SCHOOL AND BEHAVIORALPSYCHOLOGY

Applied Research in Human-ComputerInteractions, Functional Assessment and

Treatment

SCHOOL AND BEHA VIORAL PSYCHOLOGY

Applied Research in Human-Computer lnteractions, Functional Assessment and

Treatment

by

H.A. Chris Ninness

Glen McCuller

Lisa Ozenne

Stephen F. Austin State University

SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ninness, HA Chris.

School and behavioral psychology: applied research in human-computer interactions, functional assessment and treatment / by H.A. Chris Ninness,Glen McCuller,Lisa Ozenne

p.cm. IncJuded bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4613-6957-8 ISBN 978-1-4615-4355-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-4355-8 1. Educational psychology. 2. Human-compu ter interaction-Psychological aspects.

3.Computer-assisted instructian. 1. McCuller, Glen. U Ozenne, Lisa. m Title. LBI051 . N479 2000 370. 15-<1c21

Copyright 112000 by Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2000

Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover lst edition 2000

00-058720

AII rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievaI system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanicaI, photo­copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior writlen permission of the publisher, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Printed on acid-free paper.

Contents

Acknowledgements VB

Prologue to Analogues IX

Autonomic Learning 1The Fight or Flight Syndrome 4The Autonomic Nervous System 6Extrapolation in Psychology 12School Psychology and Behavior Analysis 15

2 Lucy in the Sky: Learning Without Language 21Natural Selection and Selection by Consequences 22A Few Basic Definitions 26

3 The Evolution of Language and Rule-Governed Behavior 49The Evolution of Words and Rules 49Rule-Governed Behavior and the Premack Principle 52Types of Rule-Following Behavior 54Rule-Governed Behavior and Schedules of Reinforcement 55Masking Subjects 64

4 An Experimental Analysis of Rule-Governed Behavior andHuman-Computer Interactions 71Superstitions 72Superstitions during Computer-Interactive Math 80Self-Generated Superstitions During Second-Order Response-Independent Schedules 87

Shaping Human Verbal Behavior 98Self-Assessment as a Learned Reinforcer: An ExperimentalAnalysis 109

Self-Assessment With and Without Feedback 114

5 Computer-Interactive Functional Assessments 125Constructs 126Functional Assessment 128Public Schools' Interpretations of Functional Assessments 133Extended Functional Assessment Strategies for the PublicSchool 136

Descriptive Analysis: An Alternative Form of FunctionalAssessment 137

Running Functional Assessments in a Descriptive AnalysisFormat 138

FOCAL Point Functional Assessments with NotebookComputers 139

Installing FOCALPoint for Windows 95/98/NT and Above 142Running Partial-Interval Observations on FOCAL Point 142

6 Learning to Behave Yourself 147Functional Assessments and Prescriptive Interventions 148Group-contingencies and Peer Attention 153Under Different Conditions with Different Students 158Rule-Following in the Absence of Supervision 162Shaping Rules for Self-Management and Social Skills 164

Epilogue 183

Bibliography 185

Index 197

VI

Acknowledgements

This book is dedicated to the memory of Don Whaley who inspired ageneration of behavior analysts. In turn, our generation passes his torch tothe next with the affirmation that he is alive in the behavior of his students.His gentle wisdom continues to radiate, generation after generation, in theevolution of human learning.

We gratefully acknowledge and sincerely appreciate the helpfulcomments provided by Cloyd Hyten and Sharon K. Ninness in developmentof this manuscript. Correspondence concerning this work should be directedto H.A. Chris Ninness, PhD, Associate Professor and Director of School &Behavioral Psychology, Department of Human Services, PO Box 13019SFA Station, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX, 75962.(E-mail: cninness(@titan.sfasu.edu). The current School & BehavioralPsychology web address is http://titan.sfasu.edu/-F_ninnesscalINDEX.HTM

Prologue to Analogues

This book begins where it ends. At both points, we put forth theproposition that there are now practical and scientific methods of teachingpeople to enhance their own behavior. We submit that at this stage of ourscientific development, we have an efficient and practical technology ofbehavior change. This technology incorporates functional assessment,treatment, and follow-up evaluation, and we hold ourselves accountable forour results. Most importantly, our technology offers all people (andparticularly students) an effective means for achieving their own potential.

We have written much of this book around our current behavioralpsychology research and practice as it applies to school age children. Weaddress many issues that are experimental in nature and many more that arebased on applied research. Much of the work throughout this book wasconducted in our O\\/n laboratories and in school districts where we haveconducted functional assessments, developed intervention systems, collectedempirical data, and published our results in peer reviewed professionaljournals. Large sections of this book follow the applied research of ourcolleagues in school psychology and behavior analysis throughout theacademic/professional community.

