school punishment.doc

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School punishment is a hierarchy of penalties used to punish infractions of rules in a school setting.

There are wide variations in practice between schools in different cultures, countries or states, and

between different types of school in the same country. Nevertheless, there are certain near-universal

punishments, ranging from verbal reprimands to ultimate expulsion from the institution. In many

cultures nowadays, school punishment and discipline in general are hotly debated, but individual cases

usually become known about to the outside world only when parents complain that punishment is too

harsh.

Verbal warnings and counselling

In nearly every educational system, a verbal reprimand ("getting told off") is probably the most

common sanction for minor misbehaviour. This is typically done by the class teacher on the spot,

but a more serious and formal reprimand might be given in the school office, e.g. by the HeadTeacher, in which case it might be called a "dressing-down" or "getting bawled out". In "getting

bawled out", it might be combined with other punishments.

[edit] Writing lines

Writing lines is a form of punishment handed out to misbehaving students by teachers, prefects,

etc. at schools and colleges in many countries of the world.

Writing lines involves copying a sentence on to a piece of paper or ablackboardas many times

as the teacher requires. The sentence to be copied may be related to the reason the lines are beinggiven, e.g. "I must not talk in class". In India, this is referred to as imposition, as also in Britain,

at least in the past. In many Catholic schools in the U.S., it is called "penance". The number of

lines to be written may be 100 or more, although writing 500/1000 lines is getting more

common. Teachers issue more lines in order to hurt the offending student`s fingers and hand.

[edit] Word declension

A language-specific variant used in some countries entails writing out some or all of the

declensionsof a given word in, say, German and Russian.

[edit] Shortcuts

Students sometimes use an alternative method to write their lines, thinking they are getting the

task completed more quickly. Rather than writing the lines a sentence at a time, they will writethem a word at a time. For example, for the line "I must not talk in class", the student would first

write the word "I" down the left hand side of his paper. Once this is complete, she will then write

"must" next to "I" to the bottom of the page. This is repeated until the lines are complete. But thefingers hurt just as much by using shortcuts

Although this may seem to be quicker, obviously the same number of words are being writteneither way, so in theory, it should take just as long. However, it is possible that, if students
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believe the method is quicker, they will work harder anyway and thus finish more quickly than a

student completing lines the conventional way (seeplacebo effect). Many students actually do

finish more quickly, because they are able to write the words faster when writing the same oneover and over.

[citation needed]

Another trick sometimes tried, though perhaps more in school folklore and fiction than in reality,is the use of multiple writing implements (e.g. several pens taped together).

[edit] Write-outs

A write-out is when a child may have to copy out a certain text, e.g. a page/chapter of a book.

This is sometimes called "writing pages".

[edit] Arithmetic punishments

Another punishment is that the child might be required to write the multiplication tables from

two through twelve for a certain number of times, usually at least ten and sometimes as many astwenty-five or more. Or, the child might be given an extremely lengthy long-division problem

and suffer additional punishment if the problem is completed incorrectly.

[edit] Essays

The student is required to write an original composition, usually between 300 and 500 words, butpossibly more in serious cases. The composition might be a letter of apology to the class for the

child's disruptive behaviour, or it might be a "meditation" on whatever type of misconduct the

child committed, or it might be to "write a definition" (for example, of a blackboard eraser whenthe child has been guilty of throwing a blackboard eraser).

[edit] Memorization

The child is sometimes required to memorize fifty or a hundred lines of poetry or the day's

Gospel or otherScripturaltext.

[edit] Detention

Detention is one of the most common punishments in schools in the United States, Britain,

Ireland, Singapore and other countries. It requires the pupil to remain in school at a given time in

the school day (such as lunch, recess or after school) -- or even to attend school on a non-schoolday, e.g. "Saturday detention" held at some US schools.[1]

During detention, students normally

have to sit in a classroom and do work, write lines or a punishment essay, stand in the corner andface the wall with hands behind the back or in front of you, or sit quietly. Sometimes, students

are required to participate in a work detail, doing various tasks such as picking up trash, mopping

floors, or cleaning. In the UK, theEducation Act 1997obliges a school to give parents at least 24hours' notice of a detention outside school hours.

