school consultation.ppt

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The Foundations of Consultation

and Collaboration


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The Promise of Consultation and

Collaboration A cornerstone activity for members of the

helping professions

Attempt to alleviate current problems whilepreventing the their future occurrence

Attempts to promote the psychological well

being of society though indirect methods

Often viewed as an alternative to direct

methods such as one-on-one and group

counseling/psychotherapy


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Consultation Defined A process in which a human services professional

assists a consultee with a work-related (or

caretaking-related) problem with a client system,

with the goal of helping both the consultee and

the client system in some specific way


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Consultation Defined contd

Consultation deals

exclusively with

consultees work-related or

caregiving-related

problems

Consultant and

consultee work

together in solvingthe problems

defined by

consultation


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Role of human service

professional

Problem-solvingprocess

Triadic in nature

Helping relationship

Internal or external

Voluntary for all

parties

Relationship of peers Collaborative

Temporary

Remedial or

developmental


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Consultative Relationship

Relationship between the consultee and

consultant is one of peers, of two equals

Though the two roles are equal in termsof power, it is the consultee who has the

greatest need within the consultative

relationship


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Consultation and ConsultantsWho are consultants?

Who are consultees?

Who is the client system?


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Consultants and Consultees

Priority can be

given to either

consultee or clientsystem depending

on the approach

used by theconsultant

Consultant

provides indirect

service to theclient system by

providing direct

service to theconsultee


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Rights of Consultation

Participants

Participation in consultation is voluntary

for all parties involved

Consultees free to do whatever theywish with consultants suggestions and

recommendations


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Length of ConsultationThough consultation relationship is

temporary, the length of

consultation may range from asingle session to weekly sessions for

more than a year


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Triad of Consultation

Consultee

Client System

Consultant

Figure 1.2 The triadic relationship in consultation


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Collaboration Defined Collaboration is very similar to consultation in

that it follows the same problem-solving process

Collaboration involves the interactive exchange ofresources, interdependence, and a focus on

decision making


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Collaboration contd Collaboration is a service in which the helper

accepts responsibility for the mental health

aspects of a case.


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Client System

Collaborator

# 2

Collaborator

# 1

The Relationships of the Parties in

Collaboration

Figure 1.3 The Relationships of the Parties in Collaboration


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A Distinguishing Difference Between

Consultation and Collaboration

In consultation, the consultee retains

responsibility for the outcome, is considered to

be the determiner of the suitability of possibleinterventions, and is responsible for adequate

implementation of the intervention (i.e.,

ensuring treatment integrity)

(Zins & Erchul, 1995)


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Multicultural Limitations of


Developed from Eurocentric models

Limitations make person-in-environmentperspective important

Cultural competence in service delivery essential

Some multicultural models available (e. g.,

Ingraham)


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Multicultural Consultation Consultant, in a culturally sensitive manner,

adjusts services to accommodate and value

cultural differences

Through employing multicultural framework,

consultants are in better position to provide

services with multicultural competence


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Multicultural Framework

a) consultant knowledge, skills and dispositions related

to cultural competence in consultation

b) understanding consultee needs for development in

knowledge, skill, confidence and objectivity

c) cultural variations in the parties involved in

consultation (e. g., consultant-consultee similarity)

d) contextual influence (e. g., organizational culture)

and power influences (difference in power among

parties in the consultation relationship)

e) methods for supporting consultee success in

multicultural situations


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Levels of Prevention

Preventive vs. remedial perspectives

Primary prevention Secondary prevention

Tertiary prevention

Universal

Selected

Indicated


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Historical Overview Prototypic roles: healer and technological adviser

Started in modern times as a clinical expert role

Currently, focus is on facilitation of consulteesprofessional development in current and future

situations


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Compared to Other

Human Service Activities Counseling and psychotherapy

Supervision

Mediation


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Consultants, Consultees,

and Collaborators


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Skill Areas for Consultants

and Collaborators Interpersonal skills

Communication skills

Problem-solving skills

Skills in working with organizations


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Skill Areas for Consultants

and Collaborators contdSkills in dealing with cultural diversity

Group skills

Ethical and professional behavior skills


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Roles of the Consultant

Nature of the

problem

Purpose and

desired outcomesof consultation

Skills of the

consultant

Skills of the

consultee

The consultant can take on a variety of

roles depending on several factors:


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Directive

*

Advocacy

Expert

Trainer/Educator

Collaborator

Fact FinderProcess Specialist

*

Non-directive


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Emergence of AdvocacyThe use of advocacy has received

increasing attention

There has also been an increase in theuse of the advocacy role in consultation


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Roles contd Expert role is NOT opposite of collaborative role

The collaborative role in consultation is not the

same as the service of collaboration

It is useful to think of the collaborative role being

implemented on a continuum from nondirective

to directive


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Internal/External

Consultants

Consultant can either be separate from (external)

or part of (internal) system in which consultation is

to occur

There are both advantages and disadvantages to

being internal or external


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Orientation to Models of

Consultation Mental health

Behavioral

Organizational


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Consultee as a Variable Consultee variables include:

knowledge

skills attitudes

personal characteristics


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Consultation research suggests that

consultation has efficacy even though

consultation practice has outpaced itsbody of research.

