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Objectives• Pathophysiology of sickle cell disease
• Inheritance of sickle cell disease
• Health maintenance for sickle cell disease
• Management of acute illness
The Management of a child with sickle cell disease is best when overseen by a
comprehensive sickle cell disease center.
If unavailable, care should be provided in consultation with a pediatric hematologist.
What Is Sickle Cell Disease?
• An inherited disease of red blood cells
• Affects hemoglobin
• Polymerization of hemoglobin leads to a cascade of effects decreasing blood flow
• Tissue hypoxia causes acute and chronic damage
Why Do Cells Sickle?
• Glutamic acid is substituted for valine
• Allowing the polymerization of sickle hemoglobin when deoxygenated
Normal Vs. Sickle Red Cells
Normal• Disc-Shaped• Deformable• Life span of 120 days
Sickle• Sickle-Shaped• Rigid • Lives for 20 days or
less
Hemolysis and Vaso-occlusion
Vaso-occlusion:Occurs when the rigid sickle shaped cells fail to move through the small blood vessels, blocking local blood flow to a microscopic region of tissue. Amplified many times, these episodes produce tissue hypoxia. The result is pain, and often damage to organs.
Hemolysis:The anemia in SCD is caused by red cell destruction, or hemolysis, and the degree of anemia varies widely between patients. The production of red cells by the bone marrow increases dramatically, but is unable to keep pace with the destruction.
Chronic Manifestations:• Anemia• Jaundice• Splenomegaly• Functional asplenia• Cardiomegaly and functional murmurs• Hyposthenuria and enuresis• Proteinemia• Cholelithiasis• Delayed growth and sexual maturation• Restrictive lung disease*• Pulmonary Hypertension*• Avascular necrosis• Proliferative retinopathy• Leg ulcers• Transfusional hemosiderosis*
Acute Manifestations:• Bacterial Sepsis or meningitis*
• Recurrent vaso-occlusive pain (dactylitis, muscoskeletal or abdominal pain)
• Splenic Sequestration*
• Aplastic Crisis*
• Acute Chest Syndrome*
• Stroke*
• Priapism
• Hematuria, including papillary necrosis
Hemolysis and Vaso-occlusion(continued)
*Potential cause of mortality
Sickle Cell Disease SCD Genotype
• Sickle cell anemia (SS)• Sickle Hb C disease (SC)• Sickle S beta plus
(Sβ+ thalassemia )• Sickle Beta zero
(Sβ° thalassemia)
• 65%• 25%• 8%
• 2%
Genotype Genotype prevalence
Historical Distribution of Hemoglobin Variants
Hemoglobin SHemoglobin S
Hemoglobin CHemoglobin C
Hemoglobin EHemoglobin E
Hemoglobin DHemoglobin DMalarial Regions of Africa and AsiaAlpha thalassemia occurs in all these
regions as well
Prevalence/Incidence of SCD
• In African-Americans the incidence of SCD is 1 in 375 for HbSS, 1 in 835 for HbSC and 1 in 1,667 for Sickle beta-thalassemia. In addition, 1 in 12 African-Americans are carriers for the disorder
• In other U.S. populations, the prevalence of sickle cell disease is 1 in 58,000 Caucasians; 1 in 1,100 Hispanics (eastern states); 1 in 32,000 Hispanics (western states); 1 in 11,500 Asians; and 1 in 2,700 Native Americans
Sickle Cell Pedigree
• Parents with sickle cell trait: hemoglobin AS• Probability of child with hemoglobin AA: 25%• Probability of child with sickle cell trait AS: 50%• Probability of child with sickle cell disease SS: 25%
Newborn Screening for Sickle Cell Disease
• 47 states, Washington DC, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands provide mandatory universal newborn screening
• Specimen must be drawn prior to transfusion• Prevention of pneumococcal septicemia• Early Detection and treatment of splenic
sequestration
Linkage to timely diagnostic, parental education, and comprehensive care markedly reduces morbidity and mortality in infancy and childhood.
Interpreting Newborn Screening ResultsSickle Hemoglobinopathies
Screening Results* Associated Disorder
FS SS or Sβ°thalassemia
FSC SC
FSA S ß+ thalassemia
FSE S Hemoglobin E
FS Variant S Variant
*Confirmatory testing requires hemoglobin separation by electrophoresis (cellulose acetate and citrate agar), isoelectric focusing, and/or high performance lipid chromatography. Solubility testing should never be used for confirmation.
