U nder the UN Human RightsCharter, access to basic edu-cation continues to be a well-argued and well-deserved human right.Increasingly, Science, Technology andMathematics (STM) have become anessential part of this basic education.The link between the number of STMrelated research personnel and theaffluence of a nation is well estab-l ished. With the increasing shifttowards a knowledge dominatedeconomy the pressure for a morecomprehensive knowledge base, par-ticularly in science and technologyincluding ICT is ever increasing. Bothindustrial and economic prosperity isonly possible if a nation is numerical-ly well served by its scientists andtechnologists. Nations are keen toinvest in STM education, but theircapacities to do so remain widelydisparate creating a major gapbetween them.The att itudes and aspirations of governments to increase their STMqualified personnel are indeed posi-t ive and need no influencing.

Governments show considerable willto progress the issue. However,their efforts are restricted because ofinsufficient capacity in the availabilityof well trained teachers, lecturers,engineers and research personnel, acurriculum which is relevant, stimu-lating and responsive to the localcontext and, the finance to backshort term developments in this area.

Science For All/ STM Literacy

Science and Technology are an inte-gral part of a modern society whetheror not all groups of the society per-ceive or understand it as that. Thisvariance in perception makes it verydifficult to define science for all orSTM literacy or public understandingof Science and Technology in a way,which is equitable or equally applica-ble to all nations and their societies.What is perceived to be essentialknowledge for any modern day citizenin a developed nation might well be anirrelevance in a developing nation.Indeed some basic knowledge aboutpublic and personal health and

hygiene may well be treated as scien-tific literacy in a country where health,hygiene, diet and population may bethe day to day issues of considerableimportance.This is not to suggest that aspirationsabout STM literacy or public under-standing of STM should be lowered,but if a nations efforts in this direc-tion are to have any impact thenpragmatic, realistic and locally rele-vant aims need to be considered.Indeed one must be careful not toupset the delicate balance betweenthe place of science education andother competing priorities for devel-opment to avoid a backlash againstSTM. On a wider societal plane theinfluential opinion formers and themovers and shakers such as themedia, the managers of public bod-ies, the politicians, the entertainersthemselves often do not have STMbackgrounds. STM educators them-selves need to be more engaging andaccessible in the cause of influencingopinion through the various availableroutes.

Science, TScience, Technology & Mathematicsechnology & MathematicsEducation: A Global Perspective*Education: A Global Perspective*

UNESCO INTERNAT IONAL SC IENCE, TECHNOLOGY & ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCAT ION NEWSLETTER

VOL. XXV, No. 3-4, 2000

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* This is not an academic critique nor a research paper on STM education - simply a resume of various contemporary issues. Its purpose is toraise awareness of the plethora of issues involved and to consider some priorities for action which can give policy makers and educators a broadview of STM education and help them map out within a much larger jigsaw of education as a whole, the size, shape and nature of STM educa-tion with its own issues and complexities. It may also help them view their own local issues within a regional and global context.Though it deals mainly with science and technology education, mathematics continues to remain an important and essential contributor to sci-ence and technology education with some areas of overlap. The issues mentioned here may be accepted norms for some nations, whilst theymay almost be non-issues for others. It highlights the increasing gap in not only knowledge and capacities but the consequent gulf in develop-ment and economic progress. (K. Shaikh)

Vol. XXV, No. 3-4, 20002

Reform in Science and Technology

Education

Educational reform is a relatively slowprocess, particularly in terms of its visi-ble and recognisable impact. Anyreform needs to be comprehensive inaddressing issues of curriculum,assessment, pedagogy, and progres-sion. Such reforms need to be wellsupported both by initial and on goingin-service training of teachers. It alsomeans producing sufficient STM quali-fied teachers in the first place.Converting existing qualified teach-ers into STM ones through short, inten-sive training programmes can also dothis. Countries have used a variety ofcreative strategies in response to theproblem of shortage of STM teachers.Lessons relating to educational reformare well documented. A brief summaryincludes the following points: Curriculum development without an

appropriate assessment strategy isless than effective.

Curriculum models are not easilytransferable from one country toanother.

Curriculum frameworks can be, butnot without a considerable indige-nous input and modulation to reflectthat countrys own needs, limitationsand its social, cultural, human andeconomic context.

Effective delivery of the curriculumrequires some ownership of the cur-ricula by those who deliver it.Curriculum innovation, therefore,requires involvement as well as inten-sive training and sufficient invest-ment into guidance materials toensure its effective delivery.

Curriculum development in STM hasto be within the context of the overallcurriculum.

To be effective it has to relate to thelearners everyday experience thusnecessitating its relevance and mean-ingfulness within a local and regionalcontext.

For those who wish to pursue STMfor further learning, a career or simplyout of interest there need to be pro-gression routes available to capitaliseon the initial basic education.

Training of Staff

The availability and capacity of welltrained and motivating teaching staffremain the single most difficult obsta-

cle in STM education even wherenations are prepared to put resourcesinto this capacity building. There aredifferent complexities of these prob-lems in different regions of the world.In some areas governments who cre-ated special projects to retrain staffas science teachers were deeply dis-appointed to learn that the trainedstaff were being recruited by a neigh-bouring country at a higher salary thuscontinuing to add to the staff shortagedespite added resources and ascheme to respond to the problem.Aspirations of many countries toenhance their STM education for even-tual economic prosperity are hamperedby a severe shortage of skilled andtrained staff in these areas. This is,however, not a problem faced just bythe developing nations. The developednations have long recruited teachers,doctors, engineers, research scientistsand more recently ICT experts from thedeveloping nations adding to what iscommonly described as brain drain. The problem can only be resolved bythe understanding that there are noquick solutions to staff shortages andthat it requires a medium to long termstrategy which needs to be systematic,sustainable and should go beyond sim-ply training or retraining of staff by con-sidering wider strategies, differentroutes into teaching, remuneration andcareer structures, etc.

STM for Learners

Successive pieces of research concludethat the perception of STM, science inparticular, as an irrelevant and often elite,Eurocentric, laboratory based subjectarea demanding higher levels of intelli-gence and skills puts many learner groupsoff from taking the subject or pursuing itfurther. These include girls and often theless privileged within the learning groups.There are reasons which sometimesmake these subjects appear uninspiring,unchallenging and irrelevant to their dailylives compared to other areas of curricu-lum. They range from the quality and rel-evance of the content of the curriculum toits effective delivery through an exciting,stimulating and challenging variety ofteaching and learning strategies whichbrings the real life into the STM class-room instead of learning experienceswhich seem remote and unrecognisablefrom their daily life experiences.

Pedagogy thus has much influence on thegroups, including girls, who under per-form or are disinterested in these sub-jects.

Human Resource Development (HRD)

and Capacity Building

HRD does now include social aspectssuch as health, nutrition, and popula-tion, which along with education form acollective strategy to address povertyand economic regeneration. HRD,therefore, has to concentrate beyondschooling and higher education;nonetheless effective early educationcontinues to be a vital ingredient in tar-geting specific groups, such as girlsand women, particularly in urban andrural areas.In relation to HRD the issues to consid-er include: the creation of a sufficiently quali-

fied and skilled work force of STMpersonnel at all levels to generatethe prosperity and developmentalpotential for a country;

the capacity for the necessary STMeducationists, teachers, lecturers andadministrators who can help createan educational system which canenhance the building of a sustainablelevel of personnel in STM;

the political and economic setting to create a socio-economic structurewhich can sustain and stabilise suchdevelopments;

the need for these strategies to beemployed concurrently to avoid delaywhich can only increase the gapbetween the knowledge societies andlinked human resource capacities.

Inclusion

Given the importance of STM educationin sustainable HRD and capacity build-ing the issues of public understandingand STM literacy need reinforcement.It is, however, worth examining if theexisting education system is effectiveenough to reach all groups whose par-ticipation is compulsory. Is STM acces-sible, attractive, encouraging andengaging enough to all those whoreceive it now? The answer is variable.Many groups of students are notattracted to science either for highereducation or as a future career. Thereare other groups such as women, thedisabled, the less able and at timeseven the less affluent. The reasons are

STME: A Global Perspective

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STME: A Global Perspective

many and complex which have beendiscussed elsewhere but it is clear thatspecific strategies for their inclusion arenecessary. It is also important to notethat any inclusion strategies do notmean creating a curriculum with a less-er standard. It means making it moreeffective so that it recognizes the vari-ety of learning needs of differentgroups, designing a challenging curricu-lum and also removing obstacles totheir learning process. A variety ofstrategies is available to do this - somemore tried and tested than others.Increasingly the link between thethinking and the learning process isbeing utilised to improve understand-ing and learning outcomes throughprogrammes such as CASE (CognitiveAcceleration through ScienceEducation), CAME (for Mathematics)and CATE (Technology). Their appealis much wider than inclusion alonebecause of their success as pro-grammes for learning to learn.

