science communication
DESCRIPTION
A presentation from a workshop on how to structure original research communications (manuscripts and seminars). The main purpose of the workshop is to introduce a new way of thinking about the underlying "backbone" of any research communication. I propose that the most useful organising principle to use is to structure the paper or seminar as a nested series of questions addressed by a corresponding nested set of answers. Author: Geoff Hyde, NCBS, Bangalore.TRANSCRIPT
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TheThe
ScienceScience
of of
ScientificScientific
Communication
Communication
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New technologies: capacity to generate New technologies: capacity to generate scientific information growing rapidlyscientific information growing rapidly
• Genetic/molecular approaches
• GIS
• Internet
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Rapid expansion: ability to share Rapid expansion: ability to share information is more challenginginformation is more challenging
• “information-dense”
• specialised
Research topics have become more
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The HopeThe Hope
X
Scientist
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Audience
XXX
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The RealityThe Reality
X
Scientist
XXX
X
X
?
Y
X
Z
X
Y
Audience
Z
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Our AimOur Aim
How to make
the transmission of our message
as accurate as possible?
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Scientists must find ways to improve Scientists must find ways to improve communication skillscommunication skills
• Trial and Error Approach
• Advice from collaborators
• Look to research on communication
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American Scientist, 1990, 78, 550
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George Gopen
The Reader Expectation Theory TeamThe Reader Expectation Theory Team
Joseph M. Williams, Gregory Colomb,
Wayne Booth
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Main message from research: audiences Main message from research: audiences expects information to be organised in expects information to be organised in
patternspatterns
Example: the main pattern of a paragraph
- one main idea, expressed early
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Paragraphs typically establish their frame Paragraphs typically establish their frame of reference earlyof reference early
Manja is a really good guy. He works very hard. He always finds time to help his friends. When
his parents need him, he never refuses
to return home.
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Pattern-packaging exploits human drive to Pattern-packaging exploits human drive to complete patternscomplete patterns
O_r capacity to comp_ete patt_ _ns
mak_s it p_ssible to und_ _stand
incom__lete and ev_n
incrroect cmmounictaion.
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An early framework helps usAn early framework helps us to make sense of a poor later sentence to make sense of a poor later sentence
Manja is a really good guy. He works very hard. He always finds time to help his friends. When parents have a need, never is there a refusal
to return home.
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Higher-level patterns are more Higher-level patterns are more important than lower level onesimportant than lower level ones
A higher-level pattern provides
the frame of reference
for the pattern one level below
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An outline is a higher-order framework..An outline is a higher-order framework..
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……that we use to fill in the details.that we use to fill in the details.
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Our Aim….Our Aim….
How to make the transmission of our message as accurate as possible?
XX
Scientist
X
X
X
X
X
Audience
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..can now be addressed by these objectives. ..can now be addressed by these objectives.
What are the two highest-levels patternsaudiences expect in scientific communications?
How do we make these patterns obviousin papers, proposals & seminars?
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Introduction Results
Discussion
Methods
Top-level pattern: problems with paper-Top-level pattern: problems with paper-writing indicate that writing indicate that IMRaD IMRaD is is notnot it it
• Confusion about what sort of information goes where
• Mismatch between Introduction and Discussion
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A more useful top-level pattern: nested A more useful top-level pattern: nested questions and answersquestions and answers
Big Picture Question
Aim-level Question/s
Objective-level Question/s Objective-level Answer/s
Aim-level Answer/s
Big Picture Answer/s
NB: Aim-level questionmust be one audience sees as: - unanswered in the literature (novelty) - significant
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An example talk to illustrate the nested An example talk to illustrate the nested Questions/Answers pattern.Questions/Answers pattern.
Part 1: No use of PowerPoint: purely verbal
Part 2: PowerPoint can be used
Part 3: No use of PowerPoint: purely verbal
Your own talks in the course should havethe same mix of “purely verbal” and
“PowerPoint-assisted” parts.
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A problem in paradise: The vanishing Picobar Tree Frog
Geoff HydeNCBSSCCS 2010Bangalore
(The slides for parts of the talk that were “purely verbal” have been added here for completeness)
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DiurnalInsectivorousMid-altitudesPopulation declining
The Picobar Tree Frog
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How can the population decline of the Picobar Tree Frog be halted?
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Possible players in the population decline of the Picobar Tree Frog
Rat Snake(Ptyas mucosa)Introduced 1999
Picobar Lady Beetle(Harmonia picobari)Threatened by fungi
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Is population decline due to increased predation or decreased prey?
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Nested Questions and Answers of talk so farNested Questions and Answers of talk so far
How can we reverse the decline of the
Picobar Tree Frog?
Is Picobar Tree Frog decline due to
Rat Snake increase or Lady Beetle
decrease?
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Nested Questions and Answers for this Nested Questions and Answers for this workshopworkshop
How do scientists cope with the communication challenges (information-density, specialisation) posed by rapid expansion of information?