[2]Reasons for a detention are typically

relatively minor disruption; serious or violent behaviors are generally punished more harshly.
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Many schools first give detention at recess or at lunch and then, if a student misbehaves again, an

after-school or weekend detention may be given.

Some secondary schools in southern U.S. states offer a corporal punishment option as an

alternative to detention. If the student chooses to be paddled instead of having after-school

detention, it avoids having to arrange transport after the school bus has gone, which can causedifficulties for parents. Other times, the student does not have a choice or is given both a

paddling and detention.

[edit] On Report

Being "put on report" is a punishment often used in schools for serious misconduct, such as

truancy.

Typically a student is given a report card, which he or she carries to classes at school. At each

lesson the teacher in charge of the class completes and signs a box on the card confirming the

student's presence at the lesson and commenting on his or her attitude. In some cases there willalso be a place for a more senior teacher and the student's parent or guardians to confirm they

have read the report at the end of each day. Some schools will also have a number of differentgrades of report reflecting the seriousness of the punishment.

A student may be placed on report for a fixed time period, such as a week, or until theirbehaviour improves. Their parents may also voluntarily place them on report.

In the USA this kind of report card is usually referred to as a conduct card, to differentiate itfrom the report card issued with grades each term or after each marking period. In many schools,

the conduct card is issued to any student who has received a failing grade in conduct for the

previous marking period. Typically the student has to present the card to each teacher each dayfor a week. The teacher confirms the student's presence in the class and, most importantly, enters

a conduct grade for the class. If the student fails to receive a passing grade in conduct from each

teacher for a full week, the student has to carry the card again for another week.

Among other refinements, in order to emphasize failures, teachers might enter a failing grade

with red ink or circle it in red, although red ink may also be used to signify a grade subject torevision. Although issuance of a conduct card or placing a student on report is not a physical

punishment, the psychological impact on some students may be significant since some teachers

have been known to award a failing grade on the final day of each week so as to renew the

punishment indefinitely. Each week the student may hope to escape from carrying the card but is

frustrated by a teacher's seizing on a minor lapse in behaviour to fail the student and thuscontinue the punishment. Ancillary effects of the punishment may include the student's being

excluded from participation in extracurricular activities or ineligibility for any privileges while

carrying the card.

[edit] Suspension
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Main article:Suspension (punishment)

Suspension ortemporary exclusion is mandatory leave assigned to a student as a form ofpunishment that can last anywhere from one day to several weeks, during which time the student

cannot attend regular lessons. The student's parents/guardians are notified of the reason for and

duration of the out-of-school suspension. Sometimes students have to complete work during theirsuspensions, for which they receive no credit. Also, upon returning to school, it is often

mandatory that the student, his/her parents/guardians, and a school administrator have a meeting

to discuss and evaluate the matter. In American schools there are often two types of suspenion:In-School Suspension (ISS) and Out-of-School Suspension (OSS). In-school suspension requires

the student to report to school as normal, but sit in a special room all day, rather like a prison

sentence. Out-of-school suspension suspends the student from being on school grounds.[3]

From the school's point of view, out-of-school suspension (temporarily) gets the troublesome

student completely out of the way. However, it has often been criticised because the student is

likely to see it as simply a free day (or days) off from school -- virtually the opposite of the

severe punishment that O.S.S. is supposed to be.

[edit] Corporal punishment

Main article:School corporal punishment

Medieval schoolboy birched on the bare buttocks

In past times, corporal punishment (spanking or paddling or caning or strapping the student inorder to cause physical pain) was one of the most common forms of school discipline throughout

much of the world. Most Western countries, and some others, have now banned it, but it remains

lawful in the United States following a Supreme Court decision in 1977 which held that paddling

did not violate the Constitution.

[4]

30 US states have banned corporal punishment, the others (mostly in the South) have not. It is

still used to a significant (though declining) degree in some public schools in Alabama,Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. Private schools in

these and most other states may also use it.
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Other punishment

In many countries, students committing relatively minor offences may be required to do a certainnumber of push-ups on the spot, or to run laps round the playing field.

In the Indian subcontinent, a punishment called "murgha banana" consists of having the studentassume a bending-over position, touching the toes or holding one's ears, and hold this positionfor as long as the teacher requires.