Ethics, Values and Use and Misuse of

STM

Military use of STM developments,chemical weaponry, misuse of scienceand technology are well-debated areas.More recently, there have been issuessuch as embryology, biotechnology,test-tube babies, testing on animals,genetically modified foods, cloning,euthanasia, etc., which have widenedthe framework of ethics and values tothe realms of legal and religiousforums. Again, such issues requiregreater understanding and transparencybut above all a basic literacy and aware-ness amongst people so that aninformed debate can take place. Someissues like abortion, misuse of drugs,alcoholism, AIDS may well be global butthe level of awareness and debate indifferent countries is not consistent.These issues again illustrate clearly theknowledge gap and the valuable role forSTM education in addressing them.Thus far, only a very modest investmenthas been made in developing the ethicsand morals of society to apply scienceand technology.

Environment

A great deal of work has been done toraise the awareness of societies to theimportance of preserving the environ-ment and thus saving the planet from

disastrous effects on the natural envi-ronment, climate and calamities. TheRio summit and Agenda 21 did much toidentify specific strategies and targetsfor countries to pursue. This does nothowever reach those societies whoselivelihoods depend on activities whichendanger the environment and whoseday-to-day activities have little impactof the big debate on environmental pro-tection. In the long run, it is STM edu-cation, which can make an effectiveimpact in behavioural terms on soci-eties.

Impact of ICT

ICT stands to make the greatestimpact on education as a whole butparticularly on STM. It provides a greatopportunity to bridge the knowledgegap through a variety of ways in everyaspect from scientific literacy to train-ing of teachers, access to STM, inclu-sion and social interaction. This how-ever requires a planned and systemat-ic strategy to introduce and supportICT in education as well as in the soci-ety as a whole in terms of software,hardware and training and mainte-nance support. It offers opportunitiesfor self-learning, distance and modularlearning as well as a powerful tool forthe self motivated. It also offers apowerful teaching and learningresource. In many nations, this devel-opment can be self-sustaining oncethe commercial and training potentialis fully recognised. Although its use ineducation requires a well thought outstrategy, it may well enter educationincoherently through the learners ini-tiatives if that planning is delayed.ICT has the potential to challenge thefundamental concept of traditionalclassroom learning. It provides differ-ent opportunities for group learning,individual learning and peer grouplearning. It has been successful inbringing the environment closer to thelearner than otherwise. It poses amuch greater challenge to the con-cept of a linear or sequential learningby providing a variety of learningmodes to engage students in acquir-ing knowledge through a collection ofdifferent unlinked parts eventually toform a meaningful pattern. This issometimes described as butterflylearning a well identif ied learningpattern amongst chi ldren.

Conclusion

This is not an exhaustive account of theissues in STM education. It however pro-vides a range of issues, which are all interlinked and require a comprehensiveapproach in order that an effective pro-gramme of STM education can be pur-sued. This difficult task needs both globaland regional/local approaches. It certainlyargues for collective approaches in net-working, sharing and exchanging ideas,experiences, strategies and successes aswell as failures. International linkages intraining, support, curriculum develop-ments, assessment mechanisms, peda-gogues and lessons in their effectiveimplementation are needed more thanever before. With globalisation, no onenation or society can remain unaffectedby the plight of another, particularly inareas such as education. STM educationis a global challenge which needs localsolutions. Organisations and bodies con-cerned with STM education need to takea lead in facilitating such networking andenabling important and wide debates inSTM to take place in order to raise theprofile of these important issues. Greatercooperation in staff mobility, HRD andcapacity building is necessary. What ismost important above all, is that practicalaction at the ground level must beginrather than statements of intent. The con-ference in Goa, India, in February 2001 (v. News & Publications) is designed toengage practising teachers, educatorsand policy makers in a debate to takestock of issues in STM education and planpractical strategies to address them, tonetwork and to interact. It is not possible to respond to the issuesraised in this article all at the same timebut this resum may provide a useful con-text in which to do long term planning.The solutions lie more in local approachesto what seems to be a fast changing glob-al environment, with flexibility to accom-modate future developments and capital-ising on a local and regional identity andadvantages.

Kabir Shaikh

Vice-President,Commonwealth Association of Science,Technology and Mathematics Educators

(CASTME)Director of Education

Bournemouth Borough CouncilBournemouth, UK.

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At the start of the new millennium,more information about school sci-ence education within Europe is availablethan at any time in the past. In addition tothe data presented in national and inter-national publications (e.g., the UNESCOStatistical Yearbook and the OECDIndicators), several other surveys andcomparative studies are available. Forexample, the Third InternationalMathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)has produced an encyclopaedia whichoffers a convenient and well-referencedsurvey of science and mathematics inthe education systems participating in thesurvey (Robitaille, 1997), together with across-national investigation of curricularintentions in school science (Schmidt etal., 1997). More comparative data willbecome available as the OECDProgramme for International StudentAssessment (PISA) gathers momentum(Schleicher, 2000). The various surveys show education sys-tems within Europe struggling with arange of common concerns about schoolscience education, responses to whichnecessarily reflect particular social, politi-cal and cultural contexts. In the spaceavailable here, it is not possible to domore than indicate these concerns, someof which are necessarily more marked insome education systems than others.There seems little doubt that more sci-ence is being taught to pupils at schoolthan at any time in the past. The contri-bution of science to primary education iswidely recognised, and, in many educa-tion systems, science has been divorcedfrom other disciplines with which it wassometimes combined to become estab-lished as a distinct component of the pri-mary curriculum. Although the study ofscience by young children is compulsoryin many school systems within Europe,the emphasis is often upon the biologicalat the expense of the physical sciences.In addition, the gap between the speci-fied and the actual curriculum may remainwide. Since primary school teachers tradi-tionally lack specialised training in sci-ence, their competence to teach scienceadequately, especially towards the end ofprimary education, is also a matter of con-cern.At both primary and secondary levels,

most school science curricula have beenreformed in recent years. The emphasishas been on the development of scientif-ic concepts, the fostering of scientific andother skills and attitudes, the conduct ofproblem solving and practical investiga-tions. Environmental issues also receiveattention, although they feature moreprominently in some education systemssuch as those within Scandinavia, thanothers. Other science-technology-society(STS) issues are also evident but despitea widely recognised need to advancescientific literacy, issues-basedapproaches to school science educationhave tended to complement, rather thansupplant, courses derived from the tradi-tional high-status disciplines of physics,chemistry and biology, augmented inmany contexts by topics drawn fromearth and space science. In many educa-tion systems, science has also had tonegotiate its relationships with technolo-gy, understood as designing and making.As for pedagogy, official and other docu-ments are often essentially construc-tivist in tone or impulse. Teachers aregiven the task of helping students con-struct their scientific understanding ofnatural phenomena, often in the face ofother everyday understandings that areresistant to change. Pedagogical con-structivism, however, is a complex andcontentious issue and despite the nearubiquity of the term there is little hard evi-dence that it has had much impact on thedaily work of science teachers, especiallyat the secondary level.Within most education systems however,there has been an attempt to refocuspedagogical debates to give a greateremphasis to learning rather than teach-ing. Such refocusing is helping to encour-age and sustain a range of student-cen-tred activities, including projects andother tasks conducted away from theschool itself. There are also signs of agreater emphasis upon learning as a co-operative and not simply as an individualactivity, an emphasis that presents sci-ence teachers with a range of planning,management and assessment issues andraises important questions about theaccommodation and integration of thebasic scientific disciplines within schoolcurricula.

There are considerable differencesamong European education systems inthe use of information and communica-tion technologies within school scienceteaching, reflecting in part, marked dif-ferences in the availability of such tech-nologies within the schools. Someschools are engaged in internationalcollaborative work using e-mail andmany more are using ICT for such tasksas data-logging, simulation and assess-ment. As yet, there is little sign of awidespread and fundamental reform ofscience teaching that exploits thelearning potential of ICT. There is someevidence that the increase of comput-ers in school science may be morehelpful to boys than to girls.A key determinant of the standards ofschool science education is teacher sup-ply and in a number of European coun-tries the quantity and/or the quality ofentrants to the science teaching profes-sion are growing matters of concern.Physics is commonly the focus of partic-ular anxiety with fewer students, eitherrelative to the age cohort or absolutely,choosing to study the subject beyondcompulsory schooling and within highereducation. Commonly, although not uni-versally, there is also a marked asymme-try in the popularity of physics at theselevels among boys and girls, with the for-mer outnumbering the latter by some-times as much as 7 or 8 to 1. Regrettably,there seem to no worthwhile Europe-wide data on the nature, extent or effec-tiveness of the arrangements for the con-tinued professional developments of sci-ence teachers, an aspect of teacher edu-cation that is clearly of particular impor-tance to those teaching the rapidly-changing scientific disciplines.The recent growth of international com-parative studies of school science hasinevitably focused attention on theachievement of students within schoolsin one education system relative to thatof their peers in other such systems,both within Europe and globally. One out-come of this has been an increasedemphasis upon accountability and acommitment on the part of legislatorsand policy makers, among others, to rais-ing the standards of work in the schools.School effectiveness has thus become

School Science Education in EurSchool Science Education in Europeope

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an issue in many countries withresearchers in one education systemseeking to learn from initiatives in policyand practice taken elsewhere. Finally, it is important to note that educa-tion systems within Europe are notimmune to changes in the wider social,political and economic context withinwhich they function. Initiatives such asTIMSS and PISA [Programme forInternational Student Assessment] canbe seen as encouraging the globalisationof science curricula and resonating withthe contribution that science educationmight make towards the notion of pan-European citizenship. On the other hand,it would be unwise to ignore the weak-ening of national boundaries and the

emergence of sub-national groupings andregions that characterise the Europeanfamily of nations at the beginning of thenew millennium. Here, the likely conse-quences include a greater degree ofdiversity in science courses to accommo-date more local issues alongside themore established scientific concepts.From this perspective, any study ofschool science education in Europeoffers rich insights into the politics of sci-ence curriculum reform.

