History of Saudi Arabia

The rise of Islam in the 620s AD, the subsequent religious importance of the Arabian cities of Makkah (Makkah al-Mukarramah, or Mecca), and Medina (the two holiest places in Islam), and the discovery of large oil reserves in the early twentieth century, have given the rulers of this territory significant influence beyond the peninsula.

Contents

1 Early history 2 Islamic conquest

3 First Saudi State (1744-1818)

4 Second Saudi State (1824-1891)

5 1900s to 1940s

6 1950s to 1960s

7 1970s

8 1980s

9 1990s

10 2000s

11 See also

12 References

Early history

People of various cultures have lived in the peninsula over a span of more than 5,000 years. The Dilmun culture, along the Persian Gulf coast, was contemporaneous with the Sumerians and ancient Egyptians, and most of the empires of the ancient world traded with the states of the peninsula. Except for a few major cities and oases, the harsh climate historically prevented much settlement of the Arabian Peninsula. The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the peninsula into neighbouring areas.[1] About 3500 BC, semitic-speaking peoples of Arabian origin migrated into the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia and became the Assyro-Babylonians (see Babylonia and Assyria). Some archeologists argue that another group of Semites left Arabia about 2500 BC and settled along the Levant, mixing in with the local populations there some of these migrants became the Amorites and Canaanites of later times. Some archeologists argue that the migration instead came from the northern Levant.

Islamic conquest

The religion of Islam began with Muhammad began preaching at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[2]

The territory of the Caliphate in 750

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.[3][4]

When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.[5]

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.[6] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul} as well as expand Muslim territory into the Indian subcontinent.[7] While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims, Zahid, began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.[8][9]

For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;[10] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[11] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.[12][13]

First Saudi State (1744-1818)

First Saudi State

The First Saudi State was established in 1744 when Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab settled in Diriyah and Prince Muhammed Ibn Saud agreed to support and espouse his cause in the hope of cleansing Islamic practices of heresy. The House of Saud and its allies rose to become the dominant state in Arabia controlling most of the Nejd, but neither coast. This Saudi state lasted for about seventy-five years.

Concerned at the growing power of the Saudis, the Ottoman Sultan instructed Mohammed Ali Pasha to reconquer the area. Ali sent his sons Tusun Pasha and Ibrahim Pasha who were successful in routing the Saudi forces in 1818. It would only be a few years before the Sauds would return to power, forming the Second Saudi State.

Second Saudi State (1824-1891)

Second Saudi State

After a rebuilding period following the ending of the First Saudi State, the House of Saud returned to power in the Second Saudi State in 1824. The state lasted until 1891 when it succumbed to the Al Rashid dynasty of Ha'il. In 1902 Ibn Saud reconquered Riyadh, the first of a series of conquests leading to the creation of the modern nation state of Saudi Arabia in 1932.

1900s to 1940s

Third Saudi State (present day) (Saudi Arabia)

The Third Saudi state was founded by the late King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia. In 1902 Ibn Saud captured Riyadh, the Al-Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival Al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Hasa, the rest of Nejd, and the Hejaz between 1913 and 1926.

Boundaries with Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait were established by a series of treaties negotiated in the 1920s, with two "neutral zones" created, one with Iraq and the other with Kuwait. On January 8, 1926 Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud became the King of Hejaz. On January 29, 1927 he took the title King of Nejd (his previous Nejdi title was Sultan). By the Treaty of Jeddah, signed on May 20, 1927, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Abdul Aziz's realm (then known as the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd). In 1932, these regions were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The discovery of oil on March 3, 1938 transformed the country. The country's southern boundary with Yemen was partially defined by the 1934 Treaty of Taif, which ended a brief border war between the two states.

1950s to 1960s

The founder of modern Saudi Arabia, King Abdul Aziz, converses with President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on board a ship returning from the Yalta Conference in 1945.

Approximate image showing the land exchanged between Jordan and Saudi Arabia.

King Abdul Aziz died in 1953 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Saud, who reigned for 11 years. In 1964, Saud was forced to abdicate in favour of his half-brother, Faisal, who had served as Foreign Minister.

Because of fiscal difficulties, King Saud had been persuaded in 1958 to delegate direct conduct of Saudi Government affairs to Faisal as Prime Minister; Saud briefly regained control of the government in 1960-62. In October 1962, Faisal outlined a broad reform program, stressing economic development. Proclaimed King in 1964 by senior royal family members and religious leaders, Faisal also continued to serve as Prime Minister. This practice has been followed by subsequent kings.

The mid-1960s saw external pressures generated by Saudi-Egyptian differences over Yemen. When civil war broke out in 1962 between Yemeni royalists and republicans, Egyptian forces

entered Yemen to support the new republican government, while Saudi Arabia backed the royalists. Tensions subsided only after 1967, when Egypt withdrew its troops from Yemen.

