schafer 2000 soil and tillage research
TRANSCRIPT
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The soil and climate characterisation of benchmark sites forlowland rice-based cropping systems research in
the Philippines and Indonesia
B.M. Schafera, G. Kirchhofb,*
a
School of Agriculture and Horticulture, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld 4343, AustraliabSchool of Land and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia
Abstract
Soil morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical properties are described at ve locations in major rice (Oryza
sativa L.) growing areas of the Philippines (two sites) and in Indonesia (three sites) which were selected for lowland rice-based
cropping systems research. The data were used to classify the soils into the local soil series, soil taxonomy and The Australian
Soil Classication systems. These data were intended to facilitate transfer of knowledge of improved farming systems
technology to other lowland rice growing areas in the regions. The soils were classied as Andsisols, Inceptisols and Vertisols,
and were characterised by clay contents ranging from 370 to 870 g kg1 and cation exchange values ranging between 17 and
68 cmol (p) kg1
for whole soil. pH values were neutral to mildly alkaline. Land surface and root zone attributes werequalitatively evaluated for limitations to post-rice crop production by interpretation of modied surface and sub-soil properties
associated with rice production. Leakiness of bunds was also examined and mainly attributed to biological activity and for the
development of drainage channels. Climatic data are presented for each of the ve sites and the characteristics for potential
rainfall incidence are given for the post-rice dry season crop period. The soil sites selected have a range of properties which
are deemed to represent large areas of soils used for rice production in these two countries.# 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Rice soils; Pedology; Soil properties; Climate
1. Introduction
Soils used for lowland rice-based cropping systems
in Indonesia and the Philippines are characterised by
high surface clay content and the fact that they are
puddled to aid water retention during the inundation
period of the rice crop cycle. Following a rice crop, the
potential to use sub-surface soil water for upland crop
production entails amelioration of the adverse effects
of puddling on surface soils. For successful cropestablishment the rainfall incidence following rice
is critical. Consequently soilclimate constraints are
a major consideration at the early stage of the dry
season crop cycle and seed bed preparation together
with timing of the establishment phase is critical
(Rahmianna et al., 1996).
Two sites in the Philippines and three sites in
Indonesia were selected as benchmark sites for an
international collaborative project to investigate
soil management strategies to increase yields of dry
season crops following rice. Components of these
Soil & Tillage Research 56 (2000) 1535
* Corresponding author. Present address: NSW Agriculture, PMB
944, Tamworth NSW 2340, Australia. Tel.: 61-2-67-63-1147;
fax: 61-2-67-63-1222.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Kirchhof).
0167-1987/00/$ see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 1 9 8 7 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 1 2 0 - 3
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management strategies include various soil tillage
practices, application of mulch and amendments
and agronomic practices.
Comparison across the ve sites requires detailedcharacterisation of soil properties using standard
description terminology and analytical methods for
classication, according to soil taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff, 1994). Characterisation is also required to facil-
itate transfer of research outcomes to other rice
growing regions in terms of the combined effects
of soilclimate attributes and tillage treatments on
potential crop establishment, growth and yield of
dry season crops. This paper provides detailed
descriptions of the soils and climate at the ve experi-
mental sites. This should avoid the use of incompletesoil and climate descriptions in the following papers
from the project.
In the Philippines the soils of the Bulacan Province
have been described, mapped and classied in detail
(Soil Survey Division, 1987). Soil description and
analytical characteristics were provided for soil near
the site at Manaoag in the Pangasinan Province.
However the data were not correlated with soils in
the region and terminology used was insufcient for
classication.
The soils of East Java have been variously describedand classied at the regional level but limited data
were available for the selected experimental sites. In
South Sulawesi, the soils of the Maros Agricultural
Research Station have been described (Ali and Sawijo,
1982) although the experimental site was outside of
the area surveyed.
The climate in the Philippines is governed by
northeast and southwest monsoon air streams. The
northwest monsoon originates in the cold Asiatic
winter anticyclone and produces a distinct dry season
from around October to May. The southwest monsoonoriginates as an Indian Ocean anticyclone during the
southern hemisphere winter. It usually commences
in early May, reaches its maximum inuence in
August and abates in October. Monsoonal rains can
occur as early as April and May and persist until
November.