Edgar Jenkins

Professor of Science Education PolicyUniversity of Leeds, U.K.

E-mail:E.W.Jenkins@education.leeds.ac.uk

References

Robitaille, D.F. (ed.) 1997, National Contextsfor Mathematics and Science Education:An Encyclopedia of the EducationSystems Participating in TIMSS,Vancouver, Pacific Educational Press.

Schleicher, A. 2000, The OECD Programmefor International Student Assessment.In D.Shorrocks-Taylor and E.W.Jenkins(eds.), Learning from Others: InternationalComparisons in Education, Dordrecht,Kluwer.

Schmidt, W.H., Raizen, S.A., Britton, E.D.,Bianchi, L.J. and Wolfe, R.G. 1997, ManyVisions, Many Aims, Volume 2: A CrossNational Investigation of CurricularIntentions in School Science, Dordrecht,Kluwer.

The State of Science, TThe State of Science, Technology andechnology andMathematics Education (STME) in AfricaMathematics Education (STME) in Africa

Africa is a large continent with a gooddeal of diversity in its educationalsystem. However, since the JomtienWorld Conference on Education for All in1990, there appears to be some uniformityand agreement on provision of basic edu-cational opportunities for the First cycle ofnine years for children across Africa. It isrecognized that the twenty first centuryhas ushered in significant advances inscience and technology in what hasbeen described as a global village. In thatprovision, Science, Technology andMathematics Education, [STME] featureprominently in all the school curriculum.

Science, Technology and Mathematics

Curriculum Development

Mathematics, the world over has alwaysbeen considered as a bridge not onlybetween science and technology butalso between all the subjects offered inour formal educational system. Anyonewho is good in Mathematics is pre-sumed to be able to cope with otherschool subjects. Happily, that dictumhas been accepted all over Africa and itseffect is evident in the curriculum formu-lation found in many educational docu-ments in Africa. The curriculum revolu-tion all over the educated world in thesecond half of the last century has hadits effect on Africa. The African

Curriculum Organization [ACO] picked upthe challenge of curriculum renewal inAfrica and over the years, new, relevantand innovative curricula in Science,Technology, Mathematics and otherschool subjects have been produced allover Africa. On paper therefore, Africahas very good school curricula. The stateof curriculum development in Africa inSTME can today be described as healthy.That is the Intended Curriculum.

What goes on in our schools and

beyond?

The success of any curriculum documentis in the implementation. Implementingthe curriculum in science, technologyand mathematics successfully dependson the following: Well trained and well motivated teach-ers Adequate supply of relevant equip-ment Learner friendly teaching and learningenvironment Positive attitude to science, technolo-gy and mathematics Development of a scientific culture.Reviewing studies in Africa over the lastdecade on the above factors shows thatin most countries, the state of attain-ment is dismally low. For instance, aSouth African study made the following

observation: At secondary level, thequality of science and mathematics edu-cation, particularly at African schools, isextremely poor, because the teaching ofthese subjects is done by unqualified orunder-qualified teachers; the facilitiesare poor and the classes are often toolarge [The STEME Education InitiativeReport, 1993]. Many science educatorshave attributed the generally poor stateof STME in Africa to the mismatchbetween the Intended and the

Implemented Curriculum. Of particularimportance is the need to transformmost of Africa into a continent where thescientific culture prevails. Scientific cul-ture consists of aggregated knowledgewhich combines all forms of communi-cation, tools, technology, skills, ways ofthinking and learning, behaviours, valuesand norms that govern the universalpractice and use of science in all envi-ronments [Goel, 1999]. It makes littlesense if our educated Africans continueto live and operate in an outside environ-ment that lacks scientific and technolog-ical understanding. Scientific knowl-edge, judgement and imagination shouldbecome part of the socio-cultural her-itage of every African. We look to sci-ence not only to increase mans controlover his environment but also to informand enrich the immensely varied pattern

mailto:Jenkins@education.leeds.ac.uk

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of mans encounter with man[Okebukola, 1992]. The need thereforeto extend scientific and technological lit-eracy beyond the formal school settingthrough public understanding and popu-larization of science and technology hasbeen strongly advocated in all Africancountries [Jegede, 1992; Wright,1992].Investment in science, technology andmathematics is still too low if Africa is toactively and successfully participate inthe scientific and technological revolu-tion that has swept throughout thecivilised world.

What has been achieved?

Even at the dawn of this new millen-nium, most of Africa is still classifiedas technologically under developed.Compared with the technologicallyadvanced countries, the rate of aware-ness and growth in scientific and tech-nological activities is still slow. In theglobal village in which we all live,Africans included, there is a rapid revolu-tion in the sharing and utilization of sci-entific and technological advances. Inmost parts of Africa today, there is anincrease in enrolment of pupils inschools. That in itself pre-supposes thatmany more Africans will be exposed tostudies in science, technology and math-ematics. On that score, there is a posi-tive expectation of having a wide popula-tion of Africans exposed to formal sci-ence, technology and mathematics edu-cation in the next century. However,some African countries have started towitness a rapid rise in the number ofyoung people (often with strong sciencebackgrounds from schools) who aregoing on to higher education in business,law, economics, banking and finance.The relative starting salaries for gradu-ates in these fields are now consistentlyabove those for graduates in pure sci-ence, traditional technologies and sci-ence-related teaching. Where then hasthe implemented curriculum in Africasinstitutions gone wrong?

The Way Forward

STME in Africa in this twenty first cen-tury can no longer be presented andprosecuted with the usual business asusual attitude. The role that STME canplay in Africa should be brought to focus.Let us now consider some of the perti-nent issues and briefly discuss howSTME can enhance them in Africa.

1. Africa is known to be blessed withabundant mineral and humanresources. There are vast land andforests for agricultural development.Paradoxically, the exploration andexploitation of Africas naturalresources remain a destabilising fac-tor. But a humane application of scien-tific and technological development ofthe natural resources will significantlycontribute to national stability and eco-nomic growth.

2. With the dawn of the twenty-firstcentury, the whole of Africa hasbeen awakened to the urgent needand use of efficient InformationCommunication Technology [ICT].Africa must develop both the will andskill of using modern communicationsystems. To remain in and use theinformation highway, Africa must put inplace and maintain what it takes to be acredible user. Of special concern is theneed to supply constant electricity to allcities, towns and villages of Africa. Asituation where Africans deny them-selves electrical power for days on endcannot enhance the application of sci-ence and technology. A globalisedeconomy today requires good ICT.

3. Today, some parts of Africa face harshclimatic conditions resulting in famine.Most parts of Africa also face serioushealth hazards as a result of endemicdiseases. Both infant mortality and lifeexpectancy are at very unacceptablelevels. And poverty levels of Africansare among the worst in the world. It isthrough science and technology that alink could be found between all theperennial poverty problems in Africa.Creation of national wealth is todaymore directly linked to science knowl-edge and information through technol-ogy.

4. Investment in science and technolo-gy especially in the area of Research& Development is pathetically lowwithin Africa. New knowledge istoday being created everywhere inthe world. Africa must now layemphasis first on how to acquireand then use the new knowledge.African researchers must cooper-ate with researchers from the tech-nologically advanced countries soas to reach the frontiers of knowl-edge and the cutting edge of tech-nology. Then attempts must bemade within Africa to assemble

into a new technology the newknowledge acquired so that prob-lems peculiar to Africa can besolved. Today, most Africans aremore consumers of technologyfrom the technologically advancedcountries of the Northern hemi-sphere. That situation must bemodif ied to enable strong S&Tcooperation to also take placebetween South-South countries.

5. The technologically developed worldof today calls for positive change.Change in the way we think, changein the way we do things, change inthe way we apply our indigenoustechnology. Indigenous technologyin Africa was a marvel of the ancientpast. The technology in agriculturalpractices, building and textile pro-duction showed great promise, butwas hardly improved [Okebukola,1992].

6. Finally, it should be noted that at thedawn of this century almost all Africanstates have in place an approvedScience and Technology Policy docu-ment. What is now needed is an hon-est execution of the terms in this doc-ument.

Conclusion

The twenty first century is only justbeginning. The importance of STME isno longer the subject of debate in manyAfrican countries. Several initiatives arepresently being put in place to enhanceSTME in Africa. The Decade ofEducation in Africa declared recently bythe Organization of African Unity [OAU]has as part of its Agenda, successfulimplementation of science, technologyand vocational education. A Plan ofAction which was adopted by theMinisters of Education has beenendorsed at the 35th Ordinary Session ofthe Assembly of Heads of States andGovernments of the OAU held in July,1999. Let us therefore look to the futurewith some optimism about the state ofscience, technology and mathematicseducation in Africa.

