scientific research for sport students

8/10/2019 Scientific Research for Sport students

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Introduction to scientificresearch 2.


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Course Objectives

1. Research Methodology

1. Qualitative methods2. Quantitative methods

2. How to do an interview3. How to prepare a survey4. How to prepare the presentation


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Differences betweenmethods


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Differences between quantitative and qualitative research

For a quantitative researcher, reality is objective;

It exists apart from the researcher and is capable of beingseen by all. In other words, it's out there. For the qualitative researcher, there is no one single

reality. Each observer creates reality as part of the research

process It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.

The quantitative researcher believes that reality canbe divided into component parts, and he or she gainsknowledge of the whole by looking at these parts.


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The quantitative researcher believes all human

beings are basically similar and looks for generalcategories to summarize their behaviors or feelings. The average human!

The qualitative investigator believes that humanbeings are all fundamentally different and cannot bepigeonholed.


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Quantitative researchers aim to generate general

laws of behavior and explain many things acrossmany settings. In contrast, qualitative scholars attempt to produce a

unique explanation about a given situation or

individual. Whereas quantitative esearchers strive for breadth,

qualitative researchers strive for depth.

The practical differences between these approachesare perhaps most apparent in the research process.


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Five main differences in the research areas Role of the researcher.

The quantitative researcher strives for objectivity and isseparated from the data. The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; in

fact, without the active participation of the researcher, nodata exist.

Design. In quantitative methods, the design of the study is

determined before it begins.

In qualitative research, the design evolves during theresearch; it can be adjusted or changed as it progresses.


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Five main differences in the research areas Setting

Quantitative researchers try to control contaminatingand/or confounding variables by conducting theirinvestigations in laboratory settings.

Qualitative researchers conduct their studies in the field, innatural surroundings.

They try to capture the normal flow of events, withouttrying to control the extraneous variables.

Measurement instruments. In quantitative research, these exist apart from the

researcher. In fact, another party could use theinstruments to collect data in the researcher's absence. In qualitative research, the investigator is the instrument;

no other individual could fill in for the qualitativeresearcher .


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Five main differences in the research areas Theory building.

In the quantitative area, research is used to test theoryand to ultimately support or reject it. In the qualitative area, theory is "data driven" and

emerges as part of the research process, evolving from thedata as they are collected.


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Qualitative methods


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Types of qualitative research field observations

focus groups Intensive interviews case studies.


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Field observation Field observation involves the study of a

phenomenon in natural settings. The researcher may be a detached observer or a

participant in the process under study. The main advantage of this technique is

its flexibility it can be used to develop hypotheses, to gather

preliminary data to study groups that would otherwise be inaccessible.

Its biggest disadvantage is the difficulty in achieving external validity.


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Focus group The focus group, or group interviewing, is used to

gather preliminary information for a research studyor to gather qualitative data concerning a researchquestion.

The advantages of the focus group method are the ease of data collection The depth of information that can be gathered.

Among the disadvantages : the quality of information gathered during focus groups

depends heavily on the group moderators' skill focus groups can only complement other research because

they provide qualitative not quantitative data.


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Focus groups on practice The focus group, or group interviewing, is a research

strategy for understanding audience/ consumerattitudes and behavior. From 6 to 12 people are interviewed simultaneously,

with a moderator leading the respondents in a

relatively free discussion about the focal topic. The identifying characteristic of the focus group is

controlled group discussion, which is employed togather preliminary information for a researchproject, to help develop questionnaire items forsurvey research, or to understand the reasonsbehind a particular phenomenon.


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The seven basic steps of focus groups

1. Define the problem

2. Select a sample3. Determine the number of groups necessary

4. Prepare the study mechanics

5. Prepare the focus group materials6. Conduct the session.

7. Analyze the data and prepare a summary report


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Interviewing Intensive interviewing is used to gather extremely

detailed information from a small sample ofrespondents.