[5]

In South Korea, a common punishment is for students to be required to go down on all fours with

posterior in the air, and hold the position for a given length of time, often culminating in a

spanking as the signal to get up.

In some countries, like the Philippines, students are given a "post" as a sanction, where the

student has to stand up for as long as 2 hours, depending on the gravity of the offense.

[edit] Exclusion

Main article:Expulsion (academia)

Exclusion, expulsion, withdrawing or permanent exclusion is the removal of a student

permanently from the school. This is the ultimate last resort, when all other methods of disciplinehave failed. However, in extreme situations, it may also be used for a single offense.

[6]Some

education authorities have a nominated school in which all excluded students are collected; this

typically has a much higher staffing level than mainstream schools. In some US public schools,

expulsions and exclusions are so serious that they require an appearance before the Board ofEducation. In the UK, head teachers may make the decision to exclude, but the student's parents

have the right of appeal to the local education authority. This has proved controversial in caseswhere the head teacher's decision has been overturned (and his or her authority therebyundermined), and there are proposals to abolish the right of appeal.

Expulsion from a private school is a more straightforward matter, since the school can merelyterminate its contract with the parents.

In past times, some private boys' schools in the UK would hold a special shaming ceremony

before an assembly of the entire school to formally expel the offender, at which in some cases he

would also be caned or birched before being removed from the premises. A few schools in

Singaporestill use this combination of formal public caning plus expulsion in serious cases.

[edit] Other sanctions

Other, lesser sanctions may also be applied, including loss of privileges, additional homework orpractical chores. For milder offences, students may be asked to move to the front of the class.

They may also be asked to stand in a corner or stand facing against a wall.
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Corporal punishment slays our self-esteem: School children

February 19th, 2009 - 8:16 pm ICT by IANS -

New Delhi, Feb 19 (IANS) Corporal punishment and constant reprimanding by teachers canseriously dent a students self-esteem and even develop phobia for a particular subject, saidcounsellors and school students at a panel discussion here Thursday.

Comments like you are useless and a special school needs to be made for you by teachers

can hurt a student much more than what appears on the face. In the confines of his/her room, thestudent keeps thinking of the comment, said Tina Sharma, a class 8 student, participating in the

discussion.

Not only do such comments in front of the whole class pinch an adolescents ego but may also

make him develop a fear for that subject because he then starts believing that he actually is not

good in it, she added.

Raj Mehra, a class 7 student, added: When you hear about students committing suicide, its not

a result of an one-off incident. Continued rebuking in public, stress at class and at home all havea deep impact on a students mind.

Sameer Dalwai, development pediatrician and a child law consultant, who was on the panelagreed with Tina Sharmas comments. He said a child developing low confidence level because

of being continually hit at home or in school, or even being scolded, has a scientific explanation

to it.

Children, when they are in school, are in a stage of development. Their minds areimpressionable and can be moulded in any way you want to. At this stage, if he/she is alwaysscolded, rebuked in public or hit, deep scars develop and they will just compound with time,

Dalwai said.

Giving an example, Dalwai said quite often its the same set of children who get punished at

school, thus proving that beating or scolding does not help in straightening the child.

Corporal punishment can only induce confusion, rejection, pain and insecurity and nothing else.

To discipline a child, its better to talk firmly with a child and explain why he or she is wrong.

And if you have a set of rules, make sure that you stick to it.

Its often that children are being spoken to, and not spoken with. The reverse trend should be

inculcated to have a healthy environment where children grow in, Dalwi said.

In relation to creating a healthier environment for kids to grow up in school, Anita Kaul, joint

secretary of the department of education and literacy in ministry of human resourcedevelopment, said: The bill for the right of children to education, along with the
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recommendations, was tabled in parliament yesterday (Wednesday) and I hope it is passed in this

session.

The bill, among other things, talks about no board exams to be conducted until the end of

elementary education, heavily penalising those schools demanding donation and prohibiting

school teachers from taking private tutions - all in purview of making education accessible to alland making learning a joyful experience, Kaul, also one of the panelists, said

More at : Corporal punishment slays our self-esteem: School children

http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/lifestyle/corporal-punishment-slays-our-self-esteem-school-

children_100157281.html#ixzz0h9dxYfnp

School discipline and exclusions

Your child's school should have a written policy setting out the standards ofbehaviour it expects. The policy should outline what the school will do if yourchilds behaviour falls below these standards.