A growing proportion of the current research in behavior analysis hasbegun to focus on people who demonstrate fairly sophisticated verbal skillsduring computer-interactive behavior and how behavior changes in varioussocial and academic contexts. This has required that we take a closer look atthe language process as well as some of our most cherished notions inbehavior analysis For the most part, we have found that our fundamentalprinciples are correct--as far as they go. But up until the past few years, theyhave not gone far enough. The analysis of verb~1 behavior has introduced

Prologue to Analogues

another level of complexity, and as Richard Malott has written, "Life nolonger looks that simple to us." (Malott. Malott. Trojan 2000, pJ66). We arenow at a stage in our technological evolution where we are well positionedto incorporate additional concepts that address language processes. Many ofthese concepts may be understood as analogues to the carly analysis of thecontingencies of rei·nforcement.

For the most part, this is not a book about "how to" conduct behavioralor school psychology. Rather, it is our attempt to examine and extend theexperimental analysis of human behavior as it pertains to the growingliterature in computer-interaction, functional assessment, behavior analysis,and school psychology. Our book is divided into just six chapters. The firstchapter describes some of our oldest and most fundamental theories oflearning. We begin by delineating the particulars of autonomic learning;however, we characterize these fundamental processes within the broadercontext of natural selection. In this framework, we provide an account ofwhy classical conditioning affords special sun/ivai value and why it mayalso interfere with some culturallbehavioral processes. Many of theseclassical conditioning theories (and studies) are old, but they have weatheredthe test of time and still have much to tell us about learning at its mostprimitive level. Chapter I also introduces the reader to Herbie--a somewhatdisturbed child. In part, his problem behavior is under the influence of anunfortunate history of classical conditioning. Throughout the book Herbiegoes through a series of academic and social changes. Many of thesechanges are closely tied to the learning processes we describe in thefollowing chapters.

Chapter 2 describes learning without language. It addresses the type oflearning that most tcxtbooks call operant. This chapter describes the basicsof operant learning and adds a little more perspective to the evolution ofparticular learning processes in our species. Herbie falls into deeperacademic distress in this chapter, and much of his difficulty is derived froman inauspicious operant history. Because his learning history is not unique(and in many ways it is typical of disturbed children), we give it a continuingnarrative within a broader discussion of human evolution and the expandingtechnology of the experimental analysis of human behavior.

Chapter 3 brings our analysis of human behavior into contact with themore recent experimental and applied research. We delve into issuesregarding verbal instmction, superstitious behavior, types of rule-governedbehavior, stimulus equivalence, computer-interactive behavior, paradigmsregarding analogues to direct-acting contingencies, and human behaviorunder the influence of particular schedules of reinforcement. As ourtechnology addresses verbal processes, we consider how humans adapt

x

Prologue to Analogues

under the influence of language. Of course, language processes only getHerbie into more serious trouble.

Chapter 4 continues the discussion of basic human computer­interactive research. Several of the concepts and studies in this chapter mayappear rather abstract in the sense that they may seem far removed from realclassroom issues and events. But, computer simulations gave us a chance tomore thoroughly examine student verbal interactions on a safe andconcentrated platform. In fact, many of the studies in this chapter explicate(or retrospectively clarify) the procedures that we describe in Chapters 5 and6. For example, using a computer-interactive model we demonstrate thatarranging consequences in particular ways makes these consequences muchmore compelling than they are under normal circumstances. Thesereinforcement strategies have a way of making people much more"interested" in getting things they might normally take for granted. Inaddition, Chapter 4 describes powerful procedures for changing peoples'verbal interpretations of "how things work." That is, this chapter givesspecial insights into behavioral techniques for shaping belief systems.Although the concepts in this chapter are demonstrated in experimentalsettings, their implications for applied settings are discussed. Their valuebecomes increasingly obvious in the following two chapters.

In Chapter 5 we direct the reader's attention to the current controversyand confusion surrounding functional assessment, describing the legal,bureaucratic, and psychological complications involving this newly mandatedlaw. We provide a description of a software system that makes this new form offederally mandated assessment easy to perform and useful in developingbehavior intervention plans for students with particular types of behaviorproblems. We provide a CD and operating manual that allows the reader toconduct functional assessments in real time, calculate associated probabilitiesofoutcomes, and develop behavior intervention plans based on these outcomes.

In Chapter 6, we expand on some of our most recently completed appliedresearch that may serve as models for implementation of functional assessmentand self-assessment procedures by school psychologists and behaviorspecialists. The interventions are based on information derived from the typesof functional assessment procedures described in the previous chapters, andthey are recently enhanced by way of our software package. This chapterdetails a strategy for applying functional assessment and self-assessmentprocedures to reduce destmctive and aggressive behaviors. We believe thatthese results are a good first step toward building more powerfhl behaviorchange programs that have a special emphasis on teaching self-control. Also,these procedures are aimed at improving the generalization of newly learnedacademic and social skills, and they address a wide range of growingproblems in our schools and in our culture.