Advantage The wealth of data that can be gathered Because intensive interviewing is usually done with small,

nonrandom samples Disatvantage

generalizability Interviewer bias


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Case study The case study method draws from as many data

sources as possible to investigate an event. Case studies are particularly helpful when a

researcher desires to explain or understand somephenomenon.

Some problems with case studies are that they can lack scientific rigor can be time-consuming to conduct The data they provide can be difficult to generalize from

and to summarize.


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Four essential characteristics of case study research:

1. Particularistic. This means that the case study focuseson a particular situation, event, program, or

phenomenon, making it a good method for studying practical real-life problems.

2. Descriptive. The final result of a case study is a detaileddescription of the topic under study

3. Heuristic. A case study helps people to understandwhat's being studied. New interpretations, newperspectives, new meaning, and fresh insights are allgoals of a case study.

4. Inductive. Most case studies depend on inductivereasoning. Principles and generalizations emerge froman examination of the data. Many case studies attemptto discover new relationships rather than verify existinghypotheses.


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Method of case study The precise method of conducting a case study has

not been as well documented as the more traditionaltechniques of the survey and the experiment.

Nonetheless, there appear to be five distinct stagesin carrying out a case study:

design pilot study data collection data analysis and report writing.


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The Interview


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The interview The interview is one of the most common data-

gathering devices. It can be employed to study a wide range of issues,

across widely varying samples of respondents.


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Crano-Brewer, 2002


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Rules of thumb in question construction Keep the items as brief as possible the longer the item,

the more likely it is to succumb to one or another of theproblems listed below.

Avoid subtle shadings if you want to know aboutsomething, ask about it as directly as possible.

Avoid double-barreled questions, that is, questions thatlogically allow for two (possibly opposed) answers, forexample, Do you like this years Fords or Chryslers?

Use language the respondents can understand (mostpeople are not social scientists, so to use the jargon of

the field is probably ill-advised). If at all possible, pretest items on a small sample of

respondents drawn from the same population that willconstitute the ultimate data source.


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Data to be collected Sociodemographic Information

Questions concerned with descriptive personalcharacteristics of the respondent (age, religion, sex, race,income, etc.) are perhaps the most common of all itemsincluded in the interview.

Reconstruction The research interview is perhaps the most practical, and

certainly the most common, means of investigatingpeoples reconstructions of past events.

Very often, events having important social implicationsoccur so rapidly or unexpectedly that researchers areunable to observe behavior at the time the events occur.


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Problems with reconstructions There are three important factors that influence the

fidelity of recall of an event. Uniqueness of the event The magnitude of the events economic or social costs or

benefits

The long-term, continuing nature of the event


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Data to be collected Attitudes and Behavioral Intentions

We distinguish between these terms because an attitude,an evaluative belief about a person or thing, may or maynot carry with it any clear behavioral implications, whereasa behavioral intention is clearly an indication of anindividuals decision to act in a certain manner.

Private Beliefs and Actions Sometimes, the focus of an investigation is on behavior

that is of a highly personal, secretive, or illegal nature. People engaging in such actions usually are not willing to

be observed However, surprisingly, they often are quite willing to

discuss their experiences, especially if they can be assuredof anonymity or confidentiality.

f


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Interview structure (Types of interviews) The Exploratory Interview

The exploratory interview resembles in general form aparticipant, nonstructured, freeresponse observationalinvestigation.

In research of this type, neither the questions nor theallowable responses are constrained.

There is no interview roadmap(structure) to guide theinterviewer, whose behavior is dictated by the responsesreceived

He or she is encouraged to follow any leads that appearpromising or informative.

h d h d l d


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The Structured-Nonscheduled Interview Structured-nonscheduled interview techniques are

midway between the completely open,nonstructured exploratory approaches and thestandardized, structured techniques.

The structured-nonscheduled interview imposes on

the researcher the necessity of obtaining certainhighly specified types of information (hence theterm, structured) but does not specify the manner inwhich the information is to be obtained;

That is, no list of prespecified questions (theinterview schedule) is employed.