How do we make the transmission of our scientific messages more accurate?
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An example talk following the structure for An example talk following the structure for your own talks in this courseyour own talks in this course
Part 1: No use of PowerPoint: purely verbal
Part 2: PowerPoint can be used
Part 3: No use of PowerPoint: purely verbal
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If increased predation, ......
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.....,we should see snakes eating frogs
Objective 1: Do starved captive rat snakes eat Picobar Tree Frogs?
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If decreased prey, frogs should strongly prefer Lady Beetles
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Objective 2: Do starved, captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer Picobar Lady Beetles ?
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Preparation for exposure to frogs
27oC + 36oC
Replication : 20 snakes
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Snakes offered two species of frogs
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Snakes ate the brown frogs
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Tree frogs uneaten after one week
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Objective 1: Do starved captive rat snakes eat Picobar Tree Frogs?
No
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27oC
Preparation for exposure to insects
Replication : 20 frogs
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Frogs offered five species of insects
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Frogs targeted the Lady Beetles
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95% Lady Beetles, 25% Brown Beetles eaten
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Objective 2: Do starved, captive Picobar Tree Frogs strongly prefer Picobar Lady
Beetles ?
Yes
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Nested Questions and Answers,Nested Questions and Answers,up to end of Resultsup to end of Results
How can we reverse the decline of the
Picobar Tree Frog?
Is Picobar Tree Frog decline due to
Rat Snake increase or Lady Beetle
decrease?
* Do captive Rat Snakes eat Picobar
Tree Frogs?
* Do captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer to eat Lady Beetles?
* Captive Rat Snakes do not eat
Picobar Tree Frogs.
* Captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer to eat Lady Beetles.
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An example talk following the structure for An example talk following the structure for your own talks in this courseyour own talks in this course
Part 1: No use of PowerPoint: purely verbal
Part 2: PowerPoint can be used
Part 3: No use of PowerPoint: purely verbal
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* Very unlikely due to Rat Snakes
Is decline of Picobar Tree Frogs due to increased Rat Snake predation or
decreased availability of Lady Beetles?
* Results support Lady Beetle hypothesis
- need support from field studies - preliminary data is suggestive
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* Breed fungal-resistant Lady Beetles
* Captive breeding program for tree frogs
Suggestions for management of population decline
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Nested Questions and Answers for entire talkNested Questions and Answers for entire talk
How can we reverse the decline of the
Picobar Tree Frog?
Is Picobar Tree Frog decline due to
Rat Snake increase or Lady Beetle
decrease?
* Do captive Rat Snakes eat Picobar
Tree Frogs?
* Do captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer to eat Lady Beetles?
* Captive Rat Snakes do not eat
Picobar Tree Frogs.
* Captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer to eat Lady Beetles.
Captive results consistent with a role
for Lady Beetle decrease in Picobar
Tree Frog decline.
* Breed fungal-resistant Lady Beetles.
* Start captive breeding program for
Picobar Tree Frogs.
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Objectives Objectives
What are the two highest-levels patternsaudiences expect in scientific communications?
- Nested Questions/Answers - IMRaD
The objective: “How do we make these patternsobvious in papers, proposals & seminars?” can nowbe reworked as:
- How do we make nested Questions/Answers stand out in IMRaD, especially the Aims?
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1. Express questions, 1. Express questions, especially aimsespecially aims,, as questions as questions
How can we reverse the decline of the
Picobar Tree Frog?
Is Picobar Tree Frog decline due to
Rat Snake increase or Lady Beetle
decrease?
* Do captive Rat Snakes eat Picobar
Tree Frogs?
* Do captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer to eat Lady Beetles?
* Captive Rat Snakes do not eat
Picobar Tree Frogs.
* Captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer to eat Lady Beetles.
Captive results consistent with a role
for Lady Beetle decrease in Picobar
Tree Frog decline.
* Breed fungal-resistant Lady Beetles.
* Start captive breeding program for
Picobar Tree Frogs.
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2. Use devices to focus attention on2. Use devices to focus attention on aim-level Questions and Answers aim-level Questions and Answers
How can we reverse the decline of the
Picobar Tree Frog?
Is Picobar Tree Frog decline due to
Rat Snake increase or Lady Beetle
decrease?
* Do captive Rat Snakes eat Picobar
Tree Frogs?
* Do captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer to eat Lady Beetles?
* Captive Rat Snakes do not eat
Picobar Tree Frogs.
* Captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer to eat Lady Beetles.
Captive results consistent with a role
for Lady Beetle decrease in Picobar
Tree Frog decline.
* Breed fungal-resistant Lady Beetles.
* Start captive breeding program for
Picobar Tree Frogs.