Newborn Screening Result Associated Carrier State
FAS Sickle Cell Trait
FAC Hb C Carrier
FAE Hb E Carrier
FA Variant Hb Variant Carrier
Interpreting Newborn Screening Results Hemoglobinopathy Carriers
Management
• Health maintenance
• Infection prevention
• Pain management
• Sickle emergencies
• Chronic disease management
Health Maintenance• Frequent visits: every 3 to 6 months• Immunizations
– Routine immunizations– Hib- 6 months and older– 23 valent Pneumovax at five years
• Penicillin prophylaxis beginning no later than two months
• Nutrition and fluids– Folate supplementation is controversial
Health Maintenance
• Physical exam with attention to:– Growth and development, jaundice, liver/spleen
size, heart murmur of anemia, malocclusion from increased bone marrow activity, delayed puberty
• Lab evaluations: – CBC with differential and reticulocyte count,
urinalysis, renal & liver function
Health Maintenance
Special studies• Brain- Transcranial doppler ultrasonography,
MRI/MRA• Lungs- Pulmonary function tests, Echo
cardiogram for pulmonary hypertension• Neurologic- neuropsychological testing
Current Recommendations
• Penicillin Prophylaxis: SS, SºThalassemia– 2 months to 3 years: 125 mg PO BID– Over 3 years: 250 mg PO BID
• When to discontinue is controversial
• Penicillin Prophylaxis: SC and S+ Thalassemia– SC warrants penicillin prophylaxis similar to SS– S+ Thalassemia: penicillin prophylaxis can be safely
discontinued at 5 years• Routine use in infants and children is controversial
• Special Circumstances– History of repeated sepsis, surgical splenectomy
Eye Examination
• Retinal vessel disease– Incidence 33% in
hemoglobin SC
– Incidence 3% in SS
• Annual evaluation after age 10 years by ophthalmologist– Laser photocoagulation
for vessel disease
Sea Fan
Salmon Patch: SC
Emergencies
• Fever/infection• Acute chest syndrome• Eye trauma (hyphema) • Priapism• Stroke• Splenic sequestration• Severe pain
Fever and Infection
• Fever > 38.5° C (101°F)
is an EMERGENCY• Basic laboratory
evaluation: – CBC with differential and
reticulocyte count, blood, urine, and throat cultures, urinalysis, chest x-ray
• Indications for hospitalization & IV antibiotics:-Child appears ill-Any temperature > 40°C-Abnormal laboratory values
• Start IV antibiotics IMMEDIATELY if child appears ill or temperature > 40°C (DO NOT WAIT FOR LABS)
Acute Chest Syndrome
Clinically:
Acute onset of fever, respiratory symptoms, new infiltrate on chest x-ray
Causes– Infection
– Fat emboli
– Lung infarct
Since you cannot distinguish between acute chest syndrome and pneumonia clinically there is no change in treatment.
A leading cause of death in sickle cell disease
Eye Trauma
Get sickle prep -rapid test- if sickle status unknown
Complications if untreated:-glaucoma, -optic nerve atrophy, -retinal artery blockage
Eye trauma is an emergency in ALL sickle conditions(including sickle trait)
Priapism
Treatment is difficult– Opioid pain medication– Intravenous fluids– Aspiration and irrigation of the
corpus cavernosum– Surgery– Blood Transfusions
• Impotence with severe disease or recurrent episodes
Urethra Corpus cavernosum
Commonly occurs in children and adolescents with SS or SC
Stroke
• Historically 8 to 10% of children with SS
• “Silent Stroke” in 22% of children with hemoglobin SS
Any acute neurologic symptom other than mild headache, even if transient, requires urgent evaluation.
