schaeffer

SM4143 Sonic Arts & the History of Sounds and noises[Notes on Meeting #8, November 13, 2006 / Cedric Maridet]

Pierre Schaeffer and the theory of sound objects

Schaeffer (1910-1995) started as a telecommunication engineer and started in radio ORTF in 1936. There, he had access to all the equipment for manipulation of sound, and was in contact with latest technologies. The engineering aspect of his work is very present (i.e. experimentation with tape splicing, turntables, etc.) Now the audio material is recorded and then worked on in order to extract musical qualities of the sounds.Experimental music (referring to the Koln Studio) aimed at composing music through synthesis, and concrete only through recorded sounds, but both are composed without any musical notation and performers. The magnetophone is a machine to create sounds, but also to observe sounds, as they can be decontextualized ➝ comparison with what is done on language with phonetics and phonology. He turns the recording studio and the radio studio as an instrument and as a location for his experimentations. Schaeffer’s idea relies on new possibilities of the possibilities to fix sound on a medium.

➝ Sound recording: Schaeffer investigates here a few elements of the reproduction of sounds. Fidelity of the reproduction has been the focus, but the transformation that occurs has been occulted.Transformation of the audio field: - change of the audio space (from 4 dimensions [3 spatial + 1 intensity] to one [mono-phony] or 2 [stereophony]} All the audio signals will merge into the microphone, and the sound recording will be affected by the distance between the microphone and the sound sources. Then when played back, the speaker will render the distance effect into a new environment. - transformation of the ambiance, difference of perception between direct/indirect listener➝ change of reverberation: binaural listening allows localization. Thus in direct listening ears filters 2 direct sounds and reverberated sounds. Microphone does not have this power and both direct and reverberated sounds will be recorded equally. ➝ change of content: all the senses of the audience are at stake during direct listening, thus the psychological field is even more transformed than the acoustic one.Dealing with the properties of the recorded sound, Schaeffer linked sound and vision [frame

SM4143//Sonic art//CM 1/10

and focus on the object] The position of the microphone allows focusing on one sound source or another, provoking an unusual listening. However fidelity seems possible between direct/indirect sounds as some experiments tends to show.There are then 5 dimensions of transformations in a recorded sound: reverberation, ambiance, frame, zoom, and fidelity. The sound engineer will govern these transformations. Fidelity is not a reproduction, but a reconstitution. Recorded sounds allow not only having new relationships with sounds, but also with the listening activity.

1. Prelimininary: historical situation of music

There is a need to revisit the way we deal with music because of its new developments.3 new factors: - aesthetic ➝ development of new structure and style (i.e.

klangfarbenmelodie) - technical ➝ new ways to create music (i.e. electronic / concrète)

- ethnomusicology ➝ attempt to deal with non western music through western theories.

Tracklisting: Cinq Etudes de Bruits (Five Noises Studies), Pierre Schaeffer, L’Oeuvre Musicale. (refer CD notes)

Schaeffer emphasizes the difficulties to match art and science, and in particular music as an art and musical sciences (acoustics, psychology, etc.). Indeed, human perception cannot be compared to the acoustics measurements, or else, we would have to deal with a theoretical ear. Schaeffer questions the relations between art and science, between music and mathematic, psychology and acoustic ➝ music as an interdisciplinary art.

As we discussed last week with Chapter 2 of Trevor Wishart’ s On Sonic Art, traditional music theory is made of two noted notions, namely pitch and duration, and two less systematic notions, timbre and intensity. On another pole, acoustic refers to three different parameters: frequency measured in hertz, levels measured in decibel, and time measured in seconds. The question for Schaeffer is to investigate whether these three parameters can render the reality of musical objects. In case of the impossibility to achieve such a task, then correlations between musical objects and the acoustical parameters can be identified.

