfi$om those laid down in the NN !rincipia"0 andit was even said that the ewtonian philosophywas simply another form of the old superstition

I

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of the ancients" who believed in the presenceof mysterious agents" working in undiscover$able ways" and holding all the universe intheir subtle power. +ut the new thought madeits way surely" if slowly" and during the nextcentury was accepted by the whole world ofscience.

The mystery which had baffled the ages wasunfolded at last" and the old dreams of the0world$secret"0 the faith of 2opernicus" the vis$ion of Galileo" and the inspiration of 1epler"were triumphantly shown to have been" notidle play" but divine leadings toward the dis$covery of the greatest truth of nature that hasever been revealed to man.

hat this mysterious power is which bindsthe universe together in one harmonious whole"we do not know. e can only see its work$ings" and define its results" and the rest is un$known.

ature holds her grandest secrets close" andeven ewton" her greatest interpreter" after along life of research" could only sum up his ex$perience in these significant words ) 0 I have


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been but as a child playing on the sea$shore L

now finding some pebble rather more polished"

and now some shell more beautifully variegated

than another" while the immense ocean of truth

extended before me unexplored.'3,

27A!T8- IK.

C-A 1:I A T78 I 8 TIT4 9C :IG7T I G A8:82T-I2IT4" IRB=$IR>9.

Among all the subjects ever studied by sci$entific men none have been found more inter$esting than electricity" although for centuriesalmost nothing was known about it" and evennow our knowledge of its nature and power isvery limited.

+ut the very mystery that has always sur$rounded it has given it an enduring interest"and from time to time there have been certainphilosophers whose experiments and discover$ies in this subject alone would have been suffi$cient to place their names high on the roll ofscientific fame.

r. Gilbert" an 8nglish physician" publisheda book in the year ;=BB" in which he gave allthe facts that were then known about magnet$ism and electricity" and laid down some general

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laws in regard to them. !revious to this" am$ber" jet" and a few other substances were sup$posed to be the only bodies that would attractother bodies to them when rubbed" but Gil$bert's investigations showed that this propertywas common to many other things" and gave alist of such substances as possessed it.


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A half century later than this" the first elec$trical machine was made by 9tto" v(n Guericke"a German philosopher. This machine consistedof a sphere of sulphur Y one of the substanceswhich Gilbert described as having the powerof attracting light bodies when rubbedL thesphere was made to rotate around an axle" andwith this simple apparatus Guericke's experi$ments were carried on.

In using this machine Guericke first noticedthe electric spark" which was so feeble" however"owing to the small power of the sulphur" that itcould only be seen in the dark L also" by placinghis ear (uite close to the sulphur" he was able tohear the sound which always accompanies thespark. Guericke also noticed that the sulphurball" when rubbed" would at first attract light

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igh I

substances and afterward repel them" althoughhe did not know the reason of this.

:ater on" 7awkesbee found that amber orglass rubbed with flannel would produce light"and that the same result would follow if twolumps of sugar were rubbed together L and thatmany other substances had the same property.

Afterward it was discovered that all electricalsubstances" i.e." bodies which attract light sub$stances when rubbed" will also become lumin$ous by friction. This was the first importantgeneral law discovered by experiments in elec$tricity.

In the eighteenth century the 8nglish scient$ist" ,tephen Gray" found that electricity wouldpass from one body to another" though thesame experiments proved that this was notalways the case" and that in fact certain bod$ies" called conductors" would receive electricityfrom other bodies" while other substances"called non$conductors" would not receive it.Gray also established the conducting power offluids" and of the human body.