Th S d S h d l d I i


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The Structured-Scheduled Interview Before proceeding with a detailed discussion of this

technique, it is important to note a distinction betweenthe types of schedule that can be employed in this formof interview.

The more common form employed in scheduledinterviews is the closed question.

Interviews making use of this type of question are analogous toverbal multiple-choice tests.

Information is asked of a respondent, who is given a set ofallowable answers from which to choose

for example, Are you a Catholic, Protestant, Jew, or Muslim? The open form of this question would be, Whatis your

religion?

O Cl d i


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Open vs. Closed questions The most obvious administrative difference between

these approaches is that the use of open-endedquestions places somewhat greater demands on theinterviewer, who must transcribe the respondentsreplies.

At the analysis phase, much greater costs can beincurred, especially on questions allowing for a morewide-ranging series of replies because with this formof question, a system for classifyingrespondentsanswers must be developed before anyanalysis can proceed

I A id L di i !!


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Important: Avoid Leading questions!!


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Quantitative Research

Th i t


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The experiment

1. Obtaining a pool of participants.

2. Pretesting them on the dependent variable ofinterest.

3. Randomly assigning each participant to experimentalor control groups.

4. Carefully controlling for differences in the applicationof the experimental treatment between the twogroups.

5. Remeasuring both groups on the dependent variableat some time following the experimental treatment.


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P t t


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Pretest The pretest in this basic design allows us to

demonstrate that those assigned to the two differenttreatment conditions did not differ in their responseto the dependent variable at the outset of theexperiment.

Ideally, after random assignment the two groups areessentially the same, on average, in their pretestscores within the limits of chance variation.


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Laboratory experiments


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Laboratory experiments

Prepare Materials


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Prepare Materials Instructions must be prepared, independent

variables and dependent measures planned andconstructed, and debriefings written.

The debriefing is the experimenters honestexplanation of what the study is about, and it is an

indispensable part of the study, especially ifvoluntary participants are used in the researche.

In some research, participants are not aware of their beingunder investigation, and in some instances, it is impractical

or impossible to debrief.

Submit to IRB


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Submit to IRB The instructions, dependent and independent

variables, and debriefing, must be submitted forapproval to a committee specifically constituted toprotect the welfare of research participants.

In most universities, this body is called the

Institutional Review Board (IRB) or, less formally, thehuman participants committee.

It is imperative that no research involving humanparticipation ever be conducted without priorapproval of the IRB.

Set Up Environment


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Set Up Environment In considering all of the elements of an experimental

setting, we must distinguish between those featuresof the context that are to be held constant, andthose that are to be systematically manipulated.

Experimental contexts are characterized by both a

physical environment and a social environment. Apart from the specific features that are to be

manipulated as the independent variable (orvariables), it is critical to good experimental designthat these other features be defined and controlledby the experimenter in such a way that they do notinterfere with the intended independent variable.

The experiment must be


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The experiment must be Directed

Monitred Repeatable/Reproducable

Environmentally Tasks Measures Etc.

Accurate

Exact Precise Well documented


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The survey/questionaire

method

Before the survey


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Before the survey Researchers must decide whether to

use a descriptive or an analytical approach define the purpose of the study; review the available literature in the area select a survey approach

a questionnaire design, and a sample; analyze and interpret the data; and, finally, decide whether to publish or disseminate the

results These steps are not necessarily taken in that order,

but all must be considered before a survey isconducted.

Survey research


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Survey research In survey research, the exact questions we ask are

our operationalizations. The goal in questionnaire design is to avoid bias in

answers. Question wording, length, style, and order may affect

a respondent's answers.

Why wording important?


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Why wording important? Donald Rugg found that Americans' support for

freedom of speech was drastically altered bydifferent wordings of the following questions:

Do you think the United States should forbid publicspeeches against democracy?

Do you think the United States should allow publicspeeches against democracy?