In 1965 there was an exchange of territories between Saudi Arabia and Jordan in which Jordan gave up a relatively large area of inland desert in return for a small piece of seashore near Aqaba. Saudi forces participated in the Six-Day (Arab-Israeli) War of June 1967 on the Jordanian side, the government later provided annual subsidies to Egypt, Jordan, and Syria to support their economies.

The Saudi economy and infrastructure was developed with help from abroad, particularly from the United States, creating strong links between the two dissimilar countries, and considerable and problematic American presence in the Kingdom. The Saudi petroleum industry under the company of ARAMCO was built by American petroleum companies, U.S. construction companies such as Bechtel built much of the country's infrastruture, Trans World Airlines, built the Saudi passenger air service; the Ford Foundation modernized Saudi government; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built the country's television and broadcast facilities and oversaw the development of its defense industry.[14]

1970s

The Saudi-Kuwaiti neutral zone was administratively partitioned in 1971, with each state continuing to share the petroleum resources of the former zone equally. During the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, Saudi Arabia participated in the Arab oil boycott of the United States and Netherlands. A member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Saudi Arabia had joined other member countries in moderate oil price increases beginning in 1971. After the 1973 war, the price of oil rose substantially, dramatically increasing Saudi Arabia's wealth and political influence. The location and status of Saudi Arabia's boundary with the United Arab Emirates is not final; a de facto boundary reflects a 1974 agreement.

In 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by a nephew, who was executed after an extensive investigation concluded that he acted alone. Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother Khalid as King and Prime Minister; their half-brother Prince Fahd was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Khalid empowered Crown Prince Fahd to oversee many aspects of the government's international and domestic affairs. Economic development continued rapidly under King Khalid, and the kingdom assumed a more influential role in regional politics and international economic and financial matters.

During the 1970s and 1980s, more than 30,000 Saudi student per year went to the United States, while more than 200,000 Americans have lived and worked in the Kingdom since the discovery of oil.[14]

1980s

A tentative agreement on the partition of the Saudi-Iraqi neutral zone was reached in 1981. The governments finalized the partition in 1983. King Khalid died in June 1982. Fahd became King and Prime Minister in a smooth transition. Another half-brother, Prince Abdullah, Commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and

Aviation, became Second Deputy Prime Minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy adjusted to sharply lower oil revenues resulting from declining global oil prices. Saudi Arabia supported neutral shipping in the Persian Gulf during periods of the Iran-Iraq war and aided Iraq's war-strained economy. King Fahd played a major part in bringing about the August 1988 cease-fire between Iraq and Iran and in organizing and strengthening the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a group of six Persian Gulf states dedicated to fostering regional economic cooperation and peaceful development.

1990s

In August 1990, Saddam Hussein's forces invaded Kuwait. Iraqi troops began massing on the border of Kuwait and some feared that they were about to invade Saudi Arabia. King Fahd allowed American and Coalition soldiers to be stationed in Saudi Arabia to counter the Iraqi threat. Many Muslims were angered by this move, because it allowed foreign armies to be stationed in their holiest land.

King Fahd played a key role before and during the 1991 Persian Gulf War: Saudi Arabia accepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while allowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the liberation of Kuwait the following year. King Fahd's action also consolidated the coalition of forces against Iraq and helped define the tone of the operation as a multilateral effort to re-establish the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Kuwait.

Building #131 after the Khobar Towers bombing, which was the second major terrorist attack against Western troops in Saudi Arabia, 1996

Acting as a rallying point and personal spokesman for the coalition, King Fahd helped bring together his nation's GCC allies, Western allies, and Arab allies, as well as non-aligned nations from Africa and the emerging democracies of eastern Europe. He used his influence as Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques to persuade other Arab and Islamic nations to join the coalition. During the Persian Gulf War, Iraq fired Scud missiles into Saudi Arabia and even penetrated its northern border. These attacks were repelled, and Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. American forces as well as some multinational contingents continued to occupy bases in the kingdom. However, American or foreign forces no longer occupy bases in the kingdom.

King Fahd suffered a stroke in November 1995. The foreign military presence caused militants to orchestrate attacks inside Saudi Arabia. In November 1995, a Saudi National Guard base was bombed, killing seven people. In June 1996, a truck bomb killed 19 American servicemen at the Khobar towers in Al-Khobar. These bombings caused the monarchy to focus on militancy inside their own kingdom, yet they denied there was much of a problem.

2000s

Headquarters of ARAMCO (Saudi Arabian Oil Company) in Dhahran, the Saudi national oil company

A June 2000 treaty further delineated portions of the boundary with Yemen. The border between Saudi Arabia and Qatar was resolved in March 2001. The border with Oman also is not demarcated. With the largest proven oil reserves in the world, structurally high oil prices due to increasing demand from the emerging Industrial giants such as China and India, and the destruction of the neighbouring Iraqi military (which was a threat to Saudi hegemony), Saudi Arabia has become one of the economic powers in the Middle East. Saudi Arabia is increasing investments in infrastructure, science and technology which, it is hoped, will lead to further economic growth.