Promoting good behaviour

All pupils in a school benefit when behaviour is good. High standards of behaviour are importantin helping children to feel safe and learn well, and parents and carers play a key part in this.

The government advises schools to focus on promoting positive behaviour, helping to build self-

discipline and encouraging respect for others. But schools also need sanctions to deter pupils

from misbehaving.Behaviour policies

Schools should review their behaviour policies regularly and publicise them to parents, staff and

pupils.Behaviour policies should include a code of conduct for pupils. Rules on conduct can apply before

and after school as well as during the school day. They can set expectations for how pupils willbehave in corridors, in bus queues and at lunch and break times as well as in the classroom.

Sanctions

Schools have a legal right to impose reasonable sanctions if a pupil misbehaves. Sanctions a

school might use include:

a reprimand
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a letter to parents or carers removal from a class or group loss of privileges confiscating something belonging to your

child if its inappropriate for school (for

example, a mobile phone or music player)

detentionDiscipline and physical contact

Teachers cant punish pupils physically, but can physically restrain them where its necessary to

stop a pupil injuring him or herself or someone else, damaging property or causing serious

disruption.

Certain members of school staff can search a pupil suspected of carrying a weapon, with or

without their consent.

Find out more about school discipline and behaviourpolicies Opens new window

Your child and detentionDetentions can take place during school hours, at lunchtime, after school or at weekends. If your

child fails to attend without a reasonable excuse, the school may give them a more severe

punishment.

You are entitled to 24 hours written notice of a detention that takes place outside normal school

hours, so you can make arrangements for transport or childcare. The notice should tell you why

the detention was given and how long your child will have to stay at school.

If your child cannot attend the detention, you can explain your reasons to your childs teacher or

headteacher. They may reconsider the detention in certain circumstances, such as:

the detention falls on an importantreligious day for your family

youre concerned about the length andsafety of the route between school andhome

you cant reasonably make alternativearrangements for collecting your child

from school

Discuss school behaviour and discipline with otherparents on ParentsCentre Opens new window

Fixed period exclusions

A child who gets into serious trouble at school can be excluded for a fixed period of time. Schools

can exclude a child if:

they have seriously broken school rules allowing them to stay in school would

seriously harm their education or welfare,

or the education or welfare of other pupils

Some other points to bear in mind are that:
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only the headteacher or actingheadteacher can exclude a child

your child can't be given fixed period(non-permanent) exclusions which total

more than 45 school days in any one

school year

if your child is excluded for longer thanone school day, the school should set

work for them and mark it

The school should call you on the day an exclusion is given and follow up with a letter including

information on:

the period and reason for exclusion your duty during the first five days of any

exclusion to ensure that your child is not

present in a public place during normal

school hours, whether in the company of

a parent or not

any arrangements made by the schoolthat apply from the sixth day of the

exclusion

Information and guidance on dealing with fixedperiod exclusions Opens new window

Permanent exclusions

A school will usually only permanently exclude a child as a last resort, after trying to improve the

child's behaviour through other means. However, there are exceptional circumstances in which a

headteacher may decide to permanently exclude a pupil for a 'one-off' offence.

If your child has been permanently excluded, be aware that:

the school's governing body is required toreview the headteacher's decision and

you may meet with them to explain your

views on the exclusion

if the governing body confirms theexclusion, you can appeal to an

independent appeal panel organised

by the local authority

the school must explain in a letter howto lodge an appeal

the local authority must provide full-timeeducation from the sixth day of a

permanent exclusion

Information and guidance on dealing with permanentexclusions Opens new window
http://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/FixedExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/FixedExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/FixedExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/FixedExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/FixedExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/PermanentExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/PermanentExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/PermanentExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/PermanentExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/PermanentExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/PermanentExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/PermanentExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/FixedExclusion.htmlhttp://www.ace-ed.org.uk/advice/booklets/FixedExclusion.html


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Corporal Punishment - Myths and Realities

Myth: Corporal punishment is used only as the last resort

Reality: Corporal punishment is often the first response even for minor infractions.

Teachers and parents need training in nonviolent ways to handle behavior problems

Myth: Teachers need the right to use corporal punishment to protect themselves.