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These were discoveries of vast importance"

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and showed" as nothing else could have done"the great advance in science from the days ofthe old Greeks" who thought that the only elec$trical bodies they knew owed their power to abreath" which could no more be transferred toanother substance than the lily could give itsperfume to the rose. #any of the practicaluses of electricity" among them the electric tel$egraph" are based upon this discovery of Gray.

u Cay" a Crench scientist who was inducedto study the subject by becoming interested inGray's writings" also made one of the greatestdiscoveries in electricity. Guerlcke's observa$tion that electrical substances would at first at$

tract and then repel light substances" was madea subject of experiment by u Cay" who was fi$nally led to the astonishing discovery that therewere two kinds of electricity ) one kind Y such asis developed by rubbing glass with silk Y whichhe called vitreous electricity" and the other Ysuch as is developed by rubbing sealing$wax withflannel Y which he called resinous electricity"and that the two kinds always attract eachother L while3 on the contrary" a body charged

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with vitreous electricity would repel anotherbody charged also with that kind" and the samewould be true of bodies charged with resinouselectricity.

9ne of the most important discoveries inthe history of the science followed soon after"namely" that the two kinds of electricity existedin all electrical bodies" and that the rubbing sim$ply separated them" and that one kind wasnever produced without the other.

To this period also belongs the discovery of the:eyden jar" an electrical instrument in which large(uantities of electricity may be stored up andkept L a metal coating on the inside of the jar be$ing charged with one kind of electricity" which iskept from escaping by the attraction of the oppo$site electricity on the outer coating of the jar" thetwo being separated by the non$conducting jaritself hen the two coatings are connected bya conductor the electricities rush together and


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the jar is discharged. hile experimenting withthis instrument a utch scientist experiencedthe electric shock" a sensation which caused himconsiderable alarm" for although it had beenknown from the time of the ancients that the

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torpedo could transmit a powerful shock to thehuman body" it was supposed that the powerbelonged to that animal alone" and the discov$ery that this sensation could be produced by anelectrical machine made a great impression onthe public mind. The utch experimenter de$clared he would not undergo the experienceagain for the crown of Crance L but after thefirst fear had passed away and subse(uent ex$periments had given the operator greater con$

trol over the machine" it became (uite the fash$ion for people to take an electric shock" just forthe novelty of the thing" and the :eyden jarbecame as popular a plaything as the first tele$scopes and microscopes had been.

,till another great discovery in electricitywas made in the eighteenth century" by +enja$min Cranklin" whose work for science is nonethe less interesting from the fact that he wasdistinguished in many other ways.

Cranklin was born in +oston" in ;RB=" andwas the tenth son of an 8nglish mechanic whohad settled in America" and followed the busi$ness of a soap$boiler and tallow$chandler. The

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captured" Cranklin's imagination was imme$diately excited by the event" and he at once setabout the composition of a poem of which +lackNbeard was the hero" and in which he gave hisfancy great freedom" and mixed up bold meta$phors and bad rhymes to an appalling degree.This production" together with another onecelebrating a shipwreck which had just oc$curred" was printed and sold about the streetsof +oston by the young author" who was im$mensely flattered at seeing his verses so eagerlysei&ed by the public" and conceived the idea ofleaving the printing office and turning poet+ut on being assured by his father that poets


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were generally beggars" and being confirmedin this belief by his reading" he gave up theidea of distinguishing himself in poetry" andturned his attention to prose. And as was hisfashion" he set himself to the matter with all theseriousness of his nature" taking for his modelthe works of the best 8nglish writers" andstudying them with the greatest care" first read$ing the articles" then thinking them over till hehad the subject well in his mind" and finally

[

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writing down his impressions and comparing

them with the original. And although this workat the time seemed to his family but the pas$time of a restless boy" yet it bore fruit longafterward" when the force and purity of Crank$lin's style" both in speaking and writingj'were ofincalculable value not only to himself but to hiscountry.

This course of study" together with the ad$vantage he received from the conversations thatwere carried on in his brother's shop" in whichall the important (uestions of the day werediscussed" led in time to another attempt atauthorship" but this time Cranklin acted insecret from fear of ridicule" and slipped hismanuscript under the office door" where itwas found the next morning by his brother"who read it aloud to his friends all uncon$scious that the author stood by trembling withsuspense" lest his judgment should be unfavor$able.