After the September 11, 2001 attacks, it became known that 15 of the 19 suspected hijackers were Saudi. Saudi Arabia became the focus of worldwide attention once again, as it was questioned whether the government was indeed cracking down on radicals. The Saudi government pledged their support to the War on Terror, and vowed to try to eliminate militant elements. However, in May 2003, an insurgency in Saudi Arabia began, believed to be conducted by al-Qaeda affiliates. This consisted mainly of attacks on foreigners in an attempt to expel them from the country and hurt the Saudi government. While the number of attacks dropped significantly in 2005, they exposed the vulnerability of the country. Concern was also voiced over the large number of Saudis fighting American soldiers in Iraq following the 2003 invasion.

King Fahd died in July 2005. He was succeeded by his brother Crown Prince Abdullah, who had handled most of the day-to-day operations of the government.

References

1. ^ Philip Khuri Hitti (2002), History of the Arabs, Revised: 10th Edition 2. ^ See: Holt (1977a), p.57, Hourani (2003), p.22, Lapidus (2002), p.32, Madelung (1996),

p.43, Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50

3. ^ See: Holt (1977a), p.74

4. ^ L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.

5. ^ Holt (1977a), pp.67–72

6. ^ Waines (2003) p.46

7. ^ Donald Puchala, Theory and History in International Relations, page 137. Routledge, 2003.

8. ^ See: Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91

9. ^ "Sufism". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-13.

10. ^ Hawting (2000), p.4

11. ^ Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83

12. ^ See: Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105, Holt (1977b), pp.661–663, Lapidus (2002), p.56, Lewis (1993), p.84

13. ^ L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.

14. ^ a b Wright, Lawrence, Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11, by Lawrence Wright, NY, Knopf, 2006, p.152

House of Saud

House of Saud

CountryDiriyahNejdSaudi Arabia

TitlesSultanKing

Founder Muhammad ibn Saud

Current head

Abdullah

Founding year

1744: Establishment of the First Saudi State

Ethnicity Arab (Peninsular)

House of Saud (Arabic: سعود آل ; romanized Āl Suʿūd) is the royal family of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The modern nation of Saudi Arabia was established in 1932, though the roots and influence for the House of Saud had been planted in the Arabian Peninsula several centuries earlier. Prior to the era of the Kingdom's founder, Abdul-Aziz ibn Saud, the family had ruled the Nejd and had conflicted on several occasions with the Ottoman Empire, the Sharif of Mecca, and the Al Rashid family of Ha'il. The House of Saud has gone through three phases: the First Saudi State, the Second Saudi State, and the modern nation of Saudi Arabia.

The history of the Al Saud has been marked by a desire to unify the Arabian Peninsula and to spread what it promotes as a more purified and simple, though often criticized as less tolerant, view of Islam embodied by Wahhabism which has gained international controversy since the events of 9/11. The House of Saud is linked with (Hanbali) Wahhabism (Saudis deprecate the term, preferring the term Salafism) through the marriage of the son of Muhammad ibn Saud with the daughter of Muhammad Abd al Wahhab in 1744.

Though some have put the family's numbers as high as 25,000,[1] most estimates place their numbers in the region of 7,000,[2] with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so descendants of King Abdul Aziz.

The current head of the Al Saud and ruler of Saudi Arabia is King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz who announced, on 20 October 2006, the creation of a committee of princes to vote on the viability of kings and the candidature of nominated crown princes - in effect, clarifying and further defining the Al Saud's line of succession process. The committee, known as the Allegiance Commission, and chaired by Prince Mishaal bin Abdul Aziz, gives each son (in case of their inability or death, their eligible son) of the late King Abdul-Aziz a single vote which would be used to confirm one of three princes nominated by the king to be named Crown Prince. In the event that either the sitting king or the crown prince were deemed unfit to rule, a five-member transitory council, appointed by the Council, would be empowered to run state affairs for a the least of one week before naming a successor. The intent is to prevent a situation as was the case with the late King Fahd, who suffered multiple strokes beginning in 1995 but remained on the throne for ten years, most of them without the faculties to rule.

Contents

1 Title 2 History

2.1 Origins and early history

2.2 First Saudi Dynasty

2.3 Second Saudi Dynasty

2.4 Third Saudi Dynasty

3 Branches

4 Political power

5 Succession

6 Wealth

7 Opposition to the House of Sa'ud

7.1 Internal opposition

7.2 International opposition

8 Heads of the House of Sa'ud

8.1 First Saudi state

8.2 Second Saudi state

8.3 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

9 Most notable current members

9.1 Sons of Abdul Aziz ibn Sa'ud

9.2 Grandsons of Abdul Aziz ibn Sa'ud

10 Bibliography

11 See also

12 References

13 External links

Title

Genealogical table of the leaders of the Āl Saud.

The House of Saud take their name from Muhammad ibn Saud ("Muhammad, son of Saud"), the ruler of Diriyah in central Arabia, and the founder of what came to be known as the First Saudi State, who died in 1765. Because Muhammad ibn Saud was commonly known as "Ibn Saud" (son of Saud), the name "Al Saud", came to signify his clan. Today, the surname "Al Saud" is carried by any descendent of Muhammad ibn Saud or his brothers, Farhan (Al Farhan, "sons of Farhan"), Thunayyan, and Mishari.