Research in Consultation

and Collaboration


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Research contd The research on collaboration is very limited

Increase in the use of qualitative and mixed

methods Behavioral research most heavily researched

School-based also heavily researched


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The Generic Model of



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Stage I: Entry

Phase One: Exploring organizational needs

Phase Two: Contracting

Phase Three: Physically entering the system

Phase Four: Psychologically entering the system


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Stage II: Diagnosis Phase One: Gathering information

Phase Two: Defining the problem

Phase Three: Setting goals

Phase Four: Generating possible interventions


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Stage III: Implementation Phase One: Choosing an intervention

Phase Two: Formulating a plan

Phase Three: Implementing the plan Phase Four: Evaluating the plan


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Stage IV: Disengagement Phase One: Evaluating the process of

consultation

Phase Two: Planning post-consultation matters

Phase Three: Reducing involvement and

following-up

Phase Four: Terminating


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Putting the Generic

Model into Practice Equal attention should be paid to what you are

doing and to how you are doing those things

Very important to get supervised practice inconsultation

Implement in a collaborative manner

whenever possible


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Multicultural Competence

Using the Generic Model

It is key to effective implementation that the

generic model be adapted with cultural

competence in order to be relevant to the

needs of consultees and their clients systems

Designed to take consultees where they are

and can be adapted to their style of problemmanagement and cultural context


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Consultee Readiness for

Change Stages can assist consultants to assess

consultees stage of change and increase

likelihood of a successful consultation

experience

Success of generic model is tied to consultee

readiness for change


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Resistance to Consultation Resistance: The failure of a consultee or

organization to participate constructively in the

consultation process

Reluctance:The hesitancy of the consultee to

engage in consultation


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Types of Resistance Systems-level

When unhealthy is due to lack of insight regarding the

need to change

Consultee

There are a variety of sources of resistance (e. g., a

consultees misconception concerning the nature of

consultation)


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Dealing Effectively

with ResistanceThere are several things consultants can

do to minimize resistance: Create strong relationship to build trust and alleviate

fear

Demonstrate cultural competence and sensitivity

Collaborate whenever possible

Create conditions so that a consultation has asatisfying outcome and is worth the effort


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Personalizing the

Generic ModelAs consultant or collaborator, you are

your best intervention

Who you are as a person can affect the

outcome of consultation or collaboration as

much as what you do when you engage in

these services


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Entry Stage


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Stage I: Entry

Phase One: Exploring organizational needs


Phase Three: Physically entering the system

Phase Four: Psychologically entering the system


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Phase One: Exploring

Organizational NeedsTo consult or not to consult:

Why am I here?

Who are you?

What is likely to happen?

What will be the result?

What can go wrong?


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Reason forcontracting:

To clearly defineexpectations ofboth consultantand consultee

Elements of acontract:

Goals

Time frame

Responsibility ofconsultant andagency

Boundaries

Review andevaluation


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Phase Three: Physically

Entering the System

Moving into work space

Getting to know employees of organization

Adapt to organizations schedule

Have those affected by consultation informed

about the consultants role


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Phase Four: Psychologically

Entering the System

The gradual acceptance of consultant by

members of the organization in which

consultation is being performed Consider the process level (how organization

functions) and personal interaction (how people

within an organization function)


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During Phase Four a

Consultant Should. . .

Create trustworthiness by:

Demonstrating understanding

Using power appropriately

Respecting confidentiality

Exhibiting credibility


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Interpersonal Influence

in Consultation Consultation can be seen as process of socially

influencing consultees

Trick is for consultants to impact consultee interms of gaining cooperation while maintaining a

relationship among equals

Consultants need to use some social influence

strategies but avoid more ethically-

questionable coercive types


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Multicultural Implications:

Entry Stage

Be aware of others value systems

Use effective communication and interpersonalskill

Determine comfort level in dealing with any

cultural or ethnic issues related to problem

Be aware of how cultural differences mayimpact outcome of consultation


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Application of Multicultural

Implications for Entry

Certain minority cultural groups may be

concerned about interpersonal orientation of

consultant who is from a majority culture Consultee from a majority culture may be more

interested in the assistance-value of a consultant


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Diagnosis Stage


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Stage II: Diagnosis Phase One: Gathering information

Phase Two: Defining the problem

Phase Three: Setting goals

Phase Four: Generating possible interventions


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Phase One:

Gathering Information

Deciding to proceed

Selecting dimension

Deciding who will be involved in data collection

Selecting the data collection methods


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Types of Data Genetic data

Current descriptive data

Process data

Interpretive data

Consultee-client system relationship data

Client system behavior data


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Means of Collecting Data

Interviews

Surveys

Questionnaires

Observation

Documents/Records


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Phase Two:

Defining the Problem

How many factors affect the problem?

How has the problem developed over time?

What past events are causing the current

problem?

How are future expectations related?


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Phase Three:

Setting Goals

The process of shaping a movement toward

concreteness and specificity from a broader,

more general perspective


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Goal Setting Steps

Specify objective

How will objective be

measured?

Specify target

Specify time span

Prioritize goals

Rate goals

Determinecoordination

requirements


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Phase Four: Generating

Possible Interventions

Intervention:A force that attempts to modify

some outcome

Actions or activities that, when put together in a

systematic manner, make up a plan to achieve a

goal


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Diagnosis Stage

Be aware of differences in gathering data

Be aware of perceptions of what needs to be

accomplished held by consultee

Cultural differences can play a role in

interventions proposed


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Implications for Diagnosis

Consultee from a high context culture may prefer

interviewing and observation

Those from a low context culture may prefersurveys or document research

Some cultural groups may see the focus of

diagnosis as being the group, and some may see

focus as being the individual


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Implementation Stage


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Stage III: Implementation

Phase One: Choosing an intervention

Phase Two: Formulating a plan

Phase Three: Implementing the plan

Phase Four: Evaluating the plan


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Phase One:

Choosing an Intervention

Select one or two interventions that have high

probability of being successful

Take advantage of decision consultation


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Increasing Focus on

Evidenced-Based Interventions Evidenced-based interventions are validated

by research and/or data-based decision making


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Types of Interventions

Individual interventions

Dyadic and triadic interventions

Interventions for use between groups Interventions for the entire organization


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Phase Two:

Formulating the Plan

Plan:A detailed step-by-step method, formulated

before hand, for doing something

Considerations:

What (objective)

Where (locale of implementation)