Xl

Prologue 10 Analogues

another level of complexity, and as Richard Malott has written, "Life nolonger looks that simple to us." (Malott, Malott, Trojan 2000, p.366). We arenow at a stage in our technological evolution where we are well positionedto incorporate additional concepts that address language processes. Many ofthese concepts may be understood as analogues to the early analysis of thecontingencies of reinforcement.

For the most part, this is not a book about "how to" conduct behavioralor school psychology. Rather, it is our attempt to examine and extend theexperimental analysis of human behavior as it pertains to the growingliterature in computer-interaction, functional assessment, behavior analysis,and school psychology. Our book is divided into just six chapters. The firstchapter describes some of our oldest and most fundamental theories oflearning. We begin by delineating the particulars of autonomic learning;however, we characterize these fundamental processes within the broadercontext of natural selection. In this framework, we provide an account ofwhy classical conditioning affords special survival value and why it mayalso interfere with some cultural/behavioral processes. Many of theseclassical conditioning theories (and studies) are old, but they have weatheredthe test of time and still have much to tell us about learning at its mostprimitive level. Chapter I also introduces the reader to Herbie--a somewhatdisturbed child. In part, his problem behavior is under the influence of anunfortunate history of classical conditioning. Throughout the book, Herbiegoes through a series of academic and social changes. Many of thesechanges are closely tied to the learning processes we describe in thefollowing chapters.

Chapter 2 describes learning without language. It addresses the type oflearning that most textbooks call operant. This chapter describes the basicsof operant learning and adds a little more perspective to the evolution ofparticular learning processes in our species. Herbie falls into deeperacademic distress in this chapter, and much of his difficulty is derived froman inauspicious operant history. Because his learning history is not unique(and in many ways it is typical of disturbed children), we give it a continuingnarrative within a broader discussion of human evolution and the expandingtechnology of the experimental analysis of human behavior.

Chapter 3 brings our analysis of human behavior into contact with themore recent experimental and applied research We delve into issuesregarding verbal instruction, superstitious behavior, types of rule-governedbehavior, stimulus equivalence, computer-interactive behavior, paradigmsregarding analogues to direct-acting contingencies, and human behaviorunder the influence of particular schedules of reinforcement. As ourtechnology addresses verbal processes, we consider how humans adapt

XII

Prologue to Analogues

under the influence of language. Of course, language processes only getHerbie into more serious trouble.

Chapter 4 continues the discussion of basic human computer­interactive research. Several of the concepts and studies in this chapter mayappear rather abstract in the sense that they may seem far removed from realclassroom issues and events. But, computer simulations gave us a chance tomore thoroughly examine student verbal interactions on a safe andconcentrated platform. In fact, many of the studies in this chapter explicate(or retrospectively clarify) the procedures that we describe in Chapters 5 and6. For example, using a computer-interactive model we demonstrate thatarranging consequences in particular ways makes these consequences muchmore compelling than they are under normal circumstances. Thesereinforcement strategies have a 'Nay of making people much more"interested" in getting things they might normally take for granted. Inaddition, Chapter 4 describes powerful procedures for changing peoples'verbal interpretations of "how things work." That is, this chapter givesspecial insights into behavioral techniques for shaping belief systems.Although the concepts in this chapter are demonstrated in experimentalsettings, their implications for applied settings are discussed. Their valuebecomes increasingly obvious in the following 1\·vo chapters.

In Chapter 5 we direct the reader's attention to the current controversyand confusion surrounding functional assessment, describing the legal,bureaucratic, and psychological complications involving this newly mandatedlaw. We provide a description of a software system that makes this new form offederally mandated assessment easy to perform and useful in developingbehavior intervention plans for students with particular types of behaviorproblems. We provide a CD and operating manual that allows the reader toconduct functional assessments in real time, calculate associated probabilitiesofoutcomes, and develop behavior intervention plans based on these outcomes.

In Chapter 6, we expand on some of our most recently completed appliedresearch that may serve as models for implementation of functional assessmentand self-assessment procedures by school psychologists and behaviorspecialists. The interventions are based on information derived from the typesof functional assessment procedures described in the previous chapters, andthey are recently enhanced by way of our software package. This chapterdetails a strategy for applying functional assessment and self-assessmentprocedures to reduce destructive and aggressive behaviors. We believe thatthese results are a good first step toward building more powerful behaviorchange programs that have a special emphasis on teaching self-control. Also,these procedures are aimed at improving the generalization of newly learnedacademic and social skills, and they address a wide range of growingproblems in our schools and in our culture.