History

Origins and early history

The earliest recorded ancestor of the Al Saud was Mani' ibn Rabi'ah al-Muraydi, who, according to the chroniclers of Nejd, settled in Diriyah in 1446-7 with his clan, the Mrudah. Mani had been invited to settle there by a relative named Ibn Dir', who was then the ruler of a

set of villages and estates that make up modern-day Riyadh. Mani's clan had been on a soujorn in east Arabia, near al-Qatif, from an unknown point in time. Ibn Dir' handed Mani' two estates called al-Mulaybeed and Ghusayba, which Mani' and his family settled and renamed "al-Diriyah", after their benefactor Ibn Dir'.[3][4]

Genealogically, the Mrudah are regarded as belonging to the ancient Arab tribal confederation of Rabi'a, through the branch of Wa'il. However, there is disagreement as to which branch of Wa'il they belong to. The dominant opinion in their native Nejd is that they are remnants of the now-extinct tribe of Bani Hanifa, who are credited with founding most of Nejd's settlements including Riyadh. The oldest written reference to the Mrudah, a short genealogical manuscript from the 17th century, supports this view. Others, including many members of the Al Saud themselves, however, insist that they are descendants of the large bedouin 'Anizzah confederation of northern Arabia and the Syrian desert. The earliest written reference to this view comes from the Swiss traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, on the authority of Anizzah tribesmen whom he encountered in northwestern Arabia in the early 19th century. Both the 'Anizzah and the Bani Hanifa, however, are branches of the Bani Wa'il of Rabi'ah.[5]

The Mrudah became rulers of al-Diriyah, which propspered along the banks of Wadi Hanifa and became an important Nejdi settlement. As the clan grew larger, power struggles ensued, with one branch leaving to nearby Dhruma, while another branch (the "Al Watban") left for the town of az-Zubayr in southern Iraq. The Al Migrin ("House of Migrin") then became the ruling family among the Mrudah in Diriyah. After some initial struggles in the early 18th century, Muhammad ibn Saud, of the Al Migrin, became the undisputed amir ("prince", or ruler) of the town and its surrounding estates. In 1744, Muhammad ibn Saud took in a fugitive religious cleric named Muhammad ibn Abdel Wahhab, from nearby al-Uyayna. Ibn Saud agreed to provide political support to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's project to reform Islamic practice, which Ibn Abd al-Wahhab believed had strayed far from the ideals set by the Holy Prophet, Messenger of ALLAH Huzur MUHAMMAD Sallalla Hu Alaihi Wassallam, Peace Be Upon Him, and his companionsRazi Allah Hu Tala Anha. This marked the beginning of the First Saudi State. Later on, Saudi loyalists came to refer to Muhammad ibn Saud and his successors by the title of "Imam", signifying that they saw the emir of Dir'iyyah as the temporal leader of an Islamic state, rather than simply another clan leader or village ruler.

First Saudi Dynasty

The period beginning from 1744 is usually referred to by historians as the First Saudi State. This period was marked by conquest of neighboring areas and by religious zeal. At its height, the First Saudi State included most of the territory of modern-day Saudi Arabia, and raids by Al Saud's allies and followers reached into Yemen, Oman, Syria, and Iraq. Islamic clergy, particularly Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his descendents, are believed to have played a significant role in Saudi rule during this period. The Saudis and their allies referred to themselves during this period as the Muwahhidun or Ahl al-Tawhid ("the monotheists"), while others often referred to them as the Wahhabis.

Leadership of the Al Saud during the time of their first state passed from father to son without incident. The first imam, Muhammad ibn Saud, was succeeded by his eldest son Abdul Aziz in 1765. Abdul Aziz was killed in 1803 by an assassin, believed by some to have

been a Shi'ite seeking revenge over the sacking of the Shi'ite holy city of Karbala by Saudi loyalists in 1802. Abdul Aziz was in turn succeeded by his son, Saud, under whose rule the Saudi state reached its greatest extent. By the time Saud died in 1814, his son and successor Abdullah had to contend with an Ottoman-Egyptian invasion seeking to retake lost Ottoman territory and destroy the Wahhabi movement. The mainly-Egyptian force succeeded in defeating Abdullah's forces, taking over the Saudi capital of Dir'iyyah in 1818. Abdullah was taken prisoner and was soon beheaded by the Ottomans in Constantinople, putting an end to the First Saudi State. The Egyptians sent many members of the Al Saud clan and other members of the local nobility as prisoners to Egypt and Constantinople, and proceeded to raze the Saudi capital of Dir'iyyah.

Second Saudi Dynasty

A few years after the fall of Dir'iyyah in 1818, the Saudis were able to re-establish their authority in Nejd, establishing what is now commonly known as the Second Saudi State, with its capital in Riyadh.