(Schuman 2002, my emphasis)

The "forbid" question generated a much loweragreement rate (54%) than the "allow" question(75%)


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Example of emotional leading


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Example of emotional leading University studies are helping the community,

because there will be more scientific capabilities.

University studies are just for making fun these days,the students only want to party and high salary jobs!

Rules of questioning


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Rules of questioning Survey questions should be simple and easy for

respondents to answer How do you rate police response time to emergency and

nonemergency calls? (wrong) Avoid double negatives

Double negatives don't make no good sense in our writingor in surveys.

Does it seem possible or does it seem impossible to youthat the Nazi extermination of the Jews never happened?

(22% - not happened) Do you doubt that the Holocaust actually happened or

not? (3% - not happened)


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Analytical survey


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Analytical survey Analytical surveys attempt to describe and explain

why certain situations exist. In this approach two or more variables are usually

examined to test research hypotheses. The results allow researchers to examine the

interrelationships among variables and to drawexplanatory inferences.

For example, television station owners occasionally surveythe market to determine how lifestyles affect viewing

habits, or to determine whether viewers' lifestyles can beused to predict the success of syndicated programming

Advantages


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Advantages They can be used to investigate problems in realistic

settings. The cost of surveys is reasonable considering the amount

of information gathered. Researchers can control expenses by selecting from four

major types of surveys: mail, telephone, personal interview, and group administration.

Large amounts of data can be collected with relative easefrom a variety of people.

Data helpful to survey research already exist. Data archives, government documents, census materials, radio

and television rating books, and voter registration lists can beused as primary sources (main sources of data) or as secondarysources (supportive data) of information.

Disadvantages


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Disadvantages Independent variables cannot be manipulated as in

laboratory experiments. Without control of independent variable variation, the

researcher cannot be certain whether the relationsbetween independent and dependent variables are causalor noncausal.

Inappropriate wording and placement of questionswithin a questionnaire can bias results.

The potential problem of talking to the wrong

people .

Types of questions


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Types of questions Two basic types of questions

1. Open-ended2. Close-ended

Open-ended questions


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Open ended questions An open-ended question requires respondents to

generate their own answers. For example: What do you like most about your local newspaper? What type of television program do you prefer? What are the three most important problems in your

community? Open-ended questions allow respondents freedom in

answering questions and the chance to provide in-depth responses.

Also, open-ended questions allow for answers thatresearchers did not foresee in the construction of thequestionnaire answers that may suggest possiblerelationships with other answers or variables.



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p q Open-ended questions are particularly useful in a

pilot version of a study. Like at qualitative interview

From the list of responses provided by the subjects,the researcher then selects the most-often

mentioned items and includes them in multiple-choice or forcedchoice questions.

Open ended questions


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p q Disadvantages

The amount of time needed to collect and analyze theresponses.

Openended responses required interviewers to spend a lotof time writing down or typing answers.



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p q Problems with interpreting

In many cases, respondents' answers are bizarre. Sometimes respondents don't understand a question and

provide answers that are not relevant. Sometimes interviewers have difficulty understanding

respondents, or they may have problems with spellingwhat the respondents say.

Once again, the main rules


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g , Clear questions As short as possible Follow the purpose of the research No double-barraled questions Avoid biased words or terms

"In your free time, would you rather read a book or justwatch television?

Avoid leading questions Do not use questions that ask for highly detailed

information Avoid potentially embarrassing questions unless

absolutely necessary

Closed-ended questions


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q Dichotomous questions (Only two answers)

Do you agree with? 1 Yes ; 2 No Are you a male or Female? 1-Male; 2-Female

Multiple choice questions allows respondents to choose an answer from several

options. In general, television commercials tell the truth. . .

All of the time Most of the time

Some of the time Rarely Never

Multiple-choice questions


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p q should include all possible responses.