Xlll

Prologue to Analogues

AWORD ABOUT SOFTWARE

The text is supplemented with FOCAL Point CD. (This includes aneasy-to-use operating directions within Chapter 5.) FOCAL Point is aworking acronym for Functional Observation of Classrooms And Learners.This software provides the reader with the necessary tools to conduct andcalculate outcomes for functional assessment procedures on notebookcomputers. Functional assessments have a unique characteristic separatingthem from traditional psychological assessments--an emphasis onaccountability. Functional assessments are mandated and conducted with aneye toward locating the variables that interact with the student's maladaptivebehavior. Once these variables are identified, the success of intervention isbased on the student demonstrating improved performance under the same(and more general) conditions. Thus, functional assessments serve as aguide for developing efficient behavior plans, and they provide criteria fordemonstrating effective treatment outcomes.

Using Windows 95 or newer operating systems, FOCAL Pointfunctional assessment software is designed for making direct observationsof the target behaviors in natural settings. The assessment strategies in thissoftware package take behavior assessment well past the traditionaltechnique of simply taking baseline on diversified and undefined behaviorproblems. They provide the observer with information as to "when" "why"and "where" baseline data is occurring. Rather than using retrospectiveteacher logs, office records, Lykert scales, or personality profiles, thissoftware provides the school psychologist, diagnostician, counselor, orbehavior specialist with a direct observation format that tracks problembehaviors as they occur across real time. And, it allows the observer toselect the observation procedure that is best suited to operationally defineand reliably identify particular types of problem behaviors in the contextsin which they are most likely to be exhibited. Our software package allowstrained observers to generate functional assessment outcomes accurately andefficiently. Following data collection, FOCAL Point outcomes are easilytransferred and graphed within Excel or Lotus spreadsheets. Details onperforming these operations with Excel are provided within Chapter 5 ofthis text. Lotus graphing procedures can be accomplished in much the samemanner.

A large portion of this book is devoted to providing a currentfoundation in the experimental and applied analysis of human behavior. It isnot until we have completed four chapters of theoretical background that wedelve into the dynamics and application of applied functional assessments.Subsequently, we provide a description of behavior intervention strategiesthat are developed on the basis of functional assessment procedures.

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Prologue to Analogues

Most of the software for the research in this book was written by thefirst author. Developing such software is much more fruitful than it was evena few years ago. Modem programming languages have allowed our researchpossibilities in human computer-interaction to expand exponentially.Programming languages are not what they were even a few years ago. As wemove into the new millennium, the specific programming languages arebecoming less consequential; however, the graphical interfaces toapplications are becoming essential. Progranmling languages today, such asVisual C++, Visual Basic, Visual J++, and to some limited extent evenQBASIC, are very distinct from the previous generation of simple text-basedtools that wrote commands line by line. Modem programming languagesallow the researcher to generate complete applications that quickly interactwith every aspect of an operating systems. For the behavioralresearcher/programmer this provides the critical instrument for exploringmuch of the complexity of human verbal and nonverbal learning in acontrolled, safe, and very replicable set of conditions.

Seven of our principal studies described in this book were conducted incomputer-interactive environments. These studies have only recently beenpublished or are now in press. Additionally, outcomes from other studiesincorporating computer-interactive formats are given extensive discussion.We believe that computer simulations of real problems provide controlledsettings to explore new treatment protocols that would have beenunimaginable a generation ago. When our results prove useful in acomputer-interactive context, we are much better positioned to examine ourprotocols in more natural and chaotic settings

psychStats

For those researchers who would like to run a wide range of statistics,we suggest visiting our experimental web site at \v\\\v.lcsdg.com/psvchStats.The procedures on www.lcsdg.com/psychStats run a wide range oftests for analyzing small group data on line. Procedures on psychStatsrequire no downloading, and results are immediately available.

Among other traditional experimental and quasi experimentalstatistics, our web site runs a series of nonparametric procedurescalled randomization tests that are particularly useful when analyzingdata derived from extremely small numbers of subjects (fewer than 15data points). Unlike standard, normal curve statistics, theserandomization tests entail no assumptions regarding how data arecollected. Roughly stated, randomization tests are a series ofnonparametric procedures that provide a test statistic to be repeatedly

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Prologue to Analogues

computed for all possible permutations of any given data set. The sizeof the sample is completely irrelevant to the internal validity of thetest statistic; however, as with other statistical procedures, externalvalidity may be gauged by addressing the logical probability that otherpopulations share the relevant characteristics of the sample (seeEdgington, 1995, for a review and discussion). Additionally,psychStats runs correlations, multiple correlations, regressionanalysis, and many other standard statistical strategies.

XVI