S. T. Bajah

Professor of Science EducationEducation Consultant

stan@alpha.linkserve.comlizzyjaz@skannet.com.ng

mailto:stan@alpha.linkserve.commailto:lizzyjaz@skannet.com.ng

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References

APEID-Asia and the Pacific Programme ofEducational Innovation for Development(1991): Popularization of ScienceTechnology. UNESCO/Bangkok.

Bajah, S. T. (1992): Public Understanding ofScience: Seeing with both EyesCASTME Journal, Vol. 12, No. 3.

Bajah, S. T. ( 1992): Some Key Issues of

Science and Technology Education for All inAfrica UNESCO/BREDA.

Goel, Ved. (1992): Introduction to PopularisingScience and Technology, SankaranRamanathan (Ed.)

Jegede, Olugbemiro and Joan Solomon (1992):Promoting a Popular Science &Technology Culture, SankaranRamanathan (Ed.)

Okebukola, P.A.O. (1992): Major Elements ofScience and Technology Education for Allin Africa UNESCO/BREDA.

Sonn, Franklin. (1993): Science andTechnology for Growth and Developmentin South Africa National ConsultativeForum.

Wright, Cream. (1992): Concepts, Issues &Strategies, Popularising Science andTechnology, Sankaran Ramanathan.

CurCurrrent State of Science, Mathematics andent State of Science, Mathematics andTTechnology Education in the SEAMEO* Regionechnology Education in the SEAMEO* Region

Overview of Current Trends

Current trends in science, mathematicsand technology education towards theend of the nineties seem to perpetuateinto the new millennium. These arenotably:The philosophical trend, in which stu-dents meaningful construction of knowl-edge is given emphasis over the notion ofknowledge transference from teachers tostudents.The curricular trend, which underlinesthe importance of a balanced curriculumover the fragmented accumulation offacts. The central issue in this trend isthe identification of key skills and abili-ties that each country feels her stu-dents should have acquired at the endof science and mathematics study atsecondary school.The technological trend which dominatesthe 21st century with the call to capitaliseon the information and communicationtechnology (ICT) to enhance the teachingand learning of science and mathematicsas opposed to the traditional view ofadoring the textbooks as the source ofinformation.The pedagogical trend, which advocatesthe use of a wide plethora of research val-idated teaching strategies, calling for amove from a teacher-centred continuumto a student-centred one emphasising thepromotion of three-way reciprocal hands-on (psychomotor), minds-on (cognitive)and hearts-on (affective) learning activi-ties.The assessment trend which emphasises

the use of a variety of testing instrumentsthat give a more complete, accurate, fairand holistic picture of students knowl-edge, learning and progress.Scientific and Technological Literacy (STL)For ALL is yet another on-going trend thatpropounds the philosophy that scienceand technology increasingly affects oureveryday world, and thus, literacy in deal-ing with this is essential. Literacy, in itswidest sense encompasses the ability toutilise science knowledge in everyday lifeto solve problems, make informed deci-sions and hence, improve the quality oflife.

Educational Issues

Each country faces many educationalissues which are unique to the countryscurrent national developmental status interms of economic, demographic andsocial patterns. However, some issuesare common to all SEAMEO membercountries, whereas certain problemscould be considered as idiosyncratic tospecific countries.

Basic Education

All countries in this region place a greatemphasis on the provision of basic edu-cation to their respective citizens. Theonly difference here is on the focus ofbasic education. While countries likeBrunei, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailandand Singapore focus on qualityimprovement, other countries are stillfocusing on expanding educationalopportunity, targeting the under-served

and marginalised groups or geographi-cal regions.For instance, Kiew and Chau report thatthe programme of universalisation ofprimary education has yet to be com-pleted. This is compounded with prob-lems of low educational and trainingquality and effectiveness in terms ofknowledge and methodology. It hasalso been reported that there isinequality in education as children fromthe poorer classes have difficulties incontinuing on to higher education.Sadly, the number of girls in educationis shrinking due to lack of motivation onthe part of parents who consider thatthe place of girls is in the household.In Cambodia, girls are under-represent-ed in education at all levels despite thefact that the female population out-numbers the male. This has resulted in42% of adult females being illiterate.Demographic surveys indicate that62% of literate women do not finishprimary school as compared to 52% ofmen (PMMU).Philippines has delineated the neces-sary strategies to expand the accessi-bility to and improve the quality and rel-evance of basic education(Ballestamon, Narvasa, Cabasal, Gonda& Prado, 2000). In addition, non-formaleducation aimed at eradicating illiteracyand raising the level of functional litera-cy of the population, has been intro-duced as an alternative delivery systemfor out-of-school youths (OSYs) and illit-erate adults.

* South East Asian Ministers of Education Organisation (SEAMEO): Member countries include Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, LaoPeoples Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.

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Curricular Reform

There is strong urge for revision of cur-riculum content concerning scienceand technology related subjects ratherthan the arts and humanities. Malaysia,for example, has formulated a policythat aims at inciting 60% of the stu-dents at upper secondary, pre-universi-ty and university levels to take up sci-ence and technology related courses(Azmi Zakaria, 2000) as Malaysiaembarks on the path to achieve indus-trialisation by 2020. In the same vein, Brunei has intro-duced a curriculum that would prepareBruneians for the technology-orientedrather than labour-intensive societyalongside efforts to imbue strongIslamic values in Bruneians. Brunei hasgeared its efforts towards universalisa-tion of secondary education by recom-mending a 12-year compulsory educa-tion in the current National EducationPolicy (Rasani Hamid, 2000).Philippines, as documented in theMedium Term Philippines DevelopmentPlan (DECS, 1999), makes the neces-sary adjustment in the science andmathematics curriculum by realigningthe content and pedagogical approach-es of science and mathematics educa-tion with that of the national andregional thrust of globalisation.Singapore, by contrast, is movingtowards a knowledge-based economyand the curricular change is made withthe aim of developing and harnessingstudents talent and ability. In line withthe vision of Thinking Schools,Learning Nations, Singapore realisesthat it is not enough just to teach stu-dents solutions to known problems butto extend beyond this and equip stu-dents with the necessary skills, valuesand knowledge to function effectivelyin a knowledge-based economy.

Teacher Education

All countries have made the new mil-lennium resolution of improvingteacher education, be it at in-service orpre-service level. Brunei intends toimprove the quality of teachers throughhigh-quality pre- and in-service trainingand the recruitment of better-qualifiedcandidates. Upgrading the status of theteaching profession though attractiveremuneration packages is also beingconsidered.Malaysia, sharing the same concern,

has also taken adequate measures toimprove teacher quality. One of themeasures is to train teachers who arenot only knowledgeable but highly dis-ciplined, strongly motivated and innov-ative as well. Making the teaching pro-fession more attractive has also beenconsidered, notably by providing oppor-tunities for further studies, reviewingthe remuneration and promotionalschemes, presenting appropriateawards for dedicated teachers anddetermining appropriate allowances forteachers teaching critical science-relat-ed subjects.Cambodia aspires to improve its educa-tion strategy. Statistics show thatapproximately one-half of primaryschool teachers have had little profes-sional training and only two-thirds havecompleted lower secondary schooling(PMMU, 2000). This area of concernneeds immediate attention so as toensure the improvement in the qualityof education.Vietnam too faces a shortage of teach-ers added to a low professional compe-tence (Kiew & Chau, 2000). In the1995-1996 school year, there was ashortage of 120,000 teachers of gener-al education at different levels. Hence,the urgent need to strengthen theteaching force through teacher training,better infrastructure to support teachereducation and a better salary regime toattract prospective teachers.In contrast to Cambodia and Vietnam,Thailand has an excess of primaryschool teachers given the significantreduction in the number of primaryclasses due to the decreasing numberof primary students - the result of aneffective family planning policy(Kotkam, 2000). A relevant training andskills upgrading programme is thusurgently needed in order to shift thesurplus primary school teachers to thesecondary level.

Information Technology

Parallel to the current technologicaltrend in science and mathematics edu-cation, most of the SEAMEO membercountries are jumping into the techno-logical bandwagon. Brunei hasembarked on Project ICT (Informationand Communication Technology) for allGovernment primary schools with the1st Phase being introduced in 1999where ICT is integrated into

teaching/learning across the curricu-lum. The second stage has been ear-marked for 2001, hence the specialattention on teacher training and cur-riculum development.Malaysia, through the Smart SchoolProject takes advantage of the ICT thatis in place, specially with the conceptu-alisation and establishment ofMultimedia Super Corridor (MSC). Theuse of ICT in primary as well as sec-ondary schools had been advocated asan enabler to enhance theteaching/learning of science and math-ematics.A laboratory functioning as a micro-cosm of a scientists work placeenables students to acquire the scien-tific skills and knowledge expected ofthem when they enter the real world.Computer assisted experimentation,besides providing accuracy and effi-ciency in collecting and manipulatingdata, also promotes a better manage-ment of time. And the time saved fromtedious conventional ways of collect-ing, tabling, graphing and analysing canbe put to better use for reflection andproblem solving. Equally challengingand stimulating is the use of simula-tions of laboratory and field experi-ments.Philippines and Singapore share thesame concerns on human resourcedevelopment in science and mathemat-ics education. They have requestedspecifically that RECSAM (RegionalCentre for Education in Science andMathematics) place itself at the leadingedge in the fields of nurturing andenhancing the quality of science, math-ematics and technology education. Thiscalls for courses on the use of ICT inthe teaching/learning of science andmathematics. Courses on the develop-ment of software for theteaching/learning of science and math-ematics have also been proffered.Singapore, in particular, has laid thenecessary infrastructure for students tocapitalise on the positive impacts ofICT on the teaching/learning of scienceand mathematics in all schools.