The Philippines is located in a region which is
recognised as having the greatest frequency of tropical
cyclones (typhoons) in the world (Flores and Balagot,
1969). They produce rainfall between May and
December with a mean monthly frequency of greater
than 0.5 throughout the year, but generally less than
1.0 between January and May.
The climate in Indonesia is dominated by monsoo-
nal air streams which are at opposite times of the yearto those in the Philippines. Rainfall in Java is largely
affected by the position of the intertropical conver-
gence zone which passes through twice annually. It is
inuenced by the mountainous areas of Borneo and
Sumatra (Sukanto, 1969). Although the wet and dry
seasons are distinct, a moderate amount of rainfall
occurs during the dry season which results in rainfall
throughout the year. In southeast Sulawesi, a distinct
dry season occurs but wet season rainfall is consider-
ably higher than that of Java due to the inuence of the
landmasses and mountains of Borneo. Compared tothe Philippines, Indonesia has a very low incidence of
tropical cyclones.
2. Methods
Soil pits were hand dug to a minimum depth of
1.5 m to expose a vertical face of soil within a rice
paddy and also to expose a vertical face of the
associated bund. The proles were described using
terminology proposed by McDonald et al. (1984) withminor modication by the use of consistence terms
proposed by Soil Survey Staff (1951). This modica-
tion was made to facilitate communication with the
professional workers in the two countries. The sites
and prole exposures were photographed to provide avisual record.
Soils were sampled for laboratory analysis by tak-
ing bulk samples from the designated horizons. These
samples were analysed by the CSIRO Laboratories
located in Canberra and Adelaide, Australia (Ring-
rose-Voase et al., 1996). Chemical methods follow theAustralian Laboratory Handbook of Soil and Water
Chemical Methods (Rayment and Higginson, 1992).
Particle size analysis was determined by the sedigraph
method (Hutka and Ashton, 1995) and mineralogy of
the clay fraction was analysed semi-quantitatively by
X-ray diffraction (Raven, 1995).
The soils were classied according to soil taxon-
omy (Soil Survey Staff, 1994) and The Australian Soil
Classication (Isbell, 1996). Soil survey reports and
local information gained from professional workers
associated with the program were used to identify soils
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classied at the series level and to assist in the other
classication systems.
3. Soil descriptions
3.1. Benchmark Site 1, San Ildefonso
Location the Philippines, Luzon Island, Bu-
lacan Province, San Ildefonso (see
Fig. 1), Barangay Buenasita, Cen-
tral Soil and Water Resources
Research Station
Classification soil series: Mahipon series; soil
taxonomy: Ustic Epiaquert andAustralian Classification: Endocal-
careous, Mottled, Epipedal and
Aquic Vertosol
Topography gently sloping (38) to undulating
relief; site component, slightly
dissected lower piedmont footslope
fringing a closed depression
Parent material colluvium derived from sandstone,
shale and limestone
Drainage surface: well drained and internal:
impeded and slowly permeableLand use rice-based cropping
Prole morphology
Ap1, (mixed, puddled) 013 cm, dark yellowishbrown (10 YR 4/4), dark greyish brown (10 YR 4/2
moist), very dark grey (10 YR 4/1), dark brown (7.5
YR 4/4) (dominant) mixed, gravelly, fine sandy clay;
moderate medium, 510 mm, angular blocky; rough
ped fabric; dry extremely hard, moist firm, wet sticky
and plastic. Common fine roots with rusty mottlingon walls of very fine macropores (root channels).
2530%, 14 mm, sub-rounded, cemented ferro-
manganiferous nodules. Occasional 7 cm diameter
sub-rounded pebbles of dolerite. Field pH 6.0.