When (time frame) How (methods, procedures, sequence)

Who (who is responsible for what)


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Phase Three:

Implementing the Plan

Help consultee be flexible

Reassure and prepare consultee

Offer technical assistance during this time

Exercise caution toward dependency


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Treatment Integrity Treatment integrity has typically been

presumed but not assessed

Important in drawing conclusions about

interventions success

Sometimes referred to as treatment fidelity

In its simplest form refers to the degree to

which the intervention is implemented asintended


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Treatment Integrity contd Treatment integrity has two dimensions

First dimension focuses on how effectively the

consultee carries out the intervention

The traditional focus on treatment integrity in

consultation

Second dimension is consultation procedural

integrity (CPI)

Refers to how well the consultant carries out consultation

process in which the intervention is embedded


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Treatment Integrity contd Recently, methods for assessing treatment

integrity have received attention

Interviews, observation and monitoring of

implementation, training in the intervention, anduse of scripted intervention plans can assess

treatment integrity


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Phase Four:

Evaluating the Plan

Evaluation:The collection of data/information

about implementation to determine

effectiveness in meeting specified goal Implementation evaluation

Outcome evaluation


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Techniques Used in

Outcome Evaluation

Individualized goal attainment measures

Standardized outcome assessment devices

Consumer satisfaction survey


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Implementation Stage

Cultural differences can impact perception of

the type of intervention selected

These differences should be taken into accountwhen selecting and implementing an intervention

The question of responsibility during

implementation may be based on cultural

differences

During evaluation, it is important to have

multicultural input


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Application for Multicultural

Implications during Implementation

Some cultural groups choose to focus on using

groups rather than focusing on time factors

Some cultural groups may see efficiency of the

plan as most beneficial during evaluation

Other groups may evaluate social impact of plan


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Disengagement Stage


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Stage IV: Disengagement

Phase One: Evaluating the process of

consultation

Phase Two: Planning post-consultation matters

Phase Three: Reducing involvement and

following-up

Phase Four: Terminating


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Phase One:

Evaluating Process Determine process and effects of consultation

Assess accountability and improvements in

service

Add knowledge to the field of consultation


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Types of Evaluation

Summative

the evaluation of outcomes or products

Formative evaluation of the process of consultation

perform evaluations at the end of each

phase of consultation


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SummativeEvaluation Summative evaluation refers to the evaluation

of outcomes or products

Often referred to asproduct evaluation

Assesses how well consultation worked


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Types of

Summative Evaluation Pre-post method

Group comparison method

Single case method


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The Use of Qualitative

Methods in Consultation

Quantitative approach can get at cause and

effect

Qualitativeapproach can help explain why

the cause and effect relationship exists, for

whom it exists, and how to sustain any effects

that were observed


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Types of

Qualitative Methods Triangulation

Member checks

Recursive data collection

Case study method

Focus groups

Ethnographic interviews

i


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Phase Two: Planning Post-

Consultation Matters

Review planning process:

Determine objectives

Establish procedures

Define steps

Assign responsibility

Test for feasibility, cost effectiveness and capabilities

PhaseThree: Reducing


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Phase Three: Reducing

Involvement and Following-up

Reducing Involvement:Gradual reduction inconsultants contact

with consultee andorganization, whichprevents abrupttermination

Follow-up: Process ofperiodically checkinghow well results of

consultation are beingmaintained over timeand how theorganization isperforming post-

consultation efforts


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Phase Four: Terminating Terminating provides closure in a formal yet

personal manner

Leave consultee satisfied in process and

accomplishments Tie up unresolved issues before leaving

Beware of the issues of dependence and depression


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Disengagement Stage

Be aware of the cultural social needs of consultee

involving time factor involved with disengagement

Dependency during follow-up phase may beinfluenced by cultural factors

A li i f M l i l l


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Implications for Disengagement

Some consultees may require longer

follow-up period before termination as a

result of degree of dependency orimportance of relationships


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Pragmatic Issues Recent changes in society and organizations The influence of organizational theory

Bureaucratic model

Systems theory

The ecological perspective

Organizational change

P i I d


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Dealing with organizational culture Issues in assessment in organizations

Culturally sensitive organization

Time constraints

Pragmatic Issues contd

B i S i t l Ch


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Basic Societal Change

Affecting New Workers Diminishing percentage of young people

entering workforce

New workers less skilled than previousgenerations

A significant proportion of new workers

are from minority groups

Women make up at least 60% of new

workers

Organizational Changes


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Organizational Changes

Affecting the Workplace Increased complexity and diversification

Managers of agencies/organizations more

familiar with organizational change concepts Organizations/agencies more concerned with

ethics

Greater competition among all types of

organizations

O i ti l


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Organizational

Theory Defined The study of the structures and processes

of organizations and the behavior of

groups and individuals within them.


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The Bureaucratic Model Designed by Max Weber as the ideal of

organizational effectiveness

Means to ends in nature Each unit under direct control of higher unit

Organizations meant to be efficient, effective,

and equitable

Open Systems


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Open Systems

Organizational Theory Two types of systems: closed and open

Closed systems:

Not affected by their environments Have a finite amount of energy

When energy is used up, system runs down

Open systems:

Have permeable boundaries Can obtain energy from and send energy back to the

environment

Organizations can be viewed as open systems

F C t t


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Four Components to

Systems TheoryA framework (pattern of activities)