+ut the paper was well received" and printedin the newspaper which was published at theoffice" and from this time Cranklin made se33tN3

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contributions to the same paper before the nameof the author was found out.

At this time Cranklin was about sixteen yearsof age" and considering that he had not beenat school since he was ten" and that all hischance for study had to be taken out of his few


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leisure hours" he was a tolerably well$informedlad. 7e was of a very practical turn of mind"and listened to all the discussions on politicaltopics with a keen interest and many a sugges$tive thought of the remedies that might be ap$plied to existing evils. +ut his brother" whomisunderstood the boy's nature" was not calcu$lated to develop his young charge" and as hehad always exercised over him a petty tyrannythat was most aggravating to the youngerbrother" the time came at last when Cranklin "decided that it would be better for them to Ipart. I

7e said nothing of his plans to anyone" know$ing full well that he would only meet with op$position" but selling some of his books to ob$tain money" he took passage on a sloop thatsailed between +oston and ew 4ork" whither

C-A 1:I " ;RB=$;R>9. 33

he had determined to go. 7e left home in thenight" secretly" and so really ran away at last"though only to become a harmless printer in$stead of the daring buccaneer he had once im$agined hiWnself.

+ut on reaching ew 4ork" which at thattime contained only one printing$office" Crank$lin failed to obtain work" and so pushed on to!hiladelphia" where after many ups and downshe finally succeeded in getting the promise of aprinting$office of his own" and recommendationsto people in 8ngland" where it was necessaryfor him to go to buy the needful outfit.

+ut Cranklin found that the friend he haddepended upon had failed him at the last mo$ment" and he reached :ondon without anyletters of recommendation and with very littlemoney" and found it necessary to work at histrade in order to get the means to return.

This experience" however" was not lost uponone who turned all the events in life to someuse" and when after eighteen months in 8ng$land Cranklin returned to !hiladelphia" he foundhimself possessed of the newest processes in

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printing" besides having picked up much other


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useful information.

,oon after his return to America Cranklinstarted a debating society among his youngfriends" which was called the Funto" or :eatherApron 2lub" because every member was sup$posed to be a mechanic" and in this society theyoung$ printer soon occupied a leading posi$tion.

7ere were discussed all the political (ues$tions of the day" and also various philosophicalsubjects" and the interest that was then awak$ened in such discussions led to the most impor$tant results L for much of the ease and straight$forwardness which distinguished Cranklin as a 'political speaker later on" could be traced to theexciting and inspiring debates in the Funto2lub" while many of the practical plans for thebenefit of the public which were suggested by

Cranklin" owed their origin to the same source.

The first circulating library in America wasstarted by the Funto 2lub" and began with fiftysubscribers" and all of Cranklin's plans for im$proving the condition of the city were laid

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before his fellow$workmen in the Funto beforebeing made public.

These plans were so practical and of such un$doubted value" that before long Cranklin's namewas associated with every movement connectedwith the public life of the city" and the citi&ensof !hiladelphia came to have such a high re$gard for the man who had so often proved theirbenefactor" that it was sufficient for them toknow that Cranklin approved of any plan togive it their heartiest support

In this way it came about that the public ser$vice was raised to such a degree that !hiladel$phia became a model city among the colonies.

The circulating library was followed by theestablishment of a night patrol for the protec$tion of the city" and which was supported bytaxes on property L then came the organi&ationof the first fire brigade" which met with suchsuccess that in a short time most of the promi$nent citi&ens became members of it" every mem$ber pledging himself to furnish a certain numberof the bags" buckets" and baskets which consti$


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tuted the working utensils of the coxsv33w3.

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Then came the founding of the American !hi$losophical ,ociety in ;RMS" the head(uartersof which were fixed in !hiladelphia L and a fewyears later the Funto 2lub started a movementwhich immediately became popul

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