Clear discontinuous wavy with tongued pockets of
gravelly fine sandy clay to: A12, 1327 cm, light
brownish grey (10 YR 6/2 moist) with dark grey
(10 YR 3/1), dark greyish brown (10 YR 4/2) many
medium distinct mottles; gravelly fine sandy clay;
moderate, 510 mm, angular blocky; rough ped
fabric; dry extremely hard, moist firm, wet sticky
and plastic. Few very fine macropores. 510% soft to
hard ferro-manganiferous nodules. Occasional sub-
angular quartz and feldspar crystals. Field pH 6.0.
Discontinuous wavy to: B21, (Mn) 2767 cm, lightolive grey (5 Y 6/2 moist) with many, medium
distinct brownish yellow (10 YR 6/6 moist)
mottles; gravelly medium clay; strong, 20
50 mm, lenticular with intersecting slickensides
parting to 1050 mm, angular blocky and 25 mm
lenticular; smooth ped fabric; dry hard, moist firm,
wet sticky and plastic. Occasional 25 mm dia-
meter quartz gravels with translucent iron coatings.
Common very fine pores and roots. Field pH 6.5.
Gradual wavy to: B22, (Ca) 6797 cm, light olive
grey (5 Y 6/2 moist) with many medium distinctbrownish yellow (10 YR 6/6) mottles; medium
clay; strong, 2050 mm lenticular with intersect-
ing (30608) slickensides parting to 1050 mm
angular blocky and 25 mm lenticular; smooth ped
fabric; dry hard, moist firm, wet, very sticky and
plastic. Field pH 8.0. 5%, sub-rounded, soft CaCO3nodules. Occasional black manganese nodules.
Gradual wavy to: B23, 97140 cm, light olive grey
(5 Y 6/2 moist) medium clay; strong, 25 mm
lenticular with slickensides on compound ped
surfaces; smooth ped fabric; moist friable, wetsticky and very plastic. Occasional black sub-
rounded manganese nodules. Field pH 8.0.
Clear to: C, 140150 cm (continuing), weathered
shale.
3.2. Benchmark Site 2, Manaoag
Location the Philippines, Luzon Island, Pan-
gasinan Province, Manaoag (see
Fig. 2), Barangay Calmay and
farmers fieldClassification soil series: San Manuel silty clay
loam; soil taxonomy: Typic Ustro-
pept and Australian Classification:
Haplic, Eutrophic, Grey and Der-
mosol
Topography backslope (
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Fig. 1. Benchmark Site 1, San Ildefonso, Ustic Epiaquert.
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Fig. 2. Benchmark Site 2, Manaoag, Typic Ustropept.
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Prole morphology
Ap1, 011 cm, very dark greyish brown (10 YR 3/
2 moist) silty clay; coarse polyhedral with
conchoidal faces (primary), breaking to compound
prismatic (secondary) breaking to strong, 25 cm
polyhedral (tertiary); rough ped fabric; dry ex-
tremely hard, moist very firm, wet sticky and
plastic. Common fine roots. Field pH 6.5.
Abrupt smooth to: Ap2, 1138 cm, dark greyish
brown (10 YR 4/2 moist) silty clay; coarse
polyhedral with conchoidal faces breaking to
compound prismatic, further breaking to strong,
25 cm polyhedral; rough ped fabric; dry extre-
mely hard, moist very firm, wet stick and plastic.Common fine roots. Field pH 6.5.
Arbitrary clear smooth to: A13, 3869 cm, dark
greyish brown (10 YR 4/2) silty medium clay;
compound prismatic breaking to moderate fine 2
5 mm polyhedral with well developed organans,
rough ped fabric; dry hard, moist friable, wet
sticky and plastic. Occasional roots. Field pH 7.0.
Arbitrary clear smooth to: A14, 69104 cm, dark
greyish brown (10 YR 4/2 moist) medium clay,
compound prismatic 25 cm breaking to medium
37 mm polyhedral with well developed organans;rough ped fabric; dry extremely hard, moist friable,
wet sticky and plastic. Occasional roots. Field pH
7.5.
Arbitrary clear to: AC1, 104117 cm, very dark
greyish brown (10 YR 3/2) common medium
distinct dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/6) mottles;
silty loam; compound prismatic breaking to
medium, 37 mm polyhedral; rough ped fabric;
dry hard, moist friable, wet sticky and plastic.