Compared to the First Saudi State, the second Saudi period was marked by less territorial expansion (it never reconquered the Hejaz or 'Asir, for example) and less religious zeal, although the Saudi leaders continued to go by the title of imam and still employed Wahhabist religious scholars. The second state was also marked by severe internal conflicts within the Saudi family, eventually leading to the dynasty's downfall. In all but one instance succession occurred by assassination or civil war, the exception being the passage of authority from Faisal ibn Turki to his son Abdallah ibn Faisal ibn Turki.

The first Saudi to attempt to regain power after the fall of Dir'iyyah in 1818 was Mishari ibn Saud, a brother of the last ruler in Dir'iyyah. Mishari was soon captured by the Egyptians and killed. In 1824, Turki ibn 'Abdallah, another Saudi who had managed to evade capture by the Egyptians, was able to expel Egyptian forces and their local allies from Riyadh and its environs. Turki, a grandson of the first Saudi imam Muhammad ibn Saud, is generally regarded as the founder of the second Saudi dynasty and is also the ancestor of the kings of modern-day Saudi Arabia. He made his capital in Riyadh and was able to enlist the services of many relatives who had escaped captivity in Egypt, including his son Faisal.

Turki was assassinated in 1834 by Mishari ibn Abd al-Rahman, a distant cousin. Mishari was soon besieged in Riyadh and later executed by Turki's son, Faisal, who went on to become the most prominent ruler of the Saudis' second reign. Faisal, however, faced a re-invasion of Nejd by the Egyptians four years later. The local population was unwilling to resist, and Faisal was defeated and taken to Egypt as a prisoner for the second time in 1838.

The Egyptians installed Khalid ibn Saud as ruler in Riyadh and supported him with Egyptian troops. Khalid was the last surviving brother of the last imam of the First Saudi State, and had spent many years in the Egyptian court. In 1840, however, external conflicts forced the Egyptians to withdraw all their presence in the Arabian Peninsula, leaving Khalid with little support. Seen by most locals as nothing more than an Egyptian governor, Khalid was toppled soon afterwards by Abdullah ibn Thuniyyan, of the collateral Al Thuniyyan branch. Faisal, however, had been released that year, and, aided by the Al Rashid rulers of Ha'il, was able to retake Riyadh and resume his rule. Faisal later appointed his son Abdallah as crown prince, and divided his dominions between his three sons Abdullah, Saud, and Muhammad.

Upon Faisal's death in 1865, Abdallah assumed rule in Riyadh but was soon challenged by his brother, Saud ibn Faisal. The two brothers fought a long civil war, in which they traded rule in Riyadh several times. Previously a vassal of the Saudis, Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn Rashid of Ha'il took the opportunity to intervene in the conflict and increase his own power. Gradually, Ibn Rashid extended his authority over most of Nejd, including the Saudi capital, Riyadh. Ibn Rashid finally expelled the last Saudi leader, Abdul Rahman ibn Faisal, from Nejd after the Battle of Mulayda in 1891.

Third Saudi Dynasty

After his defeat at Mulayda, Abdul Rahman ibn Faisal went with his family into exile in the deserts of eastern Arabia among the Al Murra bedouins. Soon afterwards, however, Abdul Rahman found refuge in Kuwait as a guest of the Kuwaiti emir, Mubarak Al Sabah. In 1902, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdul Aziz, took on the task of restoring Saudi rule in Riyadh. Supported by a few dozen followers and accompanied by some of his brothers and relatives, Abdul Aziz was able to capture Riyadh's Masmak fort and kill the governor appointed there by Ibn Rashid. Abdul Aziz, reported to have been barely 20 at the time, was immediately proclaimed ruler in Riyadh. As the new leader of the House of Saud, Abdul Aziz became commonly known from that time simply as "Ibn Saud" ("son of Saud").

Ibn Saud spent the next three decades trying to re-establish his family's rule over as much of the Arabian Peninsula as possible, starting with his native Nejd. His chief rivals were the Al Rashid clan in Ha'il, the Sharifs of Mecca in the Hejaz, and the Ottoman Turks in al-Hasa. Ibn Saud also had to contend, however, with the descendents of his late uncle Saud ibn Faisal (later known as the "Saud al-Kabir" branch of the family), who posed as the rightful heirs to the throne. Though for a time acknowledging the sovereignty of the Ottoman Sultans and even taking the title of pasha, Ibn Saud allied himself to the British, in opposition to the Ottoman-backed Al Rashid. For the period between 1915 and 1927, Ibn Saud's dominions was a protectorate of the British Empire, pursuant to the 1915 Treaty of Darin.

By 1932, Ibn Saud had disposed of all his main rivals and consolidated his rule over much of the Arabian Peninsula. He declared himself king of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia that year. Previously, he had gone through several titles, starting with "Sultan of Nejd" ane ending with "King of Hejaz and Nejd and their dependencies." Ibn Saud's father, Abdul Rahman retained the honorary title of "imam." A few years later, in 1937, American surveyors discovered near Dammam what later proved to be Saudi Arabia's vast oil reserves.