A question that excludes any significant response usually createsproblems. For example:

What is your favorite television network? Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3

Subjects who favor Channel 4 or 5 (although not networks in thestrictest sense of the word) cannot answer the question aspresented.

must be mutually exclusive: there should be only one response option per question for each

respondent. For instance: How many years have you been working in newspapers?

Less than one year One to five years Five to ten years (not good) six to ten years!!!

Rating scales


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g They can be arranged horizontally or vertically:

There are too many commercials on TV. Strongly agree (translated as a 5 for analysis) Agree (translated as a 4) Neutral (translated as a 3) Disagree (translated as a 2) Strongly Disagree (translated as a l)

Rating scales


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g Semantic differential scales

Frequently used to rate persons, concepts, or objects. These scales use bipolar adjectives with seven scale points:

Rank ordering


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g The relative perception of several concepts or items.

Here are several common occupations. Please rank them in

terms of their prestige. Put a 1 next to the profession that hasthe most prestige, a 2 next to the one with the second most,and so on.

Police officer Banker

Lawyer Politician TV reporter Teacher Dentist

Newspaper writer Ranking of more than a dozen objects is not

recommended because the process can become tediousand the discriminations exceedingly Fine.

Checklist question


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What things do you look for in a new television set?(Check as many as apply.)

Automatic fine tuning Remote control Large screen

Cable ready Console model Portable Stereo sound Other _________

Forced-choice questions


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Select one statement from each of the followingpairs of statements:

I enjoy attending parties with my friends. I enjoy staying at home alone. o Gun control is necessary to stop crime.

o Gun control can only increase crime. Respondents generally complain that neither of the

responses to a forced-choice question is satisfactory,but they have to select one or the other.

Fill-in-the-blank


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Are used infrequently by survey researchers.However, some studies are particularly suited for fill-in-the- bla

For example, "The senators from your state are _____ and _____." Or,

"The headline story on the front page was about _____."nk questions.

Tables, graphs, figures


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Some ingenious questioning devices have beendeveloped to help respondents more accuratelydescribe how they think and feel.

Designing the questionaire


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Introduction Who we are, why we are doing the research, how we will use

the answers. Always make it clear, that responcing is VOLUNTARY!

Instructions All instructions necessary to complete the questionnaire should

be clearly stated for respondents or interviewers. Screener questions, or filter questions

used to eliminate unwanted respondents (or to include onlyrespondents who have specific characteristics or answerquestions in a specific manner), often require respondents or

interviewers to skip one or more questions. Skips must be clearly specified.

In a typical week, do you listen to AM radio? ____ Yes ____ No [SKIP TO Q. 17]

Question order


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All surveys flow better when the initial questions aresimple and easy to answer.

The questionnaire should be organized in a logicalsequence, proceeding from the general to thespecific.

Poor question order may bias a respondent'sanswers.

Layout


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BAD

GOOD

Layout


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Format changes generally create confusion for bothrespondents and interviewers.

Each question must have enough space for answers. This is especially true for open-ended questions.

Questionaire lenght


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There are no strict guidelines to help in deciding howlong a questionnaire should be. The length depends

on a variety of things. Some of these include:

1. Purpose of the survey2. Type of problems or questions investigated3. Age of respondents involved in the survey4. Type and complexity of questions in the questionnaire5. Location in the country where the study is conducted6. Specific setting of the testing situation7. Time of year8. Time of day9. Type of interviewer used (professional or amateur)

General problems with survey research


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Subjects or respondents are often unable to recallinformation about themselves or their activities.

Due to a respondent's feelings of inadequacy or lack ofknowledge about a particular topic, they often provide"prestigious" answers rather than admit they don't knowsomething.

Subjects may purposely deceive researchers by giving

incorrect answers to questions. Respondents often give elaborate answers to simple

questions because they try to "figure out" the purpose of astudy, and what the researcher is doing.

Surveys are often complicated by the inability of respondentsto explain their true feelings, perceptions, and beliefs notbecause they don't have any, but because they can't putthem into words.

scientific research for sport students

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