Occasional roots. Field pH 7.5.
Arbitrary to: AC2, 117160 cm (continuing), darkyellowish brown (10 YR 4/6) many medium
distinct, very dark greyish brown, mottles (organ-
ic); silty clay loam; compound prismatic breaking
to medium 37 mm, polyhedral; rough ped fabric;
dry extremely hard, moist firm, wet sticky and
plastic. Field pH 7.5.
3.3. Benchmark Site 3, Ngale
Location Indonesia, East Java, Ngawi,
Ngale Experiment Station of the
Research Institute for Legume and
Tuber Crops (RILET) (see Fig. 3)
and Malang (formerly MARIF)
Classification soil series: unnamed; soil taxon-omy: Chromic Epiaquert and Aus-
tralian Classification: Haplic,
Epipedal and Aquic VertosolTopography almost flat (
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Fig. 3. Benchmark Site 3, Ngale, Chromic Epiaquert.
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3.4. Benchmark Site 4, Jambegede
Location Indonesia, East Java, Jambegede
(se e Fig. 4), 20 km south of Malang at the Research Institute
for Legume and Tuber Crops (RI-
LET) and Malang (formerly MAR-
IF)
Classification soil series: unnamed; soil taxon-
omy: Anthraquic Hapludand and
Australian Classification: Mottled,
Sodic, Eutrophic and Black, Der-
mosol
Topography levee backslope (1.58)
Parent material weathered andesitic tuff and ashDrainage surface: seasonal flooding and
internal: moderately well drained,
moderately permeable
Land use rice-based cropping systems
Prole morphology
Ap, (puddled) 018 cm, very dark grey (10 YR 3/1
moist) admixed with partly humified crop residue:
dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/6) mottling at
admixture face; light clay; blocks 1015 cm
cracking coincidentally with plant row distribution.Blocks break into 57 mm sub-angular with rusty
brown cutans. Some evidence of platiness 25 cm
width at base of puddling depth. Earthy fabric;
moist friable, wet sticky and plastic. Common
roots. Field pH 77.5.
Clear smooth to: A12, 1845 cm, very dark grey
(10 YR 3/1 moist) common medium faint yellow-
ish brown (10 YR 5/8) mottles; light to mediumclay; strong coarse, 2040 mm sub-angular blocky
with incipient conchoidal faces on upper surfaces;
rough ped fabric and macropores; moist friable to
firm. Few reddish brown (2.5 YR 4/6) earthy scoria
to 4 cm diameter. Field pH 88.5.
Fig. 4. Benchmark Site 4, Jambegede, Anthraquic Hapludand.
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Diffuse smooth to: A13, 4562 cm, very dark grey
(10 YR 3/2 moist) common coarse distinct yellow-
ish red mottle, medium clay; coarse angular blocky
to strong polyhedral (57 mm), rough ped fabricand common macropores; moist friable to firm.
Field pH 77.5. Few roots. Occasional (
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Fig. 5. Benchmark Site 5, Maros, Aeric Tropaquept.
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probably due to wetting and drying cycles of the
surface soil which inundates during wet seasons.
Current cropping practices have probably accelerated
the process of nodule formation. Layering evident inthe Ap horizon was deemed to be due to puddling.
Tongues of Ap horizon soil material in A12 horizon
were interpreted as inll wash of surface material into
vertical cracks following saturation and dispersion of
soil material with low liquid limits. Churning of
material in the upper part of the prole was evidenced
by the presence of up to 50 cm diameter pockets of
contrasting sandy textured soil material which indi-
cated that pedoturbation had occurred during pedi-
ment development. The boundary of the pocket was
coincidental with major slickenside surfaces whichindicated considerable internal mixing of surface and
sub-soil materials. Vertical cracks up to 1 cm wide and
at mean intervals of 50 cm were evident to 150 cm
depth.