2. Correlations between musical objects and acoustic parameters

Through rigorous experimentations within the studio, Schaeffer manages to identify crucial parameters, which are starting points for his later attempt of classification of sound objects. He studies in Book III of the Treatise the relation between the physical signal, which produces the experience of the sound. There are correlations when there are no automatic and systematic correspondences between the physical signal and perception.a) Correlation between spectrum and pitch: concept of mass

Experimentations on the correlation between spectrum and pitch show that frequency is not a parameter of pitch. In addition, as Schaeffer mentioned in his Solfège de l’Objet Sonore, experimentations with band-pass filters, brought out a new notion, labeled “mass”:

“whether it is a tonal or complex, concise or diffuse, related to a harmonic or non-harmonic spectrum, whether it consists of a single or an unlimited number of frequencies, mass is a musical perception that accounts for the harmonic structure of a sound.” (23)

It appears that mass is a new reference that is capital for the listening ear. b) The notion of duration is also challenged. Musical theory can only account for duration for

sustained homogeneous sounds, as a parameter of form influences metric values. Another idea is that the notion of qualitative comes out from quantitative emerges from the study of


the time threshold of the ear. Indeed, There is continuity from the perception of rhythmic pattern to the perception of pitch. This fact can be experimented by repeating a pulse fast enough until a pitch can be heard. The notion of grain is thus the mark or rhythm in a sustained sound.

c) Anamorphose (distortion): the notion of time qualified into musical duration can be distorted. Indeed, it had been found that in fact attack does not necessarily correspond with the initial moment. Attack depends on two elements for percussion/resonance type sounds: dynamic of the sound, and the color of attack. Other experimentations result in the idea that dynamic is a factor of the equivocal notion of timbre. The latter is qualified through 2 criteria: dynamic and harmonic. Thus it is possible to imitate a timbre of an instrument synthetically through an operation of musical transmutation by applying the same harmonic and dynamic on one to another. The timbre of an instrument is generally the result of causality, but the study of correlations between physics and music proved to be more helpful to define the notion, and identify its criteria, as well as other findings that shows the limitations of traditional music theory. ➝evolution of dynamic of sound is important to identify the notion of timbre and attack.➝remember the early experiment of Schaeffer with the sound of bell with its attack cut. If repeated, it sounds like a flute sound: timbre is thus not only a notion defined in the spectrum, but also in the form of the sound, as well as in its attack.

3. Towards a theory of sound objects:

“When in 1948, I proposed the term of “concrete music”, I meant to make an inversion in the way of music works. Instead of notate musical ideas by music theory symbols, and to entrust their concrete realization to well-known instruments, the question was to gather the sonorous concrete, whatever its origin, and to abstract the musical values which were already contained in it.” (23)

This first statement of Pierre Schaeffer is a starting point to the description of his musical experiments, and identifies a few of the points that he will redefine, like a re-ordering of concrete-abstract (different with notation), redefinition of the notion of instrument, and his pursue of musicality.

a) The circuit of ordinary listening: the four listening

Schaeffer analyses the circuits of ordinary listening based on two dualism that are found in perceptive activities: the dual notions of concrete / abstract, and the couple objective / subjective.

Four French verbs are proposed in order to describe each sectors of this matrix: écouter, ouïr, entendre, and comprendre. They are organized in a non-chronological circular circuit, that can be traversed through many ways. Ecouter, on the concrete-objective pole, is to focus on the indexical value of the sound. Ouïr (concrete, subjective pole) is the most elementary level, as listeners are passively hit by sounds. Entendre (abstract - subjective pole), refers to a selection made by the listeners on the sounds that can be perceived. There’s a qualitative listening intention. Comprendre (abstract - objective pole) brings out a notion of semantic in this circuit, as the sounds are treated as signs with meaning.

chart of the functions of listening: (p.116)


4. COMPRENDRE

- for me: signs

- in front of me: values (meaning-language)

Emergence of a content of sound and reference, confrontation with

extra-sonorous.

I. ECOUTER

- for me: indices

- in front of me: exterior events (agent-instrument)

Emission of sound

1 and 4:

Objective

2 and 3:

Subjective

3. ENTENDRE

- for me: qualified perceptions

- in front of me: qualified sound object

Selection of certain particular aspects of sound

2. OUÏR

- for me: raw perceptions, outline of the object.

- in front of me: raw sound object

Reception of sound

3 and 4: abstract 1 and 2: concrete

Two couples of common listening attitudes are founded on these dual notions of abstract/concrete and objective/ subjective. These particular listening attitudes are founded on the previous four sectors of the listening circuit, and they can be associated, or differentiated in this circuit. However, they clearly show the different path that Schaeffer will take with his reduced listening. The natural listening (”écoute naturelle”) focuses on the event that creates the sound, and corresponds to sector one (écouter). In contrast, the cultural listening (”écoute culturelle”), oriented in the sector four, aims at decoding a message or a meaning. The other couple, everyday (”banale”) and specialized (“praticienne”) listening, is constituted by a focus on the causality and the source of the sound (sector one and four) for the everyday listening, and by a focus on a specific domain of the sound depending on the intentions of the listener. For example, a specialized listening done by an acoustician would focus on the physical nature of the sound, measurable in decibel and hertz.

