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Science Tutor:Chemistry
ByGARYRAHAM
COPYRIGHT©2005MarkTwainMedia,Inc.
ISBN1-58037-298-8
PrintingNo.CD-404025
MarkTwainMedia,Inc.,PublishersDistributedbyCarson-DellosaPublishingCompany,Inc.
Thepurchaseofthisbookentitlesthebuyertoreproducethestudentpagesforclassroomuseonly.OtherpermissionsmaybeobtainedbywritingMarkTwainMedia,Inc.,Publishers.
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
ScienceTutor:Chemistry
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents ...................................... ii
Introduction/How to Use This Book ......... 1
Part 1: Matter
WhatIsMatter?...................................... 2
MassandWeight.................................... 3
VolumeandDensity............................... 4
PuttingItAllTogether............................. 5
Part 2: Physical and Chemical Changes
PhasesofMatter.................................... 6
TheGasLaws........................................ 7
PhaseChanges...................................... 8
ChemicalPropertiesandChemical
Reactions.......................................... 9
ChemicalReactions............................. 10
PuttingItAllTogether........................... 11
Part 3: Mixtures, Solutions, & Compounds
ClassesofMatter................................. 12
SimpleMixtures.................................... 13
ComplexMixtures:Colloidsand
Solutions......................................... 14
Elements.............................................. 15
Compounds.......................................... 16
ChemicalEquations............................. 17
ChemicalReactions............................. 18
PuttingItAllTogether........................... 19
Part 4: The Periodic Table
Mendeleev’sGrandSynthesis.............. 20
CompletingthePeriodicTable.............. 21
FamilyFun:ATourofthePeriodicTable
Neighborhood................................. 22
“Rowing”AcrossthePeriodicTable...... 23
PeriodicTableoftheElements............. 24
Metals,Nonmetals,andMetalloids...... 25
Halogens,NobleGases,and
RareEarths.................................... 26
TheFutureofthePeriodicTable.......... 27
PuttingItAllTogether........................... 28
Part 5: Atomic Structure
AtomicModels...................................... 29
AtomicStructure:Protons,Neutrons,
Electrons......................................... 30
AtomicStructure:ValenceElectrons.... 31
AtomicForces...................................... 32
ChemicalBonding:IonicandCovalent
Bonds.............................................. 33
ChemicalBonding:MetallicBonds....... 34
CarbonandtheChemistryofLife........ 35
CarboninStringsandRings................ 36
PuttingItAllTogether........................... 37
Part 6: Radioactivity
RadioactiveElements.......................... 38
UsesandAbusesofRadioactivity........ 39
Metric Review, Glossary, and Answers
MetricReview....................................... 40
GlossaryofChemicalTerms................ 41
AnswerKeys......................................... 44
TableofContents
ScienceTutor:Chemistry
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What Is Matter?
Lookaroundyou.Everythingyoucansee—fromstars todirtysocks towashingmachinesandpeanutshells—ismadeof“stuff”scientistscallmatter.Manythingsyoucan’tsee—likeairandswampgasandthesmellsofperfume
anddeadfish—arealsomadeofmatter.Eachchunkofmatterhascertainuniquespecific propertiesthatwecandescribeusingoursenses—thingslikecolor,size,texture,smell,taste,shape,hardness,andsoforth.Butallmatterhastwoessentialgeneralproperties:massandvolume. Massreferstotheamountofmatteranobjecthas.Apygmyhippopotamushasmoremassthanahamster.Massresistsbeingmoved.Thisresistanceiscalledinertia.Trypushingbothahippoandahamster,andyouwillfindthatthehippohasmoreinertia.Massistypicallymeasuredinmetricunitscalledgrams(g)orkilograms(kg)(Seepage40).Apygmyhippoweighsabout230kilograms(230,000grams),whereasahamsterweighsabout600grams. Matteralsotakesupspace.Ithasacertainvolume.Thevolumeofliquidsismeasuredinmilliliters(ml)orliters(L).Thevolumeofsolidsismeasuredincubic centimeters(cm3).1mlisthesamevolumeas1cm3.
1. Select two convenient, nearby objects. Let’s get wild and call them A and B. List fivespecificpropertiesofeach:
A.:
B.:
2. Whichobjecthasmoremass?3. Howdoyouknow?
4. Whichobjectappearstohaveagreatervolume?
5. Willobjectsoflargermassalwayshavemorevolumethanobjectsofsmallermass?
(Beforeyouanswer,thinkaboutmatterintheformofStyrofoamicechests,ironballs,corkpads,andbalsawoodairplanes.)