Ibn Saud fathered dozens of sons and daughters by his many wives and concubines. He made sure to marry into many of the noble clans and tribes within his territory, including the chiefs of the Bani Khalid, Ajman, and Shammar tribes, as well as the Al al-Shaikh (descendents of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab). He also arranged for his sons and relatives to enter into similar marriages. He appointed his eldest surviving son, Saud as heir apparent, to be succeeded by the next eldest son, Faisal. The Saudi family became known as the "royal family," and each member, male and female, was accorded the title of amir or amira ("prince" or "princess"), respectively.

Ibn Saud died in 1953, but not after having cemented an alliance with the United States in 1945. He is still celebrated officially as the "Founder," and only his direct descendents may take on the title of "his or her Royal Highness." The date of his recapture of Riyadh in 1902

was chosen to mark Saudi Arabia's centennial in 1999 (according to the Islamic lunar calendar).

Upon Ibn Saud's death, his son Saud assumed the throne without incident, but his lavish spending led to a power struggle between him and the new crown prince, Faisal. In 1964, the royal family forced Saud to abdicate in favor of Faisal, aided by an edict from the country's grand mufti. During this period, some of Ibn Saud's younger sons, led by Talal ibn Abdul Aziz defected to Egypt, calling themselves the "Free Princes" and calling for liberalization and reform, but were later induced to return by Faisal. They were fully-pardoned but were also barred from any future positions in government.

Faisal was assassinated in 1975 by a nephew, Faisal ibn Musa'ad, who was then promptly executed. Another brother, Khalid assumed the throne. The next prince in line had actually been Muhammad, but Muhammad had relinquished his claim to the throne in favor of Khalid, who was his only full brother.

Khalid died of a heart attack in 1982, and was succeeded by Fahad, the eldest of the powerful "Sudairi Seven", so-called because they were all sons of Ibn Saud's wife, Hassa al-Sudairi. Fahad did away with the previous royal title of "his Majesty" and replaced it with the honorific "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques," in reference to the two Islamic holy sites in Mecca and Medina.

A stroke in 1993 left Fahad largely incapacitated, and the crown prince, Abdallah gradually took over most of the king's responsibilities until Fahad's death in August of 2005. Abdallah was proclaimed king on the day of Fahad's death and promptly appointed his younger brother Sultan ibn Abdul Aziz, the minister of defense and Fahad's "second deputy prime minister," as the new heir apparent. Unlike Fahad, however, Abdallah declined to name a "second deputy," who would presumably be the next crown prince. Instead, Abdallah later announced the formation of a "Council of Allegiance" to select future kings.

Branches

Sons of Abdul Aziz (Ibn Saud, the founder of the modern Saudi state) have been, thus far, the only eligible candidates allowed to serve as King or Crown Prince. As a result of the aging of this pool (there are an estimated 22 surviving sons, the oldest being in their mid 80s and the youngest in their 60s), a decree by the late King Fahd expanded the candidates to include the male progeny of King Abdul Aziz's sons. This decree has expanded the pool to over 150 eligibles, though consensus and competency would limit this number.

Sons and grandsons of King Abdul Aziz are referred to in the style "His Royal Highness," differing from the royals belonging to the Cadet line which are given the "His Highness" (HH) honorific.

The Cadet line includes the Saud al-Kabir, the Al Jiluwi, the Al Thunayan, the Al Mishari and the Al Farhan, all of which are branches of the Al Saud. Many of the Cadet Line royals hold senior government and military positions, or are in business. Intermarriage between branches is a common way of establishing alliances and reinforcing influence. Though members of the Cadet line are not in contention for the throne, there are some with seniority who command respect and often wield tremendous power.

Political power

The Head of the House of Saud is the King of Saudi Arabia who serves as Head of State and monarch of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The King holds almost absolute political power. The King appoints ministers to his cabinet who supervise their respective ministries in his name. The key ministries of Defence, the Interior, and Foreign Affairs are reserved for the Al Saud, as are most of the thirteen regional governorships. Most portfolios, however, such as Finance, Labor, Information, Planning, Petroleum Affairs and Industry, have traditionally been given to commoners, often with junior Al Saud members serving as their deputies. House of Saud family members also hold many of the Kingdom's critical military and governmental departmental posts. Ultimate power in the Kingdom has always rested upon the Al Saud though support from the Ulema, the merchant community, and the population-at-large has been a key to the maintenance of the royal family's political status quo.