Regional Training Needs

In order to enhance the teaching/learningof science, mathematics and technology inthis region as commissioned by the coun-cil of ten ministers of education, a list ofeducational strands based on current

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trends was prepared and presented to theRECSAM governing board members. Thestrands are: (1) problem solving, (2) higherorder thinking skills, (3) scientific skills, (4)assessment, (5) SETS (Science,Technology, Environment, and Society),(6) cooperative learning, (7) construc-tivism, (8) attitudes and values, (9) effec-tive teaching, (10) action research, (11)gifted learners, (12) slow learners, (13)technology in science and/or mathematicseducation, (14) contextual learning, (15)classroom management, (16) develop-ment of instructional materials, (17) stu-dent-centred learning, (18) learningthrough research, and (19) low-cost mate-rials.Each of the ten countries identified the pri-ority training areas according to its needsbefore returning to RECSAM for furthermapping and analyses. An academic com-mittee was formed to develop the title,consisting of a combination of 2 majorstrands, and its pertinent course contentfor further approval from the governingboard members. After approval, it waslined up in the SEAMEO Regional Coursesin the Programmes and Activities for the7th Five-Year Plan (July 2000 - June 2005).Basically, the courses are of six-weekduration and are sponsored by SEAMEORECSAM. Scholarships are distributedevenly to the ten SEAMEO MemberCountries. However, if need be, countriesmay send additional participants at theirown expense. The dates for fiscal years2000 - 2001 and 2001 - 2002 have beenfixed; others are still pending.The line up of courses for the next 5 yearsshows a noticeable shift in emphasis intraining programmes for key science andmathematics teachers in the SoutheastAsian Region. Teachers in this region aretrained to understand and respond to theindividual students interest, strengths,experience and needs instead of treatingall students alike and responding to thegroup as a whole. They are made aware ofindividual differences which are valorisedthrough the use of cooperative groupwork in the learning of science and math-ematics.Thinking improvement movement and thecooperative learning movement, each pro-viding new strategies and approaches toimprove learning, have been in existencefor over a decade. There is a growing bodyof educational research that supports theeffectiveness of these approaches andstrategies, particularly in gaining an under-

standing of science through the nature ofscientific investigation. However, as manyteachers lack the skills to harness the nat-ural symbiosis between the two move-ments, a course has been devised fordeveloping Higher Order Thinking Skills incooperative investigative environments(HOTS).The training programmes also use the cur-rent practices of delving into studentsunderstanding of scientific and mathemat-ical concepts as opposed to the traditionalfocus on students acquisition and regur-gitation of information. Teachers aretrained to be more constructivist, encour-aging enquiry processes - whence theneed for courses on constructivism in theteaching of science and mathematics. From the stage of understanding, stu-dents are guided to apply knowledgeacquired in their everyday lives and createlinks between their environment and soci-ety and science and technology.Furthermore, teachers are familiarisedwith the use of discussion and debate asa forum for thought clarification and val-ues inculcation through the SETS(Sc ience-Env i ronment -Techno logy-Society) course.Emphasis on curriculum selection andadaptation is given prominence and teach-ers are discouraged from rigidly followingthe prescribed curriculum. Processes andskills are experienced and imbued in thecontext of science and mathematics.Meaningful learning through contextualteaching is stressed. Such pedagogicalefficacy is basically what the STLapproach is about.One of the current trends in science edu-cation for the 21st century points towardsthe employment of information technolo-gy in a constructivist manner. However,many teachers lack the skill and ability toharness the benefits of a constructivistapproach that could lend itself positivelyto computer learning activities or othertypes of software. Hence, the prevalenceof a continuing reliance on drills and prac-tice. Courses on how teachers could usecomputer assisted learning to compre-hend the origins of secondary studentsmisconceptions in science and mathemat-ics, how they can deal with these in theclassroom and how they may improve theeffectiveness of their teaching, are con-ceptualised in order to meet the pedagog-ical needs of teachers in this region.The need for continuous and holisticassessment has been expressed by

SEAMEO Member Countries. Overreliance on paper-and pencil assessmentto test students for factual information isconsidered traditional and the shift istowards diagnostic and other alternativeassessments. Hence the necessity forteachers to be equipped with assessmenttechniques which help them discoverwhat students know, can do and the diffi-culties that they are facing so that learningactivities could be planned to meet stu-dents needs. Teachers have to be awareand be skilful in employing a continueddiagnosis of students understanding andinterest throughout each lesson or unit ofteaching so as to be effective and profes-sionally competent in their specific con-text.Action research, yet another training needof SEAMEO teachers, is a form of self-reflective inquiry that is now being used inschool-based curriculum development,professional development and schoolimprovement schemes. It is seen in edu-cational communities as a real alternativeto the more traditional theory-basedapproach to educational research. It is apowerful method of bridging the gapbetween the theory and practice of sci-ence and mathematics teaching. It is com-mon talk among teachers with regard tothe myriad problems that they face in theirrespective classrooms. Hence, actionresearch is seen as a need in this regionand teachers should be given the skillsand knowledge as to how problems attheir own levels could be resolved throughthe use of Action Research.The training programmes in RECSAMreflect the current global trends in sci-ence, mathematics and technology educa-tion. With the current status, it is timelyfor the region to move towards the com-mon goals of scientific and technologicalliteracy, as one SEAMEO country has indi-cated. It is proposed that regional stan-dards within the context of STE be devel-oped for (1) students achievement, (2)methodology, and (3) qualification ofteachers with great hope and optimismfor the Southeast Asian Region.

Tan Khun

Director, SEAMEO RECSAMOng Eng Tek

Head of Science Division, RECSAMRegular Course CoordinatorE-mail:oet@recsam.edu.my

mailto:oet@recsam.edu.my

Vol. XXV, No. 3-4, 200010

References

Azmi Zakaria. (2000): Educational develop-ment and reformation in the Malaysianeducation system: Challenges in the newmillennium. In Alex C.W. Fung, E.C.Pefianco, & D.C.B. Teather (Eds.),Journal of Southeast Asian Education:Inaugural Issue Vol. 1 Number 1 (pp. 113- 133). Bangkok: SEAMEO

Ballestamon, S.U., Narvasa, B.L., Cabasal,M.P., Gonda, B.A., & Prado, E.G.(2000): The Filipinos Commitment toQuality Education. In Alex C.W. Fung,E.C. Pefianco, & D.C.B. Teather (Eds.),Journal of Southeast Asian Education:Inaugural Issue Vol. 1 Number 1 (pp. 163- 184). Bangkok: SEAMEO.

Breeden, T. & Mosley, J. (1992): The cooper-ative learning companion. Tennessee:Incentive Publication, Inc.

Fung, A. C. W., Pefianco, E.C., & Teather, D.C. B. (Eds.). (2000): Inaugural Issue:

Challenges in the New Millennium.Country reports from Brunei, Cambodia,Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia,Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore,Thailand and Vietnam. Journal ofSoutheast Asian Education. Vol. 1,Number 1. Bangkok: SEAMEO.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., & Holubec,E.J. (1990): Circles of learning:Cooperation in the classroom. (3rd ed.).Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

Kiew, Tran & Chau, Nguyen Huu. (2000):Education in Vietnam. In Alex C.W.Fung, E.C. Pefianco, & D.C.B. Teather(Eds.), Journal of Southeast AsianEducation: Inaugural Issue Vol. 1Number 1 (pp. 219 - 241). Bangkok:SEAMEO

Kotkam, Chantarat. (2000): Education inThailand. In Alex C.W. Fung, E.C.Pefianco, & D.C.B. Teather (Eds.),Journal of Southeast Asian Education:

Inaugural Issue Vol. 1 Number 1 (pp. 202- 218). Bangkok: SEAMEO

Mitaray, S. (2000): Education in the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic:Challenges in the New Millennium. InAlex C.W. Fung, E.C. Pefianco, & D.C.B.Teather (Eds.), Journal of Southeast AsianEducation: Inaugural Issue Vol. 1 Number1 (pp. 103 - 112). Bangkok: SEAMEO

Programme Management and MonitoringUnit (PMMU): Education in Cambodia.In Alex C.W. Fung, E.C. Pefianco, &D.C.B. Teather (Eds.), Journal ofSoutheast Asian Education: InauguralIssue Vol. 1 Number 1 (pp. 53 - 78).Bangkok: SEAMEO.

Rasani Hamid. (2000): Education in BruneiDarussalam. In Alex C.W. Fung, E.C.Pefianco, & D.C.B. Teather (Eds.),Journal of Southeast Asian Education:Inaugural Issue Vol. 1 Number 1 (pp. 21 -52). Bangkok: SEAMEO.