b) The acousmatic revelation:

Schaeffer underlined the fundamental notion of the acousmatic mode of listening. This term refers to the practice of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras, who used to teach his followers by addressing them through a curtain that would not allow them to see him, but only the sound of his voice would reach them. It is now accepted as a term that would refer to a listening situation where all visual cues would be eliminated. The significance of the acousmatic experience might be deeper than one thinks, if only mundane examples like phone conversations, radio are thought of. Michel Chion talks about “the acousmatic revelation” to emphasis a deeper level of significance of this term, and the fact that it is more a reasoning than a situation:

One should not misinterpret the acousmatic situation by distinguishing for example the “objective” — what is behind the curtain — from the “subjective” — the reaction to these stimuli of the listener, in a physical reduction of the phenomenon. On the contrary, the acousmatic corresponds to a reversal of the itinerary: the question is no longer to know how a subjective listening interpret or transform “reality”, to study reactions to these stimuli; it’s the listening itself which becomes which becomes the origins of the phenomenon. The question is turned towards the subject: ”what do I hear? What do you hear in fact?” In that sense, we ask him/her not to describe the exteriors references of sound that he/she perceives, but the perception itself.


We can trace this idea of the acousmatic from the fact that Schaeffer started his investigation in radio art. ➝This term of acousmatic is now used more extensively that Schaeffer did;

- François Bayle uses this notion in the context of an acousmatic music to refer to a production made in studio and later projected into auditorium through speakers (idea of the acousmonium)

- acousmatic music is defined by ABSO-absolument, an acousmatic art movement created in 1991, and here recalled by Francis Dhomont:

Based on provisionary conclusions of a study group recently formed in France, I would only sum up the eight principal points, which constitute, according to them the “fundamental elements of acousmatic art”:1° First of all, of course, the Pythagorean preliminary: “to listen without seeing” (Bayle). 2° The decisive importance of fixation of sound (Chion) on a medium (analogical, numerical, or else: tape, floppy disk, compact disc, etc.) — I will come back to that. 3° a creation mode founded on mental perception more than strictly auditive (in the psycho-acoustic sense). 4° From that we postulate the acousmatic, (its aims, its perceptive listening conduct) as a phenomenological discipline, 5° The causal / non-causal problematic and virtual causality of sonorous elements put together (from where narrative can emerge). 6° A rhetoric of objects and their resonance. 7° A music of sound as being sonorous matter. 8° Space as a fully compositional dimension, from the development of the work till its projection in the auditorium. (p. 57-58)

c) Reduced listening:

Schaeffer focused on the perception of the subject as the main point of interest. Schaeffer’s anchored reflection in phenomenology led to the creation of a reduced listening mode by rejecting any idea of acoustic and physics as a descriptive tool for perceptive experience. The notion of sound object derives from the theoretical background of Husserl’s phenomenology. It can be reached through a process of bracketing. As Schaeffer mentioned, reduced listening is one step further than the acousmatic situation (“There is a sound object when I have accomplished both materially and spiritually a reduction which is even more rigorous that the acousmatic reduction” p.268). Through the époché (from Greek “cessation”), the listener does not only needs to separate visual and audio cues, but also to disconnect the sound from any physical, cultural and psychological references and indexes. Schaeffer defines a new listening intention, which demands a particular attitude and practice from the listener.

d) Definition of a sound object:

The sound object is to be found thanks to the encounter of an acoustic event and a particular listening intention aimed at narrowing down the focus on the perception of the sound. “It represents a global perception, which is remains identical through different listening; an organized whole that we can assimilate to a “gestalt” in the sense of the psychology of form” (Chion, 1983, p. 34)The sound object is not:

- the instrument- the magnetic tape- a fragment of the tape- a notated symbol on a score- a state of mind (transcendental aspect of the sound object)

(Refer to the article in handout)

One of the main critics of Schaeffer’s work is the artificiality of reduced listening. Among the detractors, Luke Windsor reasserts the importance of reconcile intrinsic and extrinsinc characteristics of sounds. However, Schaeffer does not deny these aspects, as he wrote on the 10th May 1948 in his first journal of concrete music:


Every sonic phenomenon can thus exist (like words of language) for their relative signification, or for its own substance. As long as signification predominates, and that one plays with it, there is literature, not music. But how is it possible to forget signification, to isolate the sonic phenomenon for itself?