Long term political and government appointments, such as those of King Abdullah, who has been Commander of the National Guard since 1963, Crown Prince Sultan, Minister of Defence & Aviation since 1962, Prince Mutaib Minister of Municipal & Rural Affairs since 1975, Prince Nayef who has been the Minister of Interior since 1975, and Prince Salman, who has been Governor of the Riyadh Region since 1962, have perpetuated the creation of fiefdoms where senior princes have, often, though not exclusively, co-mingled their personal wealth with that of their respective domains. They have often appointed their own sons to senior positions within their own fiefdom. Examples of these include Prince Mutaib bin Abdullah as Assistant Commander in the National Guard; Prince Khalid bin Sultan as Assistant Minister of Defence; Prince Mansour bin Mutaib as Assistant Minister for Municipal & Rural Affairs; and Prince Mohammed bin Nayef as Assistant Minister in the Interior Ministry. In cases, where portfolios have notably substantial budgets, appointments of younger, often full, brothers have been necessary, as deputies or vice ministers, ostensibly to share the wealth and the burdens of responsibility, of each fiefdom. Examples of these include Prince Abd-al Rahman who is Vice Minister of Defence & Aviation under Prince Sultan; Prince Badr, Deputy to King Abdullah in the National Guard; Prince Sattam, who is Deputy to Riyadh Governor, Prince Salman; and Prince Ahmed, who holds the Deputy Minister's portfolio in Prince Nayef's Interior Ministry.

Unlike Western royal families, the Saudi Monarchy has not had a clearly defined order of succession. Historically, upon becoming King, the monarch has designated an heir apparent to the throne who serves as Crown Prince of the Kingdom. Upon the King's death the Crown Prince becomes King, and during the King's incapacitation the Crown Prince, likewise, assumes power as regent. Though other members of the Al Saud hold political positions in the Saudi government, technically it is only the King and Crown Prince who legally constitute the political institutions.

Succession

Succession to the throne has traditionally been by consensus and, although age remains an influential factor within the family, senior princes have been bypassed, either by their own unwillingness or inability to rule, to build the consensus necessary primarily from within the royal family, but also from the clerical and merchant communities. The Bay'ah Council,

whose membership is restricted to the surviving sons and senior grandsons of the late King Abdul-Aziz, ushers in a public face to this well-tried traditional process.

Though nominally head of the royal family, both Kings Khalid and Fahd respected and often deferred family matters (which often had intricate links to broader government procedures and policies) to their older brother, Muhammad bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud (who had stepped aside from succession) during Mohammed's lifetime. This tradition continues today; neither Princes Bandar bin Abdul Aziz nor Mishaal bin Abdul Aziz (both older than Crown Prince Sultan) hold any official role in government but both are key players in the Kingdom's political hierarchy. Sons of former kings Faisal, Khalid, Fahd, and, to a lesser extent, Saud, including those not in government, also maintain significant political & family influence, and are expected to participate on the Bay'ah Council. In contradiction to widely held opinions, senior princesses also wield significant, albeit private, influence in royal family politics.

Wealth

The sharing of family wealth has been a critical component in maintaining the semblance of a united front within the royal family. An essential part of family wealth is the Kingdom in its entirety, which the Al Saud view as a totally owned family asset. Whether through the co-mingling of personal & state funds from lucrative government positions, huge land allocations, direct allotments of crude oil to sell in the open market, segmental controls in the economy, special preferences for the award of major contracts, outright cash handouts, and astronomical monthly allowances, - all billed to the national exchequer - all told, the financial impact may have exceeded 40% of the Kingdom's annual budget during the reign of King Fahd. Over decades of oil revenue-generated expansion, estimates of royal receipts have varied, ranging as low as an unlikely $50 billion and as high as over $1 trillion. Be it what it may, wealth-sharing of this sort has allowed many of the senior princes & princesses to accumulate largely unauditable wealth and, in turn, pay out, in cash or kind, to lesser royals and commoners, and thereby gaining political influence through their own largesse.

During periods of high oil prices as were the late 70s, early 80s, and immediately after the 2003 US invasion of Iraq, national income has outpaced the developmental needs & social obligations of the Saudi government and the effects of royal skimming were diminished. From the mid 80s through the 90s, when international crude oil prices dropped to the teens and below, the subsequent shortfall in income, and the availability of surprisingly limited financial reserves (when compared to such countries as Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates which continued to grow during crude price droughts because of dividends generated from years of prudent investments) may have contributed to growing national discontent with the Al Saud and planted the seeds for the growth of Al-Qaeda sympathizers in the Kingdom. According to well-publicized but unsubstantiated reports, King Abdullah has intentions to reduce the Al Saud share of the budget, an act which may sow discontent within the royal family, but would be popular with the Kingdom's citizenry.

Opposition to the House of Sa'ud

Internal opposition

Due to its authoritarian and theocratic rule, the House of Saud has attracted much criticism during its rule of Saudi Arabia. Its opponents generally refer to the Saudi monarchy as totalitarians or dictators.

There have been numerous incidents of demonstrations and other forms of resistance against the House of Saud. These range from the Ikhwan uprising during the reign of Ibn Saud, to numerous coup attempts by the different branches of the Kingdom's military. On November 20, 1979 the Holy Sanctuary in Mecca was violently seized by a group of dissidents. The Seizure was carried out by 500 heavily armed and provisioned Saudi Dissidents, consisting mostly of members of the former Ikhwan tribe of Utayba[6] but also of other peninsular Arabs and a few Egyptians enrolled in Islamic studies at the Islamic University of Medina.