Soil properties of the bund were found to be similar
to the Ap horizon. The position of the bunds is not
permanently located and they are reformed on a
seasonal basis. This is probably due to the high
shrinkswell property of the clay which would cause
bund failure with decreasing water content and con-
comitant soil shrinkage.The Typic Ustropept soil located at Manaoag (Site
2) was observed to have well developed macropores
throughout the prole which appeared to be old root
channels. Few, large, vertical cracks 1 cm wide to 1 m
depth and 1 m spacing were observed and may be due
to wetting and drying following compaction. Compac-
tion is evident in Ap horizons by the presence of
domed conchoidal faces on upper surfaces of com-
pound peds. Well developed organans on surfaces of
peds indicated organic matter distribution to 1 m depth
in the prole.At Ngale (Site 3) the bund associated with the
Chromic Epiaquert prole was similar to soil material
described for Ap1 except that the fabric was classed as
earthy due to the presence of well formed macropores
with rust coloured coatings which appeared to be old
root channels. In the B22 horizon below the associated
bund, 11.5 cm diameter, preferred drainage channels
were observed inlled with dark grey (5 Y 4/1 moist)
clay which indicated reduced conditions. These chan-
nels appeared to have been formed by macrofauna
(crabs). A water table at 160 cm coincided with
accumulation of calcium carbonate. Dominant grey
colours suggested that anaerobic conditions persist at
least seasonally. Roots were evident to 1.5 m and were
identied as rice plant roots. Moisture contentthroughout did not appear to be uniform and where
structure was more strongly developed the soil
appeared to be better drained. Patches of rusty brown
mottles in the upper B21 were associated with con-
centrations of roots in more strongly structured soil
and associated with soil cloddiness.
The Anthraquic Hapludand described at Jambegede
(Site 4) contained common worm castes 3 mm in
diameter which occupy up to 20% by volume at depth.
Surfaces of vughs (25 mm diameter) are convoluted
suggesting preferred drainage channels are developedin some root channels. pH increase in the A12 horizon
together with conchoidal face development indicated
restricted drainage in the puddled zone. The bund
associated with the prole was described as a very
dark greyish brown (10 YR 3/2) clay loam. Rat
burrows were evident and inlled with plant and soil
material. Below the bund, soil material was found to
be compacted and similar to the Ap horizon. Macro-
porosity was well developed throughout the prole
due to root and earthworm channels. At Maros (Site 5)
the mammilated walls of vughs ranging in size fromless than 1 to 7 mm diameter were coated with grey
oriented silt. Macroporosity was well developed
throughout B2 horizons. A brownish black manganese
patina on compound ped surfaces in the Ap1 (puddled)
indicated poor drainage. In the Ap3 (compacted)
cutans on compound peds were described as having
a smooth ped fabric indicating a drainage restriction.
Rough ped fabric is evident on primary units. Rapid
oxidation on exposure also indicated strong anaerobic
conditions.
5. Soil prole analytical properties
The soils used for experimentation have more than
400 g kg1 clay (
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distribution over depth with clay content increasing
from 400 g kg1 at the surface to 750 g kg1 at depth.
The clay content of the soil at Jambegede increases
with depth from 450 g kg1 near the surface to
600 g kg1 at depth, with a corresponding decrease
in sand content.
The Chromic Epiaquert (Site 3) is a heavy clay soil
with clay content increasing from 740 g kg1 in the
surface to 880 g kg1 at depth. The Typic Ustropept
(Site 2) and Aeric Tropaquept (Site 5) have similar
particle size distributions with 450500 g kg1 clay
throughout. Sand content increases with depth from
30 g kg1 near the surface to 100 g kg1 at Site 2, and
200 g kg1 at Site 5. This characteristic of these two
proles suggests that the soil material is of alluvial
origin.
Table 1
Particle size distributions using USDA clay, silt and sand fractions
Depth (cm) g kg1 in texture class (mm)
Clay (
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Chemicalandmineralogicalanalyses(Tables2and3)
showthatthesoilsareneutralpHwiththeprolesatSite
1 and Site 5 being mildly acid in their surface horizons.
Cation exchange capacities vary from 20 cmol (p)
kg1 in the soil at Site 5 to nearly 70 cmol() kg1 in
the soil at Site 3. The exchange complexes are domi-
nated by calcium and magnesium and show no imbal-
ance of cations which would limit plant growth. These
values are supported by the clay species identication
which show a predominance of kaolinite and smectite.