Reality: Using physical force for self-protection is not considered corporal punishment.

School employees have the right to use force to protect themselves or other people from

bodily harm, to gain control of a dangerous weapon or to protect property from damage.

Myth: If corporal punishment is banned, the school will be in chaos.

Reality: Again and again, experience has shown that this does not happen. At worst,

behavior remains about the same after corporal punishment is abolished. When alternativediscipline codes are put in place, disruption is usually significantly reduce.

Myth: The kid must have deserved it.

Reality: Children are paddled for such minor infractions as whispering, giggling or not

finishing their milk.

Myth: Corporal punishment is used only on the worst kids.

Reality: The most likely victims of corporal punishment are the most vulnerable, for

example, minorities, the smallest boys, children with disabilities.

Myth: A little swat is good for some kids.

Reality: Corporal punishment hurts all kids, victims and witnesses alike. It increases

learning problems and decreases student's ability to concentrate and remember. In severe

cases, students subjected to corporal punishment exhibit symptoms of post traumatic stress

disorder, similar to the syndrome experienced by Vietnam veterans.

Myth: Corporal punishment prevents unruliness.

Reality: The higher the incidence of corporal punishment in a school, the higher the level ofvandalism and delinquency.

Myth: It's okay to use corporal punishment if parents give permission.

Reality: A spanking at school is very destructive to a child's sense of self-worth. It hurts

other children too by frightening them or sending them the message that violence is a


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solution to problems. Also, paddling at school sends the message it's okay to hit kids at

home, too.

Myth: Using corporal punishment lets kids know who's in charge.

Reality: The best way to teach self-control is by example. When teachers use corporalpunishment, they teach that being "in charge" means physically forcing others into

submission.

Myth: I was paddled and it didn't hurt me.

Reality: We all learn by example. Adults most likely to physically punish children are those

who were corporally punished as children themselves. Using corporal punishment today

continues the cycle into the next generation.

Myth: Corporal punishment is the only way to teach some kids.

Reality: The most difficult children are often the most helpless. They cannot protect

themselves. They need help, not hitting.

What do we want to teach?

Positive discipline teaches: Right from wrong

Corporal punishment teaches: Might makes right

Positive discipline teaches: Self-control

Corporal punishment teaches: It's okay to strike out in anger

Positive discipline teaches: Cooperation in resolving conflicts

Corporal punishment teaches: We control others by force

Positive discipline teaches: How to assert oneself by stating needs in words

Corporal punishment teaches: The way to let out dissatisfaction is by physically abusing

others

Positive discipline teaches: Self-esteem, a feeling that "I am part of the solution"

Corporal punishment teaches: Low self-esteem , a feeling that "It's okay for others to hit

me"

Positive discipline teaches: Clear expectations and fair consequences


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Corporal punishment teaches: Hurt and humiliation that is often out of proportion to the

misbehavior

Positive discipline teaches: Respect for those in authority and other people

Corporal punishment teaches: Fear and resentment of authority

Modern methods

School discipline practices are generally informed by theory frompsychologistsandeducators.

There are a number of theories to form a comprehensive discipline strategy for an entire school

or a particular class.

Reality Therapy involves teachers making clear connections between student behaviorand consequences in order to facilitate students making positive choices. Features includeclass meetings, clearly communicated rules, and the use of plans and contracts are

featured.

Discipline with Dignity supports the idea that good discipline starts by keeping studentdignity intact by providing practical strategies for teachers to share responsibility fordiscipline with students themselves by tailoring discipline to each individual. Created by

Drs.Richard CurwinandAllen Mendler.

Positive Approach is grounded in teachers' respect for students. Instills in students asense of responsibility by usingyouth/adult partnershipsto develop and share clear rules,

provide daily opportunities for success, and administer in-school suspension fornoncompliant students. Based on Glasser'sReality Therapy. Research (e.g., Allen) isgenerally supportive of the PAD program.

[1]

Teacher Effectiveness Training differentiates between teacher-owned and student-owned problems and proposes different strategies for dealing with each. Students are

taught problem-solving and negotiation techniques. Researchers (e.g., Emmer andAussiker) find that teachers like the program and that their behavior is influenced by it,

but effects on student behavior are unclear.[1]

Transactional Analysisworks for students with behavior problems to learn to useterminology and exercises to identify issues and make changes within the context ofcounseling programs. The notion that each person's psyche includes child, adult and

parent components is basic to the TA philosophy. Research has been conducted (e.g.,Cobb and Richards) has found the TA counseling approach beneficial (McIntyre,

2005)[citation needed]

.