A Panorama of Science Education in the Latin AmericaA Panorama of Science Education in the Latin Americaand Caribbean rand Caribbean regionegion

The Latin America and the Caribbeanregion is highly heterogeneous and ischaracterized by a mosaic of cultures,creeds, races and religions - a diversity thatmakes any analysis of the region a verycomplex enterprise. The following is there-fore more of a general perspective, ratherthan an exhaustive account, of the situa-tion of science education at the basic, sec-ondary and teacher training levels in theregion.In response to the strong social and politi-cal needs, almost all the countries in theregion have opted for a fairly long compul-sory general education. The new democ-racies which came into being in the 1980sand 1990s needed, as any democraticsociety, a high level of public participationwhich could only be achieved effectivelywith an adequate level of education. Butthey were also subject to internal pres-sures arising from an accumulation of theunsatisfied needs of a large section of thepopulation in the matter of education,health, housing, etc. Despite this, majorsuccesses were achieved in the matter ofeducation notably at the basic and primarylevels and in recent years significantadvances have been made in secondaryeducation. However, it is only fair to point

out that these successes have not beenuniform in all the countries of the regionand in some cases considerable progressremains to be made.It is against this background of educationalinnovation, transformation and reform thatscience and technology education in theregion has to be viewed in order to appre-ciate the importance of the role beingaccorded to it in educational curricula.In 1992, the Comparative Analysis ofBiology, Physics and Chemistry Curriculain Latin America (Anlisis comparado delos currculos de Biologa, Fsica y Qumicaen Iberoamrica) published by the OEI(Organizacin de Estados Iberoamericanospara la Educacin, la Ciencia y la Cultura)testified to the late commencement ofexperimental sciences and technology inschools of the region. Efforts were thusmade in the recently developed curriculawhich accord increased importance to sci-ence whether as natural sciences, life sci-ences, science & technology, vocationaleducation, or other. Still, due notably to alack of qualified teachers, science educa-tion is not always begun at a sufficientlyearly stage, and there continues to be apreponderance of other subjects at lowerlevels to the detriment of science.

In the present day, there are many coun-tries that include science contents in com-pulsory school curricula with the convic-tion that in order to be able to survive suc-cessfully in a science/technology dominat-ed world, children and adolescents need tobe scientifically literate.But this conviction needs to be thoroughlyreviewed with considerations such as:What type of science? Why at this age?How do we teach it?, while stressing theties and relationships as well as the mutu-al impact between science & technology(S&T) and society. Moreover, the decisionto make curricular changes does not nec-essarily imply their translation into theschoolroom nor even that the children real-ly benefit from them. In other words, prac-tically speaking their impact is not neces-sarily ensured.Again, science education at this stage pre-sents a number of major problems, one ofwhich being that teachers need to masterthis new approach that will allow them toconvincingly find answers to the questionsmentioned above. For this reason it isimperative that teachers be implicated inthe reform process.Science and technology education (STE)acquires greater importance at the middle

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school level. But even at this stage, thereare certain major obstacles such as: Developing student-adapted and rele-

vant curricula based on life-long sciencefor citizenship

Developing curricula that transcend thediscipline oriented logic which hasresulted in overloaded study pro-grammes full of conceptual contents

Transfer to lower levels of higher levelcurricular matter due to simplificationprocesses starting at the higher anddescending to lower levels

Lack of a global vision on the part ofteachers of what is taught, generallyleading to the teaching of concepts,skills and aptitudes in an isolated man-ner deprived of their meaning and pur-pose

Excessive discipline-oriented visioneven at the secondary level whichaccounts for a fractionated and compart-mentalised presentation of scientificknowledge. Each discipline being taughtby a separate teacher has led to limitedcoordination and in many cases prevent-ed students from having a global view ofthe physical and natural phenomena thatthey study

Difficulty to include technology educa-tion in general secondary education andscant relation between science educa-tion and technology education at thislevel

Lack of region-specific educationalresource materials related to the needsand concerns of students and the edu-cational community which makes linksbetween school science and daily lifedifficult

All this has led to a science education thatis not accessible to all and attractive foronly a few pupils. The majority find it bor-ing and difficult and so lose interest. In factthis type of science for a few was reallymeant only for an elite.The feeling of uselessness that pupilsfeel in science classes, the feeling of fail-ure experienced by science teachers dueto lack of interest/motivation of pupilsadded to the conviction that science litera-cy is a necessity for every citizen haspushed teachers, directors and education-al authorities of the region to look for newcurricular propositions for science educa-tion.The new framework that is currently beingdeveloped for secondary science educa-tion has to be situated in a wider perspec-tive of educational reform at the secondary

level. These reforms, which are beingimplemented in certain countries and final-ized in others, respond to the need for abetter definition of the role of education atthis level since the general feeling is thatthe democratization of secondary educa-tion has led to a loss of quality and rele-vance. The role of secondary educationneeds to be defined per se and not just asa transition to higher education, as was thecase until a few years ago.For secondary education had become likea street with a known beginning but anunknown end. Providing a significant partof the population with access to this levelof education does not mean merelyincreasing the number of years of study.This is why the countries of the region feltthe need to define the aims of general sec-ondary education, its relationship withbasic and higher education as well as withpreparing for the world of work.New proposals are underway in almost allthe countries which not only aim at theacquision of scientific knowledge but moreespecially skills and aptitudes of a socialcharacter which would allow students todeal with current issues that concern theirspecific community. In this manner a func-tional value is being given to science sothat students can acquire the necessarycompetence to research, comprehend,explain, interact and live with the naturalworld while fully realizing the importanceof the affective, emotional, ethical and axi-ological dimension of science education.Notwithstanding these significantadvances in the reconceptualisation ofsecondary STE, there remain some com-plicated and unresolved issues. One suchis the scarcity of trained teachers capableof carrying the curricular reforms into theclassroom. This multifaceted problemneeds to be faced squarely in order toarrive at possible solutions.The socio-economic status of teachers -science teachers included - is in generalnot very high which means that increas-ingly fewer youths are tempted by this pro-fession, many entering it only for want ofanything better. Quite often, secondaryscience is ensured by university level sci-ence students who have had to abandontheir studies prematurely or those lookingfor funds to complete them. And in theremote regions, qualified science teachersare even quite rare.The majority of teachers have difficulties insystematically acceding to in-service, con-tinuing or further training and the majority

of science teachers cannot easily accessup-to-date bibliographies, journals or peri-odicals.Pre-service training of science teachers,when it exists, is very heterogeneous.Teachers with science degrees rarely havepedagogical training whereas those withdegrees in education have scant scientificbackground. Either way, the basic problemis that pedagogy and science are seen astwo separate strands with very little inter-action or coordination between the two.Concerning continuing and in-serviceteacher training, the major problem is thatit has no systematic existence. Thoughgreat efforts are being made in all thecountries to offer capacity building cours-es, this is done in a discontinuous, asys-tematic and remedial manner. Great diffi-culties are being encountered in the imple-mentation of training courses which inte-grate and closely relate pre- and in-servicetraining, research and daily practice in edu-cational institutions. In many countries,pre-service and in-service/continuing/fur-ther training are not offered by the sameinstitute. Furthermore, there is no regularlinkage between training institutes andeducational institutions.As mentioned earlier, significant changes,innovations and transformations are takingplace in basic and specially secondary sci-ence education. However, they need to bestrengthened with the objective of facili-tating the access of the majority to scien-tific literacy. The spread of knowledge isstill inequitable within the educational sys-tems. Great efforts have to be made toensure quality education for all and notmerely for certain privileged classes.Scientific development in the region beingboth heterogeneous and precarious, agood basic science education is necessarynot only to develop scientific capability butequally to change childrens attitudes andincrease their interest in science as well asmotivation for learning so that in the futurenot only will the region be able to countupon scientifically better informed citizensbut also more and better scientists.An adequate STE at the basic and sec-ondary levels appears essential for theregion. On the one hand in order to allowthe public to be participatory, critical, deci-sive, tolerant and autonomous; on theother, in order to improve and intensify sci-entific and technological development inthe region, which according to UNESCOsWorld Science Report, leaves much to bedesired.

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UNESCO Activities in STEE

Some countries have registered a drop inscience and engineering careers, whichis closely linked with the quality of sci-ence education at the basic and sec-ondary levels and the incapacity of sci-ence teachers to motivate children.Obviously, these are not the only factors

to take into consideration when planningstrategies for the development of S&Tfor the region. The situation is far morecomplex and an improvement dependson concerted action by governments,S&T related institutions, professionaland other social sectors.