Treatment: Chronic transfusion therapy to maintain sickle hemoglobin at or below 30%
Splenic Sequestration
• Sudden trapping of blood within the spleen
• Usually occurs in infants under 2 years of age with SS
• Spleen enlarged on physical exam, may not be associated with fever, pain, respiratory, or other symptoms
• Circulatory collapse and death can occur in less than thirty minutes
•Recurrence very common (50%)•Associated with high mortality (20%)
Splenic Sequestration
• Hemoglobin SS– Incidence increased: 6 and 36 months
• Overall incidence about 15%
• Hemoglobin SC– Incidence increased: 2 and 17 years
• Mean age 8.9 years
• Can occur in adolescence and adulthood
• Incidence about 5%
Treatments For Splenic Sequestion
• Intravenous fluids– Maintain vascular volume
• Cautious blood transfusion– Treat anemia, sequestered
blood can be released from spleen
• Spleen removal or splenectomy– If indicated
Pain Management
Acute pain• Hand-foot syndrome (dactylitis)• Painful episodes: vasoocculsion• Splenic sequestration• Acute chest syndrome• Cholelithiasis• Priapism• Avascular necrosis• Right upper quadrant syndrome
Pain ManagementPain is an emergencyPain is an emergencyHospital evaluation:• Hydration: 1.5 times maintenance unless
acute chest syndrome suspected• Assess pain level and treat
– Do not withhold opioids– Frequently reassess pain control
• Assess for cause of pain/complications
Pain Management
Mild-moderate pain• Acetaminophen
– Hepatotoxic
• Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents (NSAIDs)
-Contraindicated in patients with gastritis/ulcers and renal failure
-Monitor renal function if used chronically
Pain Management
• Moderate-severe pain– Opioids are first-line treatment– Morphine sulfate or hydromorphone – Meperidine NOT recommended
• (Metabolite causes seizures & renal toxicity)
• Moderate or less severe pain– Acetaminophen or NSAID's in combination with
opioids– Other adjuvant medications (sedatives, anxiolytics)
• May increase efficacy of analgesics
Hand Foot Syndrome - Dactylitis
• Early complication of sickle cell disease
• Highest incidence 6 months to 2 years
• Painful swelling of hands and feet
• Treatment involves fluids and pain medication
• Fevers treated as medical emergency
Renal Disease
• Renal findings– Decreased ability to concentrate urine– Decreased ability to excrete potassium– Inability to lower urine pH normally– Hematuria / papillary necrosis
• Risk factors for progressive renal failure– Anemia, proteinuria, hematuria
Gall Bladder and Liver
• Gall stones and biliary sludge– Monitor by ultrasound every 1-2 years
• Cholestasis– May progress, leading to bleeding disorders or
liver failure
• Iron overload– Due to chronic transfusions
• Chronic hepatitis
Bone Disease Diagnosis and Treatment
• Avascular necrosis of hips and shoulders– Index of suspicion
• Persistent hip or shoulder pain
• Plain film or MRI
• Treatment– Conservative
• NSAID’s and 6 weeks of rest off affected limb
• Physical therapy
Screening AVN
• Avascular Necrosis – Hip Films
– Hip MRI
– Grading of AVN• Grade I: MRI
• Grade II: Film/MRI
• Grade III: Film
• Grade IV: Film
• Grade V: Film
– No grade for AVN of the shoulder
Chronic Complications
• Anemia/Jaundice
• Brain Damage/Stroke
• Kidney failure
• Decreased lung function
• Eye disease (bleeding, retinal detachment)
• Leg ulcers
• Chronic pain management
Anemia – Jaundice
• Common and starting in the first year of life
• Decreased lifespan of sickle red cells– Hemolysis
– Anemia
– Hyperbilirubinemia
– Reticulocytosis
Stroke
• Intracranial hemorrhage– More common in adults
• Sequela overt and “silent strokes” – Paralysis: overt stroke– Neuropsychologic changes: both overt and
silent strokes • Visual-spatial impairment• Impaired memory• Poor impulse control
Renal Disease
• Proteinuria/Nephrotic syndrome• 40% of SCD patients with nephrotic syndrome
develop end-stage renal disease • Occurs in ~ 20% of all patients • Occurs in 4.5% of all pediatric patients- increased
in hemoglobin SS to 6.5%– Increased incidence with age– Increased with anemia, increased MCV, and increased
leukocyte count
• Renal failure common in adults
Leg Ulcers
• Occurs in about 25% of all hemoglobin SS patients
• Predominantly males– Incidence increased with
• Age
• Decreased hemoglobin
– Incidence decreased with alpha thalassemia
• Recurrence rate is ~ 75%
Chronic Pain
• Pain lasting >3 to 6 months
• Patients should receive comprehensive psychologic and clinical assessment
• Treatment– Analgesics– Hydroxyurea– TENS units– Relaxation techniques– Physical and occupational therapy
Adolescents and Transition of Care
• Young adults (>20 years) with frequent pain crises at greatest risk for early death
• Barriers to care for young adults– Lack of adult SCD providers
– Loss of medical coverage
– Developmental (level of independence, denial of chronic illness)
– Ineffective coping skills (passive versus active)
Adolescents and Transition of Care
• Develop explicit plan for transition
• Team approach- pediatric and adult providers, social work, school/vocational staff, support groups
• Plan gradual transition (start 1 year before)
• Continue communication between pediatric & adult providers after transition
Genetic Counseling
• Who should receive counseling?-Parents of newborns with sickle disorders or traits-Pregnant women/ prenatal counseling
• What is the purpose of counseling? -Education-Informed decision-making
• Content should include: -Genetic basis, chances of disease or trait (potential pregnancy outcome), disease-related health problems, variability/unpredictability of disease, family planning, average life span