Two methods are preliminary:To distinguish an element (to listen to it for itself, its texture, its matter, its color).To repeat it. To repeat twice the same sound fragment: there is no event anymore, there is music. (p. 21)

The listening activity is very early in his reflection at the core of his research. According to him, music theory is the art of “better listening.”

Tracklisting: Etudes aux Allures, Etudes aux sons animés, Etudes aux Objets. Pierre Schaeffer, L’Oeuvre Musicale. (refer CD notes)

4. The musical research program (PROGREMU)

The sound object is the main unit for the elaboration of a program for a musical research.

➝Method: through reduced listening one can be conscious of the sound object itself, then different objects will be described through their comparisons.

➝Two poles: theme and version. The first notion is on the side of the making, while the other corresponds to the listening activity. In a more traditional approach, sounds have been classified within a framework of the definition of instrument through its triple aspect of a physical apparatus, aesthetic aim, and performance tool. When dealing with recorded sound listened in an acousmatic situation, taxonomy depends as we mentioned earlier on how sounds are perceived. In other words, do we know how to write what we listen, and do we know how to listen what we write?

➝On typo-morphology:

The forms of sound object will be a subject matter in order to be able to define different types of objects. This is the aim of a typo-morphology.

Criteria:The description and definition of types of objects follows a particular orientation in the choice of the criteria: - the aim of the identification is defined by a musical intention. Also, there is a clear aim to

render all the sonorous categories, from traditional language, noise, and music.

Then how to cut the sound chain into units? These three categories can be differentiated by different listening intentions, respectively identification of a message, identification of an index, listening for itself. Different units can be grasp according to these intentions: units of meaning are defined on a language level, causal induction for noise, and the couple stress-articulation for music. The latter couple can in fact be used for any sonorous chain, which fulfill the aim to find a universal unit that can render any kind of sound. Thus the sound chain can be cut at time when there is an energetic discontinuity. A musical orientation of this couple underlines the importance of how the energy is communicated (articulation) and how we can say that there is a certain fixity in pitch. These new dual notions of sustainment-intonation (appui-intonation) will be used as criteria for classification used in the typo-morphology. The criteria of facture, or how the energy is communicated and manifest itself in time, will serve to qualify the sustainment itself. Three types of mass describe the intonation, namely tonic, complex and varied mass.

a)Typology:

Three main types: well-balanced objects, which are the most suitable objects, short or redundant objects (mainly a temporal criteria), and eccentric objects, which bare too many information in them to be suitable. The diagram “tableau recapitulatif de la typologie” or


TARTYP (p.459) is an attempt to combine all the relevant criteria for a typology: a morphological couple based on mass/facture, a temporal couple (duration-variation) and a structural couple (balanced-originality). In order to avoid a six entries chart and to facilitate the use of the diagram, the first two couples have been arbitrarily united. Thus, temporal variation is integrated into the notion of facture. As a consequence, the three main types of sound objects can be identified according to two axis: the horizontal axis, defines the qualitative sustainment through time; Impulsions are located in the centre, continuous sustainment on the left, and discontinuous or iterative objects on the right. The vertical axis render the notion of mass and variation; fixed mass objects are located in the centre, identifiable pitch sounds upward, and varying mass objects downward.

Well-balanced objects: most “musical” objects. Unity of facture, possibility to memorize, usual mass used in orchestra (fixed masse of percussion, specific pitch of notes, or glissandi, etc.) (443)‣ analysis according to the facture: 3 types of facture, to maintain or not the vibration of the

sound. Null facture (percussion), constantly, or repetitively. Close relation with the indication of play in traditional music theory (link with gesture?)

N= note well formedN’= impulsionN’’= iteration

‣ analysis according to the criteria of mass3 cases: N ➝ mass is a fixed point in tessitura which can be identified (normal note)X ➝ complex note fixed mass by not really possible to identify pitchY ➝ mass changed in time (Hawaiian guitar, glissando)


b)Morphology:

The form of the sounds objects will be described into a morphology of sounds. This is done by an intensive reduced listening exercise of many sounds in order to identify different morphological criteria. Again, as the aim of this approach is to try to create a metalanguage for a whole diversity of sounds, the idea of values cannot be relevant, and some categories will be looked for. The notions of form and fabric (matière) are used in order to identify the proprieties of the sound objects.