Assertive Disciplinefocuses on the right of the teacher to define and enforce standardsfor student behavior with clear expectations, rules and a penalty system with increasingly
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serious sanctions are major features. Research (e.g., Mandlebaum and McCormack) is

supportive, but inconclusive about the effectiveness of the AD approach (Emmer and

Aussiker, Gottfredson, and Render, Padilla, and Krank) (McIntyre, 2005)[citation needed]

.Developed by Lee Canter.

Adlerianapproaches is an umbrella term for a variety of methods which emphasizeunderstanding the individual's reasons for maladaptive behavior and helping misbehaving

students to alter their behavior, while at the same time finding ways to get their needs

met. Named for psychiatristAlfred Adler. These approaches have shown some positiveeffects on self-concept, attitudes, and locus of control, but effects on behavior are

inconclusive (Emmer and Aussiker).[1]

Not only were the statistics on suspensions and

vandalism significant, but also the recorded interview of teachers demonstrates the

improvement in student attitude and behavior, school atmosphere, academic performance,and beyond that, personal and professional growth. (Efficacy of Class Meetings in

Elementary Schools, Ann Roeder Platt,B.A., California State University, Sacramento.

The University of San Francisco, The Effectiveness of Alderian Parent and Teacher

Study Groups in Changing Child Maladaptive Behavior in a Positive Direction.JaneNelsen

The Student Responsibility Center (SRC) discipline process was evaluated foreffectiveness in five participating K-12 public schools. SRC was evaluated in terms of

meeting the six systems-thinking criteria, the number of suspensions and/or expulsions,

the number of discipline referrals to the SRC classroom, and the perceptions of theLearning Community concerning the use of this discipline process. Examination of data

collected from the one-on-one interviews and school staff questionnaires suggested that

the SRC discipline process did result in a decrease in suspensions and expulsions anddiscipline referrals. In addition, the analysis of data indicated that there were positive

Learning Community perceptions concerning the discipline process. The finding are

congruent with effective schools research and school sites should continuously assess,

intervene, and monitor the discipline process to ensure the Learning Community isconsistently following the processes elements and characteristics to accomplish the goal

of reducing disruptive behavior overall. (Dunlap, 2007).

Appropriate school learning theory and educational philosophy is decisive inpreventing violence and promoting order and discipline in schools, as stated by an

educational philosopher(Greenberg, 1987) and authenticated by the experience ofdemocratic schools

CHALLENGES

Methods of maintaining discipline in schools are not always successful. The misbehaviour of

children is common in all schools, although most schools manage to keep this within tolerable

limits. Occasionally, however, poor disciplinary management within school can cause a moregeneral breakdown in order. In modern years this has been popularly characterized by violence

against teachers and other children. This is, of course, not a new problem. Thepublic schoolsof

eighteenth and nineteenth centuryEngland, for instance, were subject to a number of violent
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armed uprisings and violence against teachers was a common phenomenon throughout the

nineteenth century. Even low levels of indiscipline at school can result in a detrimental working

environment for children and good teaching will often depend on good school discipline.

Effective discipline requires the consent, either explicit or tacit, of parents and pupils. Whilst few

children will enjoy punishment, most will submit to it providing it is perceived as beingequitable. Moreover, to be effective, punishment should never appear arbitrary. School

hierarchies award teachers great power over their students and the perceived abuse of this power

to punish children inarbitraryways can be the source of much resentment and hostility.

Problems with school discipline have also led to a reduction in the number of people willing to

become teachers, especially in schools regarded as difficult. Student misbehaviour and rudenessis the leading cause of teacher resignations. In some areas and countries, this has led to a severe

teacher shortage, with classes either not taught, or taught by an unqualified person. In some

schools, a senior class, for example, may have up to a dozen different teachers in a single year, as

the replacements decide to leave rather than deal with student behaviour. Many countries are

now trying to offer incentives to new teachers to remain in such schools, but with very limitedsuccess.

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