The soils at Sites 2 and 5 also contain signicant
proportions of vermiculite and illite, respectively. The
clay species in the prole at Site 3 was predominantly
smectite which is reected in the high cation exchange
capacity values throughout. In contrast, the clay frac-
tion of the prole at Site 2 contained 63% smectite in
the surface which decreased with depth and is replaced
by kaolinite. This suggests that the prole is layered
with more recent alluvial depositions having higher
smectite clay contents.
Table 2
Chemical properties
Depth (cm) Organic
carbon (g kg1
)
pH EC (1:5 extract
dS m1
)
Exchangeable cations CEC
Ca (cmol
(p) kg1)
Mg (cmol
(p) kg1)
Na (cmol
(p) kg1)
K (cmol
(p) kg1)
San Ildefonso
011 11.65 6.54 0.090 11.5 7.7 0.58 0.22 21.4
1130 4.14 7.35 0.062 12.7 9.5 0.87 0.11 23.4
30, Ap Ta 4.29 7.42 0.059 9.1 7.3 0.76 0.00 17.4
3070 2.56 7.99 0.069 15.2 12.6 1.05 0.00 28.2
70110 1.28 7.80 0.140 27.3 22.3 1.29 0.00 49.1
Manaoag
011 11.30 7.71 0.112 36.0 10.6 0.42 1.02 43.6
1138 9.83 7.61 0.104 41.3 9.7 0.40 1.16 52.8
3869 8.29 7.55 0.120 42.1 7.5 0.34 0.70 49.269104 6.38 7.64 0.101 33.5 4.4 0.31 1.85 40.7
104117 4.77 7.76 0.094 31.5 4.5 0.25 1.26 42.3
117160 4.84 7.77 0.092 26.7 5.0 0.35 0.38 33.3
Jambegede
018 11.67 7.60 0.097 9.6 6.7 0.27 1.74 18.6
2040 7.84 7.23 0.178 9.1 6.9 0.52 1.48 17.2
4060 4.67 7.40 0.079 8.1 5.7 0.80 2.71 17.6
6080 4.23 7.56 0.073 7.4 5.0 0.76 2.94 16.6
80160 4.04 6.98 0.070 7.1 5.0 0.77 4.00 16.5
Ngale
014 14.32 7.05 0.103 52.4 14.5 0.32 0.89 69.5
1434 11.47 7.20 0.111 51.5 14.6 0.35 0.55 68.73454 7.48 7.21 0.108 51.3 13.8 0.39 0.31 62.6
5478 6.46 7.01 0.064 57.4 16.1 0.44 0.19 74.2
78110 5.64 7.64 0.060 52.4 15.3 0.42 0.31 68.0
Maros
012 16.32 4.88 0.106 5.7 4.8 0.20 1.56 15.6
1214 15.06 5.06 0.068 6.0 5.1 0.27 0.86 14.9
1422 6.88 6.25 0.059 9.7 7.9 0.25 0.79 17.6
2241 6.15 6.63 0.054 10.3 8.4 0.33 0.54 19.9
4171 2.67 6.75 0.066 11.9 9.3 0.49 1.01 22.2
71110 2.30 6.90 0.062 11.5 9.2 0.47 1.20 22.9
110150 1.97 6.97 0.057 12.1 10.1 0.43 1.67 24.9
a
Tongues of Ap material at 30 cm depth.
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The smectite content of the soil prole at Site 1 is
similar to that at Site 2 near the surface but remains
constant with depth. However the increase in percen-
tage of clay with depth results in the swelling clay
component increasing from 26 to 46%. In contrast, the
clay fraction in the surface soil at Site 4 contained 33%
smectite which decreased to 12% at depth.The clayfraction in the soil at Site 5 contained 20% smectite
near the surface which increased to 30% at depth. The
relatively constant clay content in the soil results in the
smectite content of the clay fraction only changing
marginally from 9 to 15%.