Beatriz Macedo

Regional Specialist, UNESCO/OREALCEnrique Delpiano 2058

Santiago, ChileE-mail:unesco@unesco.cl

UNESCO Activities in STEEUNESCO Activities in STEEScience and TScience and Technology Education Activities forechnology Education Activities for

Adolescents and YAdolescents and Youth in the Asian Regionouth in the Asian RegionGuidebook for developing Teaching Materials in Scientific andTechnological Literacy (STL)

T his Guidebook is a collaborativeeffort of UNESCOs PrincipalRegional Office for Asia-Pacific(PROAP), the International Council ofAssociations for Science Education(ICASE) of Asia, and the RegionalCenter for Education in Science andMathematics (RECSAM) the SouthEast Asian Ministers of EducationOrganization (SEAMEO). Based on the STL philosophy of Project 2000+,it has been written expressly for

teacher-trainers and persons runningprofessional development pro-grammes for teachers in the Asianregion in order to encourage them torethink science education.The key elements included wouldguide users to take ownership of STLideas through: appreciation of the STL concept in

the Asian setting as well as theneed for teachers to have skills inrestructuring instruction/curriculum

guides/textbook/workbooks; familiarisation of best practices in

teaching approaches; utilization of suitable assessment

procedures; and ability to create or recognize STL

materials.The Guidebook is currently being editedfor printing and dissemination toScience Teachers Associations, ICASEmembers and Science EducationCentres of RECSAM member countries.

Development of Scientific, Vocational and Technical (SVT)Skills of Marginalized Youth (Mongolia)

T his pilot project targeting therural youth of Mongolia wasundertaken by the National Instituteof Education and the Non-FormalEducation Centre, Ministry ofEducation, Mongolia in collaborationwith UNESCO/PROAP. The topics covered are:

Water Source and its Utilization; Util ization of Solar and Wind

Energy; Utilization of Organic Materials for

Heating at the Giers; and Preventive Education on Drug Use.The project outcomes include: an analysis of SVT knowledge and

skills included in the school cur-riculum;

identification of the current level ofSVT skills of rural youth and priorityneeds in terms of SVT knowledgeand skills; and

a training package with four videoson skills training.

Development of Scientific Knowledge andSkills for Marginalized Youth (Nepal)

The project undertaken by the Centre for Education Researchand Innovation for Development(CERID), Tribhuvan University, Nepal,looked into problems related to spreadof water-borne diseases; lack of sanita-tion; lack of fuel and its proper use;

lack of food and safe water; and defor-estation.The expected outcomes are:

a) analysis of the scientific knowl-edge and skills included in theschool curriculum;b) identification of the levels of sci-

entific knowledge and skills ofyouth in selected communities;c) a training package of scientificactivities for enriching scientificknowledge and skills; andd) training programme for rural youthon income generation.

mailto:unesco@unesco.cl

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National Training Workshop on the Enhancement of STL Focused on Youth Capacity Building (Philippines)

International Workshop on Hands-on Activities for Marginalized Youth (Thailand)

This National Training Workshoporganized by the Institute forScience and Mathematics Educationfor Development, University of thePhilippines (UP/ISMED), produced

materials in the form of activity sheets;stories; teachers guide; assessment;summary of evaluation and comments.The following topics were covered:Hands-on, Minds-on and Hearts-on

Science; Practical Work in Biology;Practical Work in EnvironmentalScience; Science and Mathematics-related Stories; and Toys as TeachingMaterials in Science and Mathematics.

This International Workshop, empha-sising hands-on science and technol-ogy, was organized to assist people indoing practical work for the developmentof specific learning competencies in aworld strongly influenced by science andtechnology. It was a venue for sharing andexchanging ideas and experiences on S&Tteaching-learning; documenting experi-

ences on practical hands-on exercises andformulating recommendations for the pro-motion of STL through science museums,exhibitions, field activities, and the elec-tronic media by distance learning. The doc-umented hands-on activities have beentranslated into Thai and distributed in hardprint and CD-ROM to the ScienceEducation Departments of Rajabath

Institutes of Thailand and the participatinguniversities.

For further information contact:Lucille C. Gregorio, Specialist in Science

and Technology Education,UNESCO/PROAP, P.O. 967 Prakanong,

Bangkok 10110, Thailand. Fax: (66-2) 3910866 E-mail-UHBGK

Following the creation of a UNESCOChair in Science Education for LatinAmerica and the Caribbean at theUniversity of Alcal in December 1999 (v.Connect, Vol. XXV, No. 2), the followingactivities were slated for implementationin the year 2000 for the improvement ofscience education in the region: Consultations with the largest possible

number of institutions of the network todetect needs and plan actions

Informing national and international edu-cational institutions about the Chair andseeking collaboration with interestedLatin American and Caribbean institu-tions and associations dealing with sci-ence education and teacher training

Implementing programmed activitiessuch as the II Iberoamerican Congressof Science Education, Cordoba,Argentina, 5-8 September 2000

Developing resource materials for teach-ers

In the first semester of 2000, a number ofactivities were undertaken in continuationof those started in the framework of the

agreement of cooperation betweenUNESCO/OREALC and the University ofAlcal which led notably to the creation ofthe Network of Iberoamerican Universitiesin Science Education. Presentation of the Chair at the National

University of Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina,and initiation of a post-graduate Mastersprogramme in Science Education:Magister en Educacin en Ciencias

Twenty-seven professors from 5Argentinean and 1 Uruguayan univer-sities participated in 4 courses givenin this programme

Consultations in Montevideo, Uruguay,between UNESCO/OREALC and the fol-lowing:

Associations of Physics andChemistry teachers as well as theAssociation of science teachers in private education; Dean ofChemistry of the Universidad dela Repblica and the Coordinatorof the Chair for programme activi-ties; Secretary General of theAsociacin de Universidades del

Grupo Montevideo (AUGM) inorder to determine the type andextent of participation of the uni-versities of this Mercosur associ-ation in the activities of the Chair.This meeting concluded in theagreement to ask all the con-cerned universities to send rep-resentatives at the CordobaCongress in September 2000

Mission by the Network coordinator toCuban institutions of the Chair: Pinar delRo and La Tunas in order to:

Discuss with science teachers cur-rent trends in science education,teacher training, needs evaluation,etc.Meet with the rectors, vice-rectors,deans and science educational staffto analyse the Masters programmein Science Education and proposethe programme in these institutionswith a regional character for othercountries of the region. (The rectorsthus designated focal points for theChair in their institutions and agreed

UNESCO Chair in Science Education forUNESCO Chair in Science Education forLatin America and the CaribbeanLatin America and the Caribbean

Vol. XXV, No. 3-4, 200014

STEE Activities Worldwide

to launch an research project onteacher training.)

Contacts were maintained with theSpanish institutions OEI and MEC whopromised their collaboration for theCongress as well as other activities ofthe Network.

In the near future, visits have been sched-uled to institutions in Costa Rica and

Guatemala and plans are afoot for increas-ing the presence of the Chair in the entireregion. In this context, it is worth mention-ing that many universities of the region -UBA, Plata and Comahue (Argentina), delPacfico and San Francisco Javier de SantaFe (Colombia), have requested inclusion inthe network. It is also foreseen to preparethe guidelines for the development of

resource materials, teaching units, biblio-graphic information, laboratories, etc.

For further information contact: Jos M Snchez JimnezCoordinador de la Ctedra

Dpt Qumica-Fsica. Universidad de AlcalTel/fax:34-949209744

e-mail:josem.sanchez@uah.es

STEE Activities worldwideSTEE Activities worldwideTTeacher Teacher Trainers Learrainers Learn About the Envirn About the EnvironmentonmentA joint UNEP/GTZ Workshop on Environmental Action Learning

Kenya, 4 - 8 September 2000

More than 30 teacher trainers fromseven districts of Kenya and 12 edu-cation officers from the Kenyan Ministry ofEducation, Science and Technology attend-ed a one-week workshop onEnvironmental Action Learning (EAL) from4 to 8 September 2000 at KaimosiTeachers College. The workshop wasdesigned to discuss how to qualify teach-ers for the implementation of environmen-tal concerns through curricular and co-cur-ricular activities in primary and secondaryeducation. Among points of considerationwere global environmental issues and localimplications; assessment of local needsfor environmental learning; the eco-schoolapproach to environmental action-orientedlearning; tools and methodologies for envi-ronmental education (EE). A number ofsessions were also devoted to HIV-AIDSeducation in schools. Participants were equipped with knowl-edge, skills and tools to train over 700 fel-low teachers on the ground through insets(mini-workshops) to be held later this year.

The training of teacher trainers in Kaimosiwas also being used to develop new toolsfor in-service training of teachers in theEast and Southern Africa sub-region onEnvironmental Action Learning.The Kaimosi workshop was first event ofthis type to be organised by UNEPsDivision of Policy Implementation in collab-oration with the Practical Subjects inPrimary Education (PraSuPE)-Project ofthe Kenya Ministry of Education, Scienceand Technology, and the GermanOrganisation for Technical Cooperation(GTZ).The Kenyan delegation to the GlobalConference on Education for All, held inDakar, April 2000, supported the integra-tion of EE into curricular and co-curricularactivities at all school levels. In 1999,UNEP, jointly with the UNESCO RegionalOffice for Africa, the UNESCO NationalCommissions of Kenya and Germany, andthe Kenya Organisation of EnvironmentalEducation (KOEE), had successfully initiat-ed the Environmental Action Learning

Programme in eco-schools of the Africanregion. In the context of this initiative, in-service teachers training in EE aspectswas identified as an urgent need to inte-grate EE into substantive curricula fieldssuch as home sciences, agriculture, art &crafts, natural sciences and languages.Training needs assessments among teach-ers conducted by UNEP, UNESCO,UNICEF and other partners significantlydemonstrate the demand for awarenessraising and knowledge dissemination onenvironmental issues.