Method: By listening and comparing deponent sounds (sons déponents), sounds which lack one or another distinctive feature, or with fixed properties, particular criteria can be identified and studied.

Schaeffer sets up of a limit of seven morphological criteria by adding to the notions of sustainment (entretien) and variation to the previous form and fabric. There are two criteria of fabric (matière), mass and harmonic timbre, two criteria of sustainment (entretien), grain and allure, one criteria of form, dynamic, and two criteria of variation, melodic profile and mass profile.

➝Criteria of fabric (matière): it is possible to define the two notions of mass and harmonic timbre. Mass is the way a sound objects occupies the pitch field. Typology defines a tonic, complex, variant mass. Morphology defines seven classes: pure sound (tonic mass without harmonic timbre, i.e. a tuning fork), white noise (characterized by the fact that mass occupied the whole field of pitches), tonic sound (mass is represented by an identifiable pitch, i.e. a key note), nodal sound (mass formed by a group of sounds which pitches are not identifiable), tonic group (composed of several tonic sounds, i.e. a piano note), nodal group (mass formed by several distinct nodal sounds, i.e. different size cymbals together), fluted sound (”ˆsons cannelés”, ambiguous mass constituted by sounds from the previous classes, i.e. sound of a gong).

The idea of harmonic timbre can be sometimes difficult to perceive or analyze separately from mass, as it corresponds to the perception of the harmonic spectrum of a sound. As Schaeffer defines it as annex qualities to mass, as “a more or less diffused halo” (1966, p. 516), the division into classes correspond to the classes of mass, except for the pure sound and white noise, as the harmonic timbre will be void, either because there is no harmonic timbre, or it can be perceived when the mass occupies all the field of pitches.

➝ Criteria of sustainment: grain and allure. Grain refers directly to a tactile quality of the sound, a microstructure of fabric referring to the grain of a textile or mineral. Grain can thus be grasp through a continuum from very fine, soft to very rough and coarse according to the three main types of sustainment: null or impulsion, sustained, or iterative. The other characteristic of sustainment, allure, is a vibrato, or slight oscillations in the sound characteristics. Typology recognizes three different characteristic agents: mechanical, alive, and natural, referring to the causality of the sound. The nine classes of allure correspond to finer distinctions from the three main groups namely order, fluctuation and disorder.

➝Criteria of form: (the evolution of the intensity of the sound in time.) The notion of attack can be identified: frequently, especially for percussion-resonance type sounds, the attack is the determining element for the evolution of the dynamic. This criteria is about the history of the sound energy. As a consequence, if the sound is not sustained, attack will not play a great role. Several profiles are determined: crescendo, decrescendo, “in delta” (crescendo then decrescendo), hollow (”en creux”, decrescendo then crescendo), and “mordant” (when there’s a peak of intensity, then a lower fixed intensity.) If dynamic is regular and immobile, the class is labeled “amorphe”. However, if the sound is not sustained, dynamic is then shaped by attack (profile is “anamorphous”.) Shock and resonance can be either intermingled or distinct.

➝Criteria of variations: The melodic profile is the general profile of a sound whose pitch varies through time. The variation affects the whole mass of the sound. There are two general axis for these variant sounds: continuous (corresponding to the variations of one object), and discontinuous (in the case of a series of objects). Types are defined through the crossing of a


factor of rate of variation (in relation to the speed and density of information) and a variation of fabric (factors of fluctuation, in case of slight instability, of evolution, in case of progressive and continuous variation, and modulation, in case of a scalar variation). Classes, which are only defined for continuous varying sounds, are inspired by the Gregorian neumes of podatus (ascending variation), clivis (descending variation), torculus (ascending then descending) and porrectus (descending then ascending). The other criteria of variation is the mass profile, an internal variation of mass, as if sculpted though time, it grows thicker or thinner. Types and classes here follow the same logic as for melodic profile, using the three models of variation of fabric (fluctuation, evolution, and modulation), as well as the four neumatic principles.

c) Characterology

It consists in the definition of genre of sounds according to the seven criteria of the vertical axis of the PROGREMU.