6. Potential soil limitations for plant growth
Soil properties limiting plant growth were inter-
preted from the qualitative descriptions obtained for
each site and prole (Table 4). Diagnostic pedological
features were used to assess the potential of the soils
for dry season crops which require soil depths greater
than that provided by the puddled surface soil layers.
The interpretations were based on the general edaphic
conditions and do not account for the specic crop
requirements. The term hard-setting is used to denethe soil surface condition created by puddling and
drying.
7. Climate
The characteristics of the climate at each site are
presented in Figs. 610. Limited data prevented
detailed analysis in relation to crop risk analysis
based on soilclimatic probability relationships and
Table 3
Mineralogy of the clay fraction
Site depth
(cm)
Mineralogical composition (% of
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Table 4
Qualitative descriptions of each site and soil prole
Soils Land surface limitations Limitations in root zone
Seasonal
flooding
Slope Surface
condition
Internal
drainage
Permeability Effective
depth (cm)
Depth
DSWT
Philippines
Ustic Epiaquert
(San Ildefonso)
128 Hard-setting Poor, strongly mottled;
Fe, Mn concentrations
Slow to
very slow
100150 >50
Typic Ustropept
(Manaoag)
None 100
Indonesia
Chromic Epiaquert
(Ngale)
Seasonal
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only average values could be obtained to indicate
potential rainfall during the post-rice period. Future
work to establish probabilities for dry season crop
establishment success rate would be a benet to
extrapolate research ndings of the project to other
regions. The probabilities of daily rainfall exceeding
different values are calculated from the available long
term average daily rainfall events.
The average annual rainfall at San Ildefonso Vista
(Site 1) is 1986 mm. Long term daily average rainfall
and probability is given in Fig. 6. The wet season
lasts from around mid-May through November
with highly variable daily rainfall events. Post-rice
crops are usually sown between early December
and late February which is at the end of the wet
season. In contrast to the abrupt change from the
Fig. 6. Medium term average daily rainfall and probability for rainfall (1988 to 1995) at San Ildefonso.
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dry to wet season, the change from wet to dry is
relatively gradual which is important for dry season
crop establishment. Although the probability for
rainfall remains above 10% throughout the dry
season, the chances of crop damage from high inten-
sity storms are minimal. Occasional typhoon activity
during this otherwise dry period may occur in some
years.
Fig. 7. Recent average daily rainfall (1992 to 1994) at Manaoag, Pangasinan and probability for rainfall combined from 3 sites near Manaoag
over 9 years.
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Average annual rainfall recorded at Manaoag (Site
2) is 1486 mm. The dry season extends from about
mid-October through May (Fig. 7). Compared to the
San Ildefonso site, the transition from wet to dry
season is more abrupt which can be explained by
the lower probability of rainfall throughout the year.
The wet season tends to commence with relatively
large erratic rainfall events commencing in March
which become more regular in occurrence by May
with the incidence of moderate rain (1050 mm per
day). These rainfall events make the Manaoag area
more suitable for post-rice cropping.
Average annual rainfall at Ngale (Site 3) is
2179 mm. The wet season occurs during the period
between October and April and is followed by a
moderately wet dry season (Fig. 8). The transition
Fig. 8. Long term average daily rainfall and probability for rainfall (1981 to 1995) at Ngale.
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from wet to dry season is gradual with a high prob-
ability of effective rainfall for post-rice plant estab-
lishment and growth. Compared to the sites in the
Philippines, post-rice crops are established earlier and
at the end of the wet season. This is made possible due
to the lower frequency of tropical cyclones and more
reliable rainfall events. Average annual rainfall at
Jambegede (Site 4) is 2202 mm. The characteristics
of rainfall distribution (Fig. 9) are regarded as being
comparable to those at Ngale.
Average annual rainfall at Maros (Site 5) is
3085 mm. Compared to East Java, the wet season is
more intense with probabilities for daily rainfall
events approaching 90% (Fig. 10). The transition from
wet to dry season is abrupt although rainfall peaks in
January and declines to a minimum in July. The
Fig. 9. Long term average daily rainfall and probability for rainfall (1983 to 1995) at Jambegede.
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transition from wet to dry season occurs during the
period from April to May and is comparable to the
sites in East Java.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research.
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