6. Whathasmorevolume:1,500mloflimesodaor1,700cm3ofbellybuttonlint?
Matter:WhatIsMatter?
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Matter:MassandWeight
Mass and Weight
Weightisanothergeneralpropertyofmatterthatisoftenconfusedwithmass.Anobject’smassalwaysstaysthesame,butitsweightcanvary.Allobjectsattractoneanother,but the forceof thatattraction—a forcecalled
gravity—dependsonboththesizeoftheobjectsandhowfaraparttheyare.Largeobjectspossessmoregravitythansmallobjects.Whenoneobject,liketheearth,ismuchbiggerthantheother,likeyou,thesmallerobjectispulledtowardthelargerwithaforcecalleditsweight,whichismeasuredinnewtons(Seepage40).A1kgobjectonthesurfaceoftheearthispulledtowardthecenteroftheearthwithaforceof9.8newtons(9.8N). What?Yourbathroomscaledoesn’tgiveyourweightinnewtons?True.OnEarth,weightisoftenmeasuredingramsandkilograms(orpounds)justlikemass,becauseEarthisour“referenceplanet.”ButifyouhoppedarockettoJupiter,whichhas318timesthemassofEarth,your150-pound(68.2kg)bodywouldweigh47,700pounds(21,687.6kg).Betweenplanets,youwouldfeel“weightless”(althoughyouarenot.Youarestillattractedtoalltheothermassesintheuniverse.),butyouwouldhavethesamemass.Apygmyhippowouldresistbeingpushedjustasmuchonaspaceshipasitwouldinyourbackyard.
1. MostofEarth’smassisconcentratedbelowyourfeet.Willyourweightchangeifyouclimb
amountain? Whyorwhynot?
2. Themoonhasonlyaboutone-fourththemassoftheearth.Wouldyouexpecttoweigh
moreorlessthere?
3. Rememberthatpygmyhippo?Hermassis230kg.Whatdoessheweighinnewtons?
Tofindoutwhatyouweigh,multiplyyourweightinkgtimes9.8newtons.
4. AssumethatEarth’smassisequaltoone(1).Theplanetslistedbelowwouldthenhave
thefollowingmasses:Mercury,0.055;Venus,0.815;Mars,0.108;Saturn,95.2;Neptune,
17.2.OnwhichplanetswouldyouweighmorethanyoudoonEarth?
5. Inasciencefictionstory,twoastronautsarebuildingaspacestation.A500kgmechanical
arm threatens tocrushoneastronautagainst thehull ofhis shuttlecraft.Thesecond
astronautcomestotherescueandpushesthemechanicalarmawayintheweightlessness
ofspace.Whywouldn’ttheastronautbeabletosavehisfriendinthisway?
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Matter:VolumeandDensity
Volume and Density
We know that volume is an important general property of matter. Butto compare different kinds of matter, it is useful to look at another generalproperty called density. Density is a measure of how much mass fits in a
particularvolume.Ifyoueatabowlofchilionedayandcompareittoeatingabowlofpuffedricethenextday,thechiliwinsthedensitycontest.Density = mass/volume.WaterprovidesausefulstandardforcomparisononEarth.1gramofwaterfitsinavolumeof1ml(orcm3).Thus,waterhasadensityof1g/ml.Densityofsolidsisusuallyexpresseding/cm3.Here’sthedensityofsomecommonkindsofmattering/cm3:Air:0.0013;water(assolidice):0.92;gold:19.3;aluminum:2.7;gasoline:0.7;steel:7.8. Notethatsolidwater(ice)islessdensethanliquidwater,whichiswhyicecubesfloatinyourlemonadeandicebergsfloatintheoceans. Alsonotethatyoucanchangethebasicformulafordensitytosolveforunknownmassesandvolumes.Volume x density = massandvolume = mass/density.
1. Theearthhasanoveralldensityof5.5g/cm3,similartoother“rocky”worldsintheinner
solarsystem.Otherplanetsfartherawayfromthesunarelessdense.Saturnhasadensity
of0.7g/cm3.IftherewasanoceanofwatersomewherebigenoughtoholdSaturn,what
wouldhappen?
2. Ifyoumixwaterandgasolineandletthetwoliquidssettle,whichwouldendupontop?
Why?
3. Leadhasadensityof11.3g/cm3.Whatmassofleadwillfitina20cm3container?
4. Howbigacontainer(inliters)doyouneedtohold2,000gofgasoline?(Gasoline’sdensity
is0.7g/cm3.)Refertopage40,ifnecessary.
5. Howcanaheavycruiseship,madewith lotsofsteelandothermaterialsdenser than
water,float?