Goals

Methods and operations

People

Basic Assumptions of


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p

Systems Theory Organizations are open systems

Subject to internal and external influences

Considers organizations a totality Interdependence among its parts

Assumes that an organization is more than a sum

of its parts

Organizational behavior is seen as dynamic andcyclical

Nine Characteristics


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Nine Characteristics

of SystemsImportation of energy

The throughput

The outputSystems are cycles and events

Negative entropy

Information input, negative feedback, and the coding

processThe steady state and dynamic homeostasis

Differentiation

Equifinality

Fi S b t


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Five Subsystems

within an OrganizationThe technological or production subsystem

The support subsystemThe maintenance subsystem

The adaptive subsystem

The managerial subsystem


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The Ecological Perspective Emphasizes behavior as function of interaction

of characteristics of the environment and the

characteristics of the individual

Behavior needs to be examined in its givencontext

Interventions therefore need to focus on realigning

fit between environment and individual by changing

one or both

E l i l P ti


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Ecological Perspective

contd Often contrasted with medical model, which examines

problems as residing in the individual

Promotes environmental wellness factors that leadto individual self-esteem and competence as well as

the effort to lower incidence of environmental

stressors on individuals that may lead to negative

outcomes

Approaches to


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Approaches to

Organizational ChangeEmpirical-rational approach

Normative-reeducative approach

Power-coercive approach

Top-down approach

Bottom-up approach

Shared approach

Cultural Attributes of a


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Cultural Attributes of a

Successful OrganizationUniqueness in their philosophy

A focus by management on maintaining the philosophy

Deliberate attempts to integrate the philosophythroughout the organization

Involvement by all staff in communicating and

reinforcing an organization-wide view of events and

decisions

C lt rall Competent


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Culturally Competent

Organization Views diversity as a value-added opportunity

Proactive in responding to the constant diversity-

related, economic, political and social conditions Effectively provides services cross-culturally

Goal for consultants is to help to develop and maintain

an organization that is culturally competent in its

functioning through a variety of interventions atdifferent levels within the organization

S i l J i


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Social Justice Goal for consultants is to help to develop and maintain

an organization that is culturally competent in its

functioning through a variety of interventions at different

levels within the organization

Mental health professionals realize they must movebeyond one-on-one helping and assist with ecological and

systems interventions that promote positive human

development and remove barriers such as equal

opportunity for all organizational members


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Time Constraints Organization members increasingly asked to do more

with less

Time a precious commodity in organizations

Methods to create time for effective consultationinclude:

Scheduling meetings in advance as much as possible

Doing as much data gathering as possible early on in the

consultation process

Training prospective consultees in the problem-solving

process prior to consultation


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Models of Consultation

and Collaboration


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Mental Health Consultationand Collaboration

Basic Characteristics of


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Mental Health Consultation

Method used by professionals in respect to a lay client

or program for clients

Problem is mental health related

Consultant had no professional responsibility for theoutcome of the case

Consultee can accept or decline the suggestions of the

consultant

The relationship between consultant and consultee isto coordinate

Basic Characteristics of Mental


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Health Consultation (cont.)

The consultant is external

Consultation often takes place in short set of interviews

Consultants use problem/response method during

consultation, not predetermined answers Goals of consultation are to help consultee improve

handling or understanding of the current work difficulty

and to increase capacity to deal with future problems



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Health Consultation (cont.)

Consultation continues indefinitely

Aim of consultation is to improve job performance

Consultation does not focus on personal problems or

feelings of consultee Consultation is a professional function of specialist

MHC is a method of communication between mental

health specialist and other professionals


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Psychodynamic Approach

Fosters concept that behavior is a product of

unconscious motivation and that most personal

issues result from early childhood experiences,

resulting in conflicts that affect behavior and causeuse problems

MHC has become eclectic since this original

psychodynamic approach


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Transfer Effect

The concept that what is learned in one situation

should be useable in similar, future situations


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One-Downsmanship A valuable relationship building technique that

a consultant can use to ensure relationship

remains on equal footing

Types of Mental


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Health Consultation Client-centered case

Consultee-centered case

Program-centered administrative

Consultee-centered administrative

The Client Centered


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The Client-Centered

Case Process

Focus is clients case giving the consultee difficulty

Consultant functions as expert

The consultee acts as link between client and

consultant as well as professional collaborator

Application for


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Application for

Client-Centered Process

Create list of questions about both client and

consultees situations and options

Answer questions by gathering information fromconsultee

Write report for consultee outlining observations

and recommendations

Consultee-Centered


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Consultee-Centered

Case Process

Goal is improvement of consultees ability to work

on particular case and cases in the future

Consultant plays roles of detective, expert, andeducator

Application for Consultee


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Application for Consultee-

Centered Process

Determine what reason the consultee is having a

problem:

Lack of knowledge Lack of skill

Lack of self-confidence

Lack of professional objectivity

L k f Obj i i


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Lack of Objectivity Simple identification: Identifies with client

Transference: Transfers onto client feeling and attitudes

from key relationships in past

Characterological distortions: Personality problem thatinterferes with effective delivery of human services

Theme interference: Special type of transference in

which consultee experiences an unexplainable block

in progressing on case

Process of Program-Centered


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Process of Program Centered

Administrative Consultation

Assessment of mental health aspects of some

program or internal functioning of organization

Consultant should be knowledgeable and

experienced in:

Organizational theory and practice

Program development

Fiscal policy

Administrative procedures

Personal management

Administrator acts as principle consultee

Program-Centered


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Program-Centered

Administrative ProcessApplication:

Scanning: General overview of organization and its

functions

Gather and interpret additional data

Consultant makes interim recommendations

Formal report of recommendations for bothshort-term and long-term goals and methods of

implementation

Consultee-Centered


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Consultee Centered


Process:

Consultant works with organizations administrative-

level personnel to help solve problems in personal

management or implementation of organizational policy Administrator has job of helping consultant decide

whether additional forms of consultation are required,

whether there are to be other consultees and how

involved they are to be in the consultation process

Consultee Centered


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Consultee-Centered


Application:

Beginnings follow same methods as other

consultation processes Determine who consultees will be

Study organizations social system and identify

problems and issues

Trends in Mental


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Move toward eclecticism

Emergence of mental health collaboration

Major implication of Caplan and Caplans recentideas for practicing consultants seems to be

necessity for members of helping professions to

determine at outset of helping relationship whether

consultation or collaboration is in order

Trends in Mental

Health Consultation

Trends contd


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Trends contd

Consultee-centered consultation has evolved beyond

Caplans original conceptualization

Factors such as constructivist theory impact it

Process employs a constructivist approach thatemphasizes cognition and constructing conceptual

change

How consultee and consultant understand and view the

problem


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Multicultural Aspects Client-centered allows for minimal disclosure on

part of consultee

Consultee-case suitable for consultees wanting

assistance from a knowledgeable authority figure Increased breadth and flexibility allow for

sensitivity to cultural variables


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Behavioral Consultation andCollaboration

Behavioral


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Behavioral

Consultation Defined

Relationship whereby services consistent with

behavioral orientation are provided either

indirectly to a client or system or directly bytraining consultees to enhance skills with clients

and/or systems

Characteristics of


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Characteristics of

Behavioral Consultation

Use of indirect service delivery models

Reliance on behavioral technology principles

Diversity of intervention goals

Changes aimed at various targets in different

settings

Key Concepts in


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Key Concepts in

Behavioral Consultation

Scientific View of behavior

Emphasis on current influences on behavior

Principles of behavior change

Focus on problem solving


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The Consultation Process

Behavioral case consultation

Behavioral technology training

Behavioral systems consultation

Behavioral Case


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Consultation

Consultant provides direct, behavior-based service

to consultee concerning management of client or

group of clients assigned to consultee Consultants use system problem-solving process

to assist consultee with clients

VerbalizationTechnology


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Verbalization Technology Control of consultants and consultees

verbalizations by consultant for full benefit and

effectiveness for consultation process to occur

Four aspects: Message source

Message content

Message process

Message control

4 Stages of Problem


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g

Identification for BCC

Problem identification stage

Problem analysis

Plan (treatment) implementation stage

Problem (treatment) evaluation stage

Behavioral


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Behavioral

Technology Training

Used when consultees seek to increase general

usage of behavioral technology principles when

working with clients Often used in schools

TheTraining


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The Training Consultant trains consultees in general behavior

principles or specific behavioral technology skills

Can be formal or informal

Individual or group Education/training model (chap. 11) is similar to

this training

Behavioral Systems


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Behavioral Systems

Consultation

Behavioral technology principles applied to a

social system

Consultant uses principles to analyze and changeinteractions among various sub-systems of larger

social system or between two or more interactive

systems

The Consultants


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The Consultant s

Function and Roles

Expert in behavioral systems consultation,

systems theory, and behavioral ecology

Guides consultee through systematic problem-solving process

Consultation relationship is collaborative

Implications for


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Implications for

Consultation

Behavioral systems consultation assumes that all

or part of a system is experiencing functional

difficulty Consultation consists of the following:

System definition

System assessment

System intervention

System evaluation

Conjoint Behavioral


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j

Consultation Uses parents and teachers as conjoint consultees

Designed to bridge gap between school and home

and maximize spread of effects from one settingto another

Process parallels that of behavioral case

consultation while taking into consideration

ecological factors

CBC contd


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CBC cont d

Concepts of CBC are compatible with culturally-competent practice

Sheridan and Kratochwill (2008) recommend the

following practices to maximize CBCs

effectiveness with diverse families: Practice cultural sensitivity

Build trusting relationships

Address diversity issues directly

Enhance communication

Implement a family-centered approach

Collaboration from a


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Behavioral Perspective Use of behavioral collaboration can be increased

by organizations making effective use of

behavioral technology training

Multicultural Aspects Related


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p

to Behavioral Consultation Appealing to cultural groups that do not freely

express feelings

Valuable to cultural groups that want concrete

and predictable outcomes


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Organizational Consultationand Collaboration

Organizational


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g

Consultation Defined Process in which professional provides assistance

of a technical, diagnostic/prescriptive, or

facilitative nature to individual or group from

organization to enhance organizations ability to

deal with change and maintain or enhance

effectiveness in some designated way

Key Concepts in


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y p

Organizational Consultation Organization as client

Process is as important as content

Edgar Scheins


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g

Model of Consultation

Purchase of expertise

Education/training consultation

Program consultation

The doctor/patient model

The process model

The Purchase of


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Expertise Model

Consultee knows what problem is, what needs to

be done and who can help solve it

Consultant comes in as expert to simply solveproblem

Education/Training


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g

Consultation Most frequently used purchase of expertise

consultation

Consultant provides education/training services inany number of areas and settings

Critical Skills for Education/


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Training Consultation Assessing training needs

Developing and stating measurable objectives

Understanding learning and change process

Designing learning experience

Planning and designing educational events

Critical Skills for Educational/


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Training Consultation Using heuristic laboratory methods

Using multiple learning stimuli

Functioning as group teacher or trainer Helping others learn how to learn

4 Steps of Educational/


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p

Training Consultation

Needs assessment

Planning education/training activities

Performing education/training

Evaluation

Program Consultation


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Program Consultation Form of purchase expertise consultation in which

organization in some way uses consultant to help

plan new program or revise or deal with factors

that affect existing program Goal is to provide an organization technical

assistance so a given program can be successful

The Doctor/Patient Model


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The Doctor/Patient Model Consultee knows something is wrong, but does

not know what is wrong

Consultant is given power to make diagnosis and

prescribe solution

Goal is to define problem and recommend

realistic interventions

Critical Skills for the


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Doctor/Patient Model Diagnostic skills

Prescriptive skills

In-depth knowledge of organizational theory Ability to read organizations

Data collection skills

Date interpretation skills

Human relations skills

The Process Model


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The Process Model Consultants expertise should include skills to

involve consultee in defining the problem, to form

team with consultee and to ensure that

consultation process focuses on consultees needs Consultant makes consultee more effective

problem solver

Seven Steps to


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Process Consultation Making initial contact