For further information, please contact:Dr. Christian Holger Strohmann,

Head, Environmental Education andTraining

United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP),

P.O. Box 30552 NAIROBI, Kenya,Tel: +(254-2) 623145; Fax: +(254-2)

623917,Email: Christian.Strohmann@unep.org

Web-site: http://www.unep.org

InterInternational Confernational Conference on Tence on Technology Educationechnology EducationBraunschweig, Germany, 24-27 September 2000

This international conference (v.Connect, vol.XXIV, No.1/2 1999)was organised by the Department ofTechnikpdagogik (ATP) of the Institutefor the Didactic of Natural Sciences atthe Technical University Braunschweig

and the World Council of Associations forTechnology Education (WOCATE) underthe auspices of UNESCO. Around 180participants from 28 countries took part inthe conference sharing concepts andexperiences about the introduction of

technology education in industrial as wellas developing countries. The conferencealso strongly emphasized the importanceof technology education for students inthe acquisition of skills related to sustain-able technical action and decision making.

mailto:sanchez@uah.esmailto:Strohmann@unep.orghttp://www.unep.org

Connect 15

STEE Activities Worldwide

The State of Science Education in MaltaThe State of Science Education in MaltaA Research Project on Science and Technology Education

The Science and TechnologyEducation Network of the MaltaCouncil for Science and Technology hascompleted a Research Project entitledThe State of Science Education inMalta.The goal of the project is to provide acomprehensive picture of the state ofscience education in Malta based on thecurrent situation in science and technol-ogy, in order to identify the main needsat all levels of the educational system.Four sub-committees focusing on primary,secondary, post-secondary and tertiary andscience in human and social life, were setup to gather and analyse data. Data gath-ering was carried out through: consultation of published science syllabi

and course descriptions of the variousscience programmes

distribution of questionnaires amongteachers and lecturers directly involvedin science teaching at all levels

a survey carried out with the generalpublic (mainly parents) on their concep-tion of what constitutes effective sci-ence education

The main tasks accomplished by the pro-ject were: a curriculum audit identifying the main

scientific themes developed at theschool and at the university levels;

identification of themes missing fromthe present science curriculum thatneeded to be addressed for the futureas well as career prospects for sciencestudents;

assessment of the level of continuityand degree of overlap between variousscience syllabi as well as current

teacher training programmes; review of the type of cognitive develop-

ment, psychomotor skills and effectivecharacteristics encouraged by currentassessment practices;

evaluation of the nature of and identifi-cation of the problems concerning sci-ence education in Malta; and

formulation of concrete practical propos-als for action

The report of the Research Project is dueto be published and presented to theMinister of Education of Malta.

Further information from:Moira Dillon, Coordinator, Science &

Technology Education Network, MaltaCouncil for Science and Technology, 36,

Old Mint Street, Valletta, Malta. Fax:241177 E-mail:genmcst@keyworld.net

In his introductory note the president ofthe Technical University Braunschweig,Prof. J. Litterst, focused on the impor-tance of science and technology educa-tion. He pointed out that technology edu-cation does not aim to develop special-ists in technology per se, rather, it aimsto demonstrate the links between sci-ence and technology thus leading theway to interdisciplinary decision makingand acting competence. Prof. W.Theuerkauf from the Technical UniversityBraunschweig and Prof. Richard Kimblefrom the University of London supportedthe demands for a holistic point of viewand asked that special attention be paidto the creative technical design processin schools.Prof. Tom Liao from the StateUniversity of New York in Stony Brokereported on the National ScienceFoundation research project integrating

Mathematics, Science and TechnologyEducation in New York State which high-lighted the pedagogical importance thatTechnology Education has for Maths andScience Education in high schools. Another focus of this conference was onthe presentation of concepts and experi-ences concerning the implementation ofTechnology Education in developingcountries. Geeta Gangol, teaching at aHigh School in Kathmandu in Nepal,described a project where disadvantagedyoung people were prepared for profes-sional life, which was a model of co-oper-ation between technology education inschool and handicraft and industry. KaiStables from the University of Londonpresented results of an empirical surveyabout team learning in South Africa thatdemonstrates interesting new approach-es towards joint experiences of girls andboys with technology.

Recruitment of teachers for science andtechnology education being a worldwide problem, teacher training wasanother focus of this conference. Allparticipants agreed that practical indus-trial experiences must be intensified.In addition, first results of improvingthe quality of teacher training forTechnology Education by using theINTERNET were shown. The proceedings of this conference can beaccessed at: http://www.wocate.org/icte

For further information please contact:Prof. Walter Thuerkauf,Technical

University of Braunschweig,Dr. Kati Langer, Dr. Detlef Wahl,

Co-Executive Directors of WOCATE,Schlosserstr. 9, 99084 Erfurt, GERMANY

E-mail:100045.1474@compuserve.com

ZERI LINK COLOMBIA

Z ERI LINK COLOMBIA is an edu-cational program created by theZERI Foundat ion, designed foryoung students from all educationalinstitutions (formal, non formal, public,private, etc.).

The ZERI (Zero Emissions Researchand Initiatives) Foundation is dedicat-ed to translating the depth of scienceinto fast track projects, whichrespond to the basic needs ofhumanity - water, food, health, hous-

ing, energy and jobs. ZERI promotes100% usage of all resources, convert-ing waste into an input for otherprocesses which in turn will con-tribute to more jobs, more income andNO pollution.

http://www.wocate.org/ictemailto:100045.1474@compuserve.commailto:genmcst@keyworld.net

Vol. XXV, No. 3-4, 200016

YRE AWARDS 1999-2000

Coastline Award and Super Award

WWetlands in Lesvos Save the wild lifeetlands in Lesvos Save the wild lifeEnvironmental team of the Polichnitos Lyceum

(Greece)LESVOS, third Greek island in size, is located in the North-East Aegean, opposite the Asia Minor coastline.The natural environment of Lesvos is of an amazing variety and beauty. One of the most important sights of our island is the gulfof Kalloni, location of the town of Polichnitos, whose wetlands - 22 in all - are the subject of our research. These wetlands com-pose a unified ecological system. Their most important components are notably river mouths, estuaries, sea tongues, salt-worksand pine woods.Their ecological importance is great because of the rich fauna, flora and ornitho-fauna that they house. So far, 346 species of plants- of which 39 protected - have been repertoried as well as 24 species of amphibians (4 on the red book), 24 species of mammals(12 protected), 24 species of reptiles (19 on the red book) and 252 species of birds (87 protected). The visitor can see the largestnumber of birds in the salt-pans of Polichnitos and Kalloni.

Centres, Associations, Networks...

The aim of ZERI LINK COLOMBIA is tocreate initiatives for Zero Emissionsresearch, by integrating the creativeand innovative potential of young peo-ple with the productive processes sys-tems, and looking for new sustainablesolutions to these processes.ZERI Link Colombia began in 1999 inManizales, with 11 students from theAutonomy University High School in9th and 11th grade. They received 6months training on ZERI methodology,and based on this they are starting todevelop 2 research projects: growingP leu ro tus mush rooms and themanagement of so l id and l iqu idwaste f rom the Maniza les r iver on

the Maniza les industr ia l zone.In March 2000, nine students from theeconomics faculty of the AutonomyUniversity and from the cuatrosaberes (four types of knowledge)programme, joined the group. An inter-institutional group between the univer-sity and its high school was made fordeveloping the economic and scientificpart of the project. ZERI Link Colombiahas also expanded to San LuisGonzaga High School where 2 newgroups of 11 and 17 students havebeen formed. They received the ZERIintroductory seminar 4 months ago,and are currently developing an initia-tive to recognize and save the biodi-

versity of the Humid Forest of which14 hectares lie on their high schoolland. At this moment, ZERI LinkColombia has established a contractwith the University of Caldas BusinessFoundation and the EducationDepartment of the local governmentfor the establishment of ZERI trainingin 6 public high schools in the area 5 ofManizales. This program will reach 185people, who will be taught ZERImethodology and concepts and willreceive the tools to formulate theirown Zero Emission Research Initiative.

Anna Ardin, ZERI Foundation,http://www.zeri.org

CentrCentres, Associations, Networks...es, Associations, Networks...Young Reporters for the Environment Network (YRE) Awards

On 5 June 2000, World EnvironmentDay, a European jury met in Paristo select the best articles written by theYoung Reporters for the Environmentfollowing their investigation period.Twenty-three articles selected by the12 national operators of the campaignwere presented to the Jury (A maxi-mum of 3 articles per country could beproposed by each national operator).A list of criteria was proposed by the International Federation ofEnvironmental Journalists to the jury

to be used in selecting the best articles,such as: quality of writing and readabili-ty; pluralistic approach to the topic; qual-ity of documentation and sources andinclusion of sustainable development.The European jury was surprised, happyand moved by the quality, the originalityand the content of the work presented tothem. Five articles, one per topic, receivedthematic awards - a digital camera offeredby France Telecom: Cities (Turkey),Coastline (Greece), Energy (Ireland),Waste (France) and Water (Portugal)1.

Beside