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Introduction Results
Discussion
Methods
1. Big Picture
Question
2. Aim-level
Question/s
3. Objective-level
Answer/s
3. Objective-level
Question/s
2. Aim-level
Answer/s
1. Big Picture
Answer/s
Change to less
emphatic tone
Emphasise
importance:
tone, pausing,
dedicated slide
Remind reader of
Aim-level Question/s
Devices for focusing on Aims:TalksDevices for focusing on Aims:Talks
Recapitulate
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Introduction Results
Discussion
Methods
1. Big Picture
Question
2. Aim-level
Question/s
3. Objective-level
Answer/s
3. Objective-level
Question/s
2. Aim-level
Answer/s
1. Big Picture
Answer/s
Single
paragraph
At very end
of penultimate
paragraph
Remind reader of
Aim-level Question/s
Introductory
paragraph
Devices for focusing on Aims: PapersDevices for focusing on Aims: Papers
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Asthma is one of the most debilitating of respiratory diseases. The delineation of its
aetiology in children is of particular importance because of this disease’s increasing
prevalence. During the last three decades, the incidence of asthma in children, especially in
the developed world, has continually risen (Koff et al., 2004). For example, it has recently
been estimated that by the age of fourteen, 25% of all children in Australia will have suffered
at least one asthmatic attack (Krokodyal and Dundee, 2001).
The reasons for the increasing prevalence of asthma are unclear. Several studies have
demonstrated that time spent indoors correlates strongly with the incidence of childhood
asthma (e.g. Ceeger and Neentendough, 1988), and Durstmeight (1990) has proposed that
prolonged exposure to household allergens could be important. But it has not yet been
shown definitively that indoor allergens are responsible. Recently Ghetarlyfe (2003) has
suggested that it is decreased time spent outdoors that is possibly the causative factor. In
this as yet untested scenario it would be outdooor, not indoor, allergens that are
responsible: children might be getting fewer opportunities to develop an insensitivity to
agents such as pollen and fungal spores that occasionally reach high densities, since they
not being exposed to them at low levels. Thus whether “indoor-time-associated” asthma
involves indoor or outdoor allergens is an ongoing issue.
An example Introduction to paper: up to Aim An example Introduction to paper: up to Aim
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Thus whether “indoor-time-associated” asthma involves indoor or outdoor allergens is an
ongoing issue.
To address this question, we have followed up the group of 5,000 children originally
surveyed by Ceeger and Neentendough (1988). Our approach, in which we cross-correlate
the antibodies present in the children with antigens found in their indoor and outdoor
environments, allows us to identify the likely source of the antigens that cause attacks
experienced by these children.
An example Introduction to paper: ObjectiveAn example Introduction to paper: Objective
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How can we reverse the decline of the
Picobar Tree Frog?
Is Picobar Tree Frog decline due to
Rat Snake increase or Lady Beetle
decrease?
* Do captive Rat Snakes eat Picobar
Tree Frogs?
* Do captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer to eat Lady Beetles?
* Captive Rat Snakes do not eat
Picobar Tree Frogs.
* Captive Picobar Tree Frogs
strongly prefer to eat Lady Beetles.
Captive results consistent with a role
for Lady Beetle decrease in Picobar
Tree Frog decline.
* Breed fungal-resistant Lady Beetles.
* Start captive breeding program for
Picobar Tree Frogs.
The 3 parts of a scientific story resonate The 3 parts of a scientific story resonate with a well-known pattern…with a well-known pattern…
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..that of the three acts of a narrative..that of the three acts of a narrative
Act I: Set-up Act II: Journey Act III: Resolution
3. Objective-level
Question/s1. Big Picture
Question
2. Aim-level
Question/s
3. Objective-level
Answer/s
2. Aim-level
Answer/s
1. Big Picture
Answer/s
(Methods)
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The three acts of a storyThe three acts of a story
Act I: Set-up Act II: Journey Act III: Resolution
Rama and Sita
exiled from Ayodhya
Rama and Sita
separated
Rama defeats agent of
his separation from Sita
Return in glory to Ayodhya
Rama kills Bali
The Bridge to Lanka
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The main axis of a paperThe main axis of a paper
Act I: Set-up Act II: Journey Act III: Resolution
3. Objective-level
Question/s1. Big Picture
Question
2. Aim-level
Question/s
3. Objective-level
Answer/s
2. Aim-level
Answer/s
1. Big Picture
Answer/s
(Methods)
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Our ProblemOur Problem
How to make the transmission of our message as accurate as possible?
XX
Scientist
X
X
X
X
X
Audience
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Nested Questions and AnswersNested Questions and Answers
How do scientists cope with the communication challenges (information-density, specialisation) posed by rapid expansion of information?
How do we make the transmission of our scientific messages more accurate?
•What are the two highest-level patterns audiences expect in science?
* How do we make the patternsobvious in papers etc?
We make certain that our papers, talks etc are organised according to the patterns audiences expect.
Amongst many other strategies, scientists can benefit by looking to the findings of people who specialise in understanding communication.
- Nested Questions/Answers- IMRaD
• Define Questions/Answers• Use devices so they standout in right spots in the IMRaD structure