d)Analysis and synthesis

They are an attempt to move from an identification and description of sounds (typology, morphology and charaterology) to a more musical aspect. Analysis is based on the couple criteria / dimension. It confronts morphological criteria to the perceptive field of the ear (pitch, intensity and duration). It exploits their potential to be expressed as values. For each of these three dimensions, site and caliber are defined. The site of a criteria is its position in the field, its caliber is the obstruction of the field. for example, the caliber of a white noise will be maximum in the field of pitch, as it occupies the full spectrum. Schaeffer uses a different terminology for each of the site / caliber in the three fields. In the field of pitch, site is labeled “tessiture” and caliber “écart”. Considering the field of intensity, the site of a criteria is “poids” (weight) and its caliber is “relief.” Finally, in the field of duration, the site is named “impact”, and the caliber of a criteria is a “module”.

Synthesis aims at the creation of musical objects, which relies on the conception of adapted new instruments. Schaeffer rejects traditional classification of instruments based on either material of the instrument, or technological attributes. He asserts the importance of permanence of characteristics and variations of values. In case of an invisible apparatus created in the studio, referring to a “virtual’ source, Schaeffer coins the term of pseudo-instrument. In this case, there is a permanence of a genre (characterology). John Dack illustrates this notion of pseudo-instrument through the example of Kalheinz Stockhausen’s Kontakte für elektronishe Klange, Klavier and Schlagzeug:

For example, a group of metallic, pitched notes occurs in subsection IC at 39,9 seconds. On inspecting the score three actual sources are revealed: the high register of a piano, antique cymbals and resonated electronic impulses . . . . Sounds objects from these three distinct sources combine to produce the impression of a “metallic pecussion-resonance” genre and thus a pseudo-instrumental source. As a result, by means of the sounds’ intrinsic qualities the worlds of real instruments and electronic synthesis make contact.

The way sound objects can be grouped according to their perceptive characteristics comes from a long training from the composer. Pierre Schaeffer does not elaborate too much on the implementation on his theory. However, there’s is a strong emphasis on the idea that exercising the ear either in a theme or version mode is very important to be able to be familiar with the tools and metalanguage he attempts to provide.

References:

Battier, Marc, “A Constructivist Approach to the Analysis of Electronic Music and Audio Art — Between Instruments and Faktura.” Organised Sound 8(3) (2003): 249-255.


Battier, M., and Schnell, N. 2002. “Introducing composed instruments: technical and musicological implications.” In Proc. of the 2002 Conf. on New Instruments for Musical

Expression (NIME-02). Dublin, Ireland, 24–26 May.Bayle, François. Musique Acousmatique, Propositions... ...Positions. Paris: INA-GRM, 1993.

Chion, Michel. Guide des Objets Sonores. Pierre Schaeffer et la Recherche Musicale. Paris: INA, 1983.

Dhomont, Francis. “Petite Apologie de l’Art des Sons Fixés.” Cicuit, Revue Nord-Américaine de Musique du XXe siécle 4(1-2) (1993): 55-66.

Emmerson, Simon (ed.). The Language of Electroacoustic Music. Palgrave Macmillan, 1986.Field, Ambrose. “Simulation and reality: the new sonic objects.” Emmerson, Simon (Ed.),

Music, Electronic Media and Culture. Ashgate, 2000.Schaeffer, Pierre. A la Recherche d’une Musique Concrète. Editions du Seuil, 1952.

Schaeffer, Pierre. Traité des Objets Musicaux. Editions du Seuil, 1966.Schaeffer, Pierre. and Rebel, Guy. Solfège de l’Objet Sonore. Nouvelle edition, Paris: INA-

GRM, 1988-2005.Windsor, Luke, “Through and around the acousmatic: the interpretation of electroacoustic

sounds.” Emmerson, Simon (Ed.), Music, Electronic Media and Culture. Ashgate, 2000.Wishart, Trevor. On Sonic Art. New and Rev. Ed. Contemporary Music Studies, Vol.12,

Harwood Academic Publishers, 1996.

World Wide Web Source:

Dack, John. “A la Recherche de l’Instrument Perdu”, <http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/sonic/

research/dackperdu.html>Dack, John. “Instrument and Pseudoinstrument. Acousmatic Conceptions”, <http://

www.mdx.ac.uk/www/sonic/research/dacklabber.html>Ubu sound: http://www.ubu.com/papers/sch.html / http://www.ubu.com/sound/sch.html


http://www.ubu.com/papers/sch.html%20/

http://www.ubu.com/papers/sch.html%20/

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