Defining relationship

Selecting a setting and method of work Gathering data/making diagnosis

Intervening

Reducing involvement

Terminating

P C lt ti td


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Process Consultation contd Prevention is key goal

Process consultation considers how persons, settings

and events become resources for positive

developments within an organization

Consultant uses humble and critical inquiry, by

which consultant makes no assumptions in order to

get to the notions about what consultee really wants

Collaboration from an


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Organizational Perspective Aim is same as organizational consultation

Enhanced functioning of the organization

Emergence of internal consultant role has createdmany opportunities for collaboration in organizations

Multicultural Aspects Related

t O i ti l C lt ti


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to Organizational Consultation Cultural groups that prefer structured, expert-

based consultation will find purchase of expertisemodel attractive

Cultural groups preferring assistance in problemdefinition will find doctor/patient model attractive

Cultural groups for which relationship is essentialwill prefer process model

Trends in Organizational


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g

Consultation Major trends are linked to several societal factors:

Impact of living and working in an information society

Ever-increasing pace of change in all aspects of life Growing awareness that quality change requires

systemic thinking

Realization that change can be successfully

accomplished only through social influence

Increasing internationalization and diversity within

organizations


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School Based Consultationand Collaboration

School-Based Consultation


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and Collaboration Consultation and collaboration are effective in

providing psychological services in schools

As mental health and instructional needs ofstudents have become of increasing concern,

interest in consultation and collaboration has

increased



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and Collaboration contd Increased importance due to:

Revisions to the Individuals with Disabilities Act

School violence

No Child Left Behind Act

Emphasis on school reform and restructuring

Increased school accountability and high stakes

testing School-based consultation can be focused on

primary prevention, secondary prevention or

tertiary prevention



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and Collaboration contd Consultants have ability to significantly impact

mental health and development of children by

improving skills and knowledge of parents and

those professionals who work with children atschool

Manner in which consultation and collaboration

take place in schools varies according to the

model being employed

Consulting and Collaborating


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with School Administrators Schools leadership is powerful force in

determining extent to which consultation and

collaboration are considered acceptable services

Consultants will want to remember that

administrator support and acceptance of

programs is essential for change to occur

Administrators have priorities and pressures for

which they may actively seek consultation

Organizational

Development Consultation


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Development Consultation Series of planned and sustained efforts to apply

principles of behavioral science to improve

functioning of the school

Not an event of itself, but a process of changing thesystem

Way of making carefully planned, predictable

change in school

Goal is to enhance schools effectiveness by helpingschool personnel understand and effectively act on

problems

Consulting and

Collaborating with Teachers


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Collaborating with Teachers School-based consultants assist teachers with both

academically and behavioral challenged children

as well as those with lesser concerns

School consultation and collaboration can beeffective and efficient ways to help teachers

enhance professional skills

Consultants work strategically to address both

student presenting issues and consultee behaviorand cognition

Teachers contd


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Consultants have engaged in collaboration withteachers as method of providing service to

students and families

Consultation has benefited teachers in variety of

areas Conducting effective parent conferences

Managing student behavior

Choosing instructional methodologies

Meeting unique needs of children of military

children

Adlerian Consultation:


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Consultation with Teachers Four basic assumptions:

Teachers cannot take responsibility for student

behavior

Teachers should be more involved with

encouragement than with praise

Teachers cannot always prevent failure on part of

student

Teachers need to try to meet affective and cognitive

needs of students

C-Group


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Consultation

Collaboration

Clarification

Caring

Confrontation

Communication

Cohesion

Commitment

Change

Concern

Confidentiality

Forces of the group:

C-Group contd


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Group consists of four to six teachers and

consultant

Meets once a week

Six to eight sessions

Teacher presents problems with individualstudent and group discusses them

Instructional Consultation


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Collaborative process in which problem is

identified and interventions are selected and

made

Instructional consultation (IC) is important model

for helping teachers modify instructional behaviorand more effectively create learning environment

for students

Goal of IC is to increase student and staff

performance regarding student academic andbehavioral issues

Steps of Instructional


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Consultation

Establishing collaborative relationship

Identifying problem

Observing classroom

Assessing curriculum-based learning

Planning instructional intervention

Terminating

Instructional


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Consultation contd Three ecological components make up

instructional triangle and are assessed:

a) Current competencies and skill sets of studentb) Tasks expected to be accomplished by student

c) Teachers management and instructional behavior

Instructional


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Most common roles of instructional consultant

appear to be those of collaborator and

educational trainer

May also include being advocate for particular

instructional technique or service for student

Recent developments in this model include

concept of instructional consultation teams andecological perspectives

Consultation contd

Consulting and

Collaborating with Families


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Collaborating with Families Schools are consciously attempting to assist children

and increase parental/guardian involvement

Families influence students academic, social, and

behavioral competencies

Consultation and collaboration with families are

essential and has been on the rise

Research has shown that parent consultation can be

effective in assisting with school-based behavioral and

emotional problems of students

Parent Case Consultation


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Parents may seek out consultation for a variety ofreasons

Their childs moving into or out of the school

Their childs academic, emotional, or social behavior

Can be Adlerian, behavior, or mental health

Goal is to promote increased positive involvement

by parents in school life of their child and improve

family relationships

Home School Collaboration


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Goal is to create effective partnerships betweenschool-based professionals and parents to enhance

student learning

In collaborating with parents, school-based

professionals ensure parents are true partners, areviewed as experts on their children, and have

some responsibility for the outcomes

Home-School


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Collaboration contd Parent involvement typically one-way flow of

information from school to parent

Home-collaboration: a two-way communication effort

based on joint efforts to assist the child

Sometimes referred to as home-school partnerships

or school-family partnerships

From an ecological perspective, often helpful tothink of school and parents together rather than

only separately

Home-School


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Collaboration contd Allows parent to exercise their roles, rights and

responsibilities related to childs welfare

School personnel can learn detailed informationabout child and family and engage parents in

jointly defined goals

Reciprocal influences of home and school on

student learning is maximized

Home-School


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Collaboration contdBasic considerations in home-school collaboration

include:

A preventive, problem-solving approach Both educators and families are critical in

socializing learners

Broad opportunities for parent participation are

essential Building relationships with parents can take time

and effort

Cross-Cultural


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ConsiderationsWhen working with parents: Culture directly influences family in significant

manner

Consultants can ensure schools remove barriersfor non-mainstream parents

Consultants will want to exercise caution inmaking any generalizations regarding

characteristics of a given culture

Cross-Cultural


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Considerations contd

Difference can impact the way consultant works

with parents about the school-related issues child is

facing Diversity within culturally diverse groups (i.e.,

individual differences) needs to be taken into

account

Cross-Cultural


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Consultants will want to involve parents by taking

on collaborative role to tap knowledge base and

expertise on their children as method of

consulting with cultural competence

Cross-Cultural


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Holcomb-McCoy (2009) and Holcomb-McCoy &

Bryan (2010)

Discuss emerging framework for parent

consultation involving advocacy and empowerment

that leads to a more supportive, culturally-

responsive climate at school

Consultation in this form considers and deals with

existing cultural differences and acknowledgesinterdependence of parents and their

environmental contexts

Interagency Collaboration


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Rationale: Problems of children effect all aspects of childs

life

Shared responsibility for case shifts focus from

what the school can do to what the communityshould do to provide services

Interagency contd


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Agencies collaborate to help children and theirfamilies, promote community mental health

reform, or develop systems-level programs to

promote student success and well-being

School, health services, social services, the childevaluation center, family services organizations, and

often the family itself

Interagency collaboration and school-community

partnerships can be effective in improving accessto services for citizens as well as to meet their

complex needs

Interagency contd


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Collaboration requires cultural competence

Shared responsibility necessitates solid agreement

on roles and responsibilities of individual

collaborators Collaborating professionals will want to recognize

that their team will have distinct personality

that will impact how the team will function

Interagency contd


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Five elements of interdisciplinary collaboration:1. Interdependence

2. Progress in collaboration involves building

interventions with the contributions of each

collaborator3. Flexibility in collaborative process to

accommodate power sharing and role adaptation

4. Collective ownership of goals

5. Discussion of progress and feedback to fellowcollaborators

Multicultural


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School Consultation Approach to consultation that takes into account how

cultural issues affect consultation process and how

related adaptations can be implemented at individual,

group or system-wide levels Ethnic and linguistic minority children constitute the

most rapidly growing segment of the youth population

in the U.S.

Consultants take into account individual differencesand cultural issues

Multicultural School


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Consultation contdIngraham (2000) points out several components of

multicultural school consultation:

Domains for consultant learning and development(e.g., understanding cultural context for

consultation)

Domains of consultee learning and development

(e.g., avoiding overemphasis on culture)

Cultural variations in consultation constellation

(e.g., taking into account cultural differences

among consultant, consultee, and client system)

Multicultural School


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Consultation contd Ingraham (continued):

Contextual and power influences (e.g., minimizing

power differentials between consultant andconsultee)

Hypothesized methods for supporting consultee

and client success (e.g., using consultation

methods matched with consultees style)

Multicultural contd


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Lopez and Truesdales six underlying principles thatfacilitate framing multicultural consultation:

1. Consultants are sensitive to cultural differences

2. Consultants and consultees acquire knowledge about

their clients cultural backgrounds

3. Consultants are mindful of cultural differences in

communication

4. Cultural differences influence interpersonal

relationships between consultants and consultees.

5. Multicultural issues are addressed throughout everystage of the consultation process

6. Consultants acknowledge how systemic issues impact

the cultural context of consultation

Multicultural contd


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Multicultural consultation has increasing empiricalsupport for its effectiveness but more is needed

Practical Matters


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Consultation/collaboration and special education Response to intervention (RTI)

Systems view of the school

Developing a framework for prevention and

intervention

Time constraints

Practical Matters:


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Special Education

Contributors to increased opportunities for

consultation and collaboration in areas related to

special education:

Federal legislation

Advances in the field of special education

National organizations related to school-based

professionals

Dictates an awareness of special education literatureincluding classifications as well as assessment methods

and related ethical, professional and legal issues

Practical Matters:


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RTI

RTI is a systemic intervention and change

Consultants often needed in its implementation

Practical Matters:


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RTI vs. Consultation

RTI and consultation are both problem-solving

activities but not one in the same

Consultation focuses on teacher-consultee while RTI

focuses on student client Consultants can be internal or external to school whereas

professionals implementing RTI are school-based

Consultation is less likely to be team-based like RTI

Consultation focuses on more areas and can be moregeneral than RTI

Participation in consultation is voluntary while

participation in RTI may not be

Practical Matters:


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Systems View of Schools

Individual interventions often not adequate in dealing

with issues related to educational and psychological

well-being of students

Systems view allows for capacity building within

schools that includes development of supportive

environments for all stakeholders

Allows for the use of ecological and preventive

perspectives and their related interventions

Can reflect a postmodernism point-of-view

Practical Matters:


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Consultants take on broad framework for consultation

because of complexity of organizational factors and

how they can be changed

Consultants and consultees can intervene at severalecological levels including individual client level

Takes focus of a reactive approach for dealing with

issues of individual students to broader approach that

promotes prevention and well-being of all students

Practical Matters:


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System-level change demands that all aspects of

education be examined in terms of multiple levels and

be based multiple partnerships among stakeholders

All students receive services that match their needs

Idea is that consultant will use existing structures and

processes within school to target, initiate and maintain

system level changes including evaluating and

sustaining change initiatives

Practical Matters:


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One concern is that not all teachers are comfortable

with systems approaches

Some want more concrete ways of approaching

perceived problems

Many school consultants have not been trained in

systems methods

View typically dictates that consultants examine child

in interaction with a variety of levels of the ecosystemsuch as home, school, and community

Complicates nature of consultation relationship

Practical Matters:


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Developing Framework forPrevention and Intervention Prevention programs seeing resurgence in schools

Many have been designated as evidenced-based Focus of prevention is to build capacities in

systems (e.g., a school or other organization) so

overall development of members of that system in

things such as mental health, social skills, andhealth is optimized relative to the mission of the

system

Practical Matters:


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Developing a Framework Interventions include:

Tier 1: Universal

Target the entire population

Tier 2: Selective

Target segment of the population at risk

Tier 3: Indicated

Target students who need individualized and intense

intervention

Each of the three tiers provides great

opportunities for consultation

Practical Matters:


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Time Constraints Time constraints are large and real issue for

conducting effective consultation and

collaboration

Limitation of school consultation and

collaboration is that both take time to do well

Effective time management on the part of school

professionals is one obvious help in creating timefor consultation and collaboration

Practical Matters:


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Time Constraints

Consultants can have more positive impact on

consultation process by using their limited time to

observe and assess the problem, model and coach

Other strategies:

Early release/late arrival of students

Use of substitutes

Teaching strategies that free up personnel

Use of telephone and/or other technologies such as VoIPand e-mail for task accomplishment

Engaging in peer consultation

Use of group methods.

School Consultationst


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in the 21st

CenturyConsultation and collaboration will:

Focus more on positively impacting all students

Develop culturally sensitive interventions Engage in system-level initiatives

Use data-driven decision making

Use the ecological approach more often

School Consultation inst


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the 21 Century contd

Use of telephone, texting, the web and e-mail to

accomplish tasks (such as follow-up) increasing

Use of consultation and collaboration teams will

continue to increase

Role of consultants and collaborators in gifted

education receiving increased attention

School-based consultants will help their schools create

positive climate with regard to school reformmovements continuing impact on public education



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Infusion of positive psychology to increase well-being

of individuals in school through mental health and

behavioral consultation also receiving more attention

Positive behavior support (PBS) movement willprovide an approach that allows consultant to help

develop support and interventions at individual,

classroom or school-levels

Multiple issues brought about by high-stakes testing,such as teacher burnout, will be fertile areas for

consultation



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School-based consultants may well be called upon to

serve as cultural mediators between school and

community

School-based consultants will be increasingly calledupon to promote childrens health and collaborate

with medical/health professionals to meet childrens

health needs

School-based consultants are increasingly called on toact as organizational consultants during a disaster or a

national or local crisis


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Case Study Illustrations

Case Study Illustrations


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Purpose of this chapter is to assist in applying

theory to practice and obtaining a more realistic

picture of what transpires in consultation

ACME Human Services Center

Typescript of consultation and collaboration

sessions


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Ethical and Legal Issues

Ethics Defined


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Standards of moral and professional conduct Code of ethics: Written ethical guideline followed

by professionals

Discourages inappropriate practice

Protects recipient of services

Promotes exemplary behavior

Making Ethical Judgments


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Identify problem

Identify potential

issues

Review ethicalguidelines

Consult colleagues

Consider courses of

action

Consider

consequences for

various decisions

Determine best course

of action

Values Beliefs and principles held by a person that have


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p p y p

been formed by his or her life experiences

Consultant should know what his or her values are

Consultant should not expect others to hold the

same values

Consultant should be aware of specific values held

by cultural and ethnic groups

Competence


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Providing services and accepting jobs for which

one is qualified

Maintain high levels of professionalism

Know ones professional limitations

Know when to decline and refer

Avoid situations in which personal concerns could

affect professional performance

Multicultural Issues


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Ethical practice dictates that consultants take

cultural context of consultees and client systems

into account

To practice ethically, consultants need to

demonstrate sensitivity to and respect for cultural

differences when they provide services whether to

families, in schools, or in any other organization

Consultant-Consultee-


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Client

RelationshipWork-related focus

Dual relationships

Freedom of choice

Rights of Consultees


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Confidentiality: Protecting the identities of parties

involved in consultation

Informed consent: To inform consultees about the

nature and goals of consultation, their right to

privacy, the voluntary nature of participation and

the complete freedom they have in following

suggestions made by the consultant

The Consultant


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and the Group Consulting with groups with caseloads

Intervention Areas


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Involving Ethical Issues

Individual vs. systems-level

Use of assessment data

Empirical validity of interventions

Issues in Disaster/Crisis


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Consultation Consultants bear in mind acute vulnerability of

client system in crisis and disaster situations

Resulting chaotic environment will heightenethical considerations

Consultants assure that cultural competence is

exhibited when engaging in crisis consultation in

that responses to a crisis vary to a given culture

Ethical Issues in


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Organizational Consultation Typical ethical issues exacerbated by complexity

or organization

Aspirational ethics

Virtue ethics

Consulting


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Over the Internet Relationship development

Confidentiality

Location-specific factors

Collaboration


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and Ethical Issues Not all collaborators may have freedom to participate

in team effort

Confidentiality is assumed in consultation

In collaboration, pertinent material may have to be

distributed among team members

In consultation, consultee can accept or refuse

consultants recommendations

In collaboration, such freedom is not presumed due toeach team members unique knowledge and skills to

which other team members typically defer

Legal Issues: Malpractice


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Behaviors often leading to legal entanglements: Misrepresenting ones training

Failing to respect integrity and privacy

Using improper diagnosis and assessment

Collecting fees improperly Libel and slander

Breech of contract

Failing to keep adequate records