The seizure was led by Juhayman al-Otaibi and Muhammad bin 'Abdallah al-Qahtani who cited the corruption and ostentatiousness of the ruling house of Saud. Utaybi and his group spoke against the socio–technological changes taking place in Saudi Arabia. Utaybi demanded that oil should not be sold to the United States. Utaybi also spoke against the stranglehold on the interpretation and development of Wahhabi Islam placed on it by the Saudi regime in a corrupt alliance with the Ulema of Saudi Arabia.[7]

Utaybi received little mass support outside of small circles of manual workers and students of tribal origin, of the lower classes and foreign labourers (from Egypt, Yemen and Pakistan.) The Saudi Royal family turned to the Ulema who duly issued a fatwa permitting the storming of the holy sanctuary. Saudi forces, aided by French and Pakistani commandos, took two weeks to flush the rebels out of the holy sanctuary; the use of foreign commandos was particularly surprising since, officially, non-Muslims cannot enter the city of Mecca.[8]

Saudi forces with the aid of French Commandos ejected Utaybi’s Group. All surviving males (including Juhaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Saif al-Utaybi) were beheaded publicly in four cities of Saudi Arabia.[9]

International opposition

The Saudi monarchy has been an ally of the United States for over five decades. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, however, there has been a large anti-Saudi shift in U.S. public opinion, as well as a call to review the relationship. American politicians on both sides of the political spectrum have questioned the relationship; and the US media have raised doubts about the Kingdom's reliability. As the world's largest producer of crude oil, Saudi Arabia has received the brunt of the public's ire, particularly when gasoline prices fluctuate upwards. Lucrative oil and business ventures and contracts that have recently been awarded to non-US firms have also raised the question of whether Saudi Arabia is committed to the United States.

Heads of the House of Sa'ud

King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz. (2002 photo)

First Saudi state

Muhammad bin Saud Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad bin Saud

Saud bin Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad Al Saud

Abdullah bin Saud

Second Saudi state

Turki ibn Abdallah Faisal ibn Turki (first period)

Khalid ibn Saud (appointed by the Egyptians)

Abdullah ibn Thunayyan

Faisal ibn Turki (second period)

Saud ibn Faisal

Abdullah ibn Faisal

Abdulrahman ibn Faisal

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

King Abdul-Aziz bin Abdul-Rahman Al Saud King Saud bin Abdul-Aziz

King Faisal bin Abdul-Aziz

King Khalid bin Abdul-Aziz

King Fahd bin Abdul-Aziz

King Abdullah bin Abdul-Aziz

Most notable current members

Sons of Abdul Aziz ibn Sa'ud

Bandar bin Abdul Aziz (1923-) - Has never held a government post but considered close to King Abdullah. Reputed to be religious, and possibly a recluse.

Musa'id bin Abdul Aziz (1923-) - Older son, Khalid, was killed in a shootout with police in the early 1960s while demonstrating against the Kingdom's introduction of television. Younger son, Faisal, was King Faisal's assassin a decade later, for which he was beheaded. Mus'aid is reported to be religious, eccentric and a recluse.

Mishaal bin Abdul Aziz (1926-)- Former Minister of Defence & Governor of Makkah Province. Close confidant of King Abdullah, and Chairman of the Allegiance Council, Mishaal is one of the Kingdom's wealthiest royals with extensive interests in real estate and a wide range of business interests.

Crown Prince Sultan bin Abdul-Aziz (1926-)

Abd al-Rahman bin Abdul Aziz (1931-) - Appointed Vice-Minister of Defence on 1978 replacing younger brother, Turki, who was reportedly unfit for the position. Extremely wealthy with extensive business interests. With full brother, Crown Prince Sultan's impaired health and waning desire for greater power, Abd al-Rahman has reinforced his influence in the royal family, emerging as the preeminent persona in the royal family's Sudairi faction.

Mutaib bin Abdul Aziz (1931-) - Long time Minister for Municipal & Rural Affairs, and former Governor of Makkah. His profile and influence have greatly increased due to a lengthy tenure in government and a long standing family alliance with King Abdullah and his only surviving full brother, Mishaal.

Talal bin Abdul Aziz (1931-) - Has held the ministerial portfolios for Finance and Communications. Major businessman, special envoy to UNESCO and Chairman of AGFUND. May not be a contender for the throne for his leading role in the Free Princes movement of 1958 which sought government reform. Father of Al-Waleed bin Talal.

Badr bin Abdul Aziz (1933-) - Long time Deputy Commander of National Guard. Participated in the Free Princes movement in 1958 and rehabilitated by King Faisal a decade later.

Nawwaf bin Abdul Aziz (1933-) - Senior advisor of King Abdullah, former Minister of Finance and, briefly, Director General of the General Intelligence Directorate. Has substantial business holdings.

Nayef bin Abdul Aziz (1933-) - Powerful Minister of Interior who may not be as strong a contender for the throne as previously believed. Nayef's inability to muster the necessary consensus to attain the hitherto vacant Second Deputy Prime Minister's position, may portend his diminishing influence and strong objections from other royals.

Turki bin Abdul Aziz (1934-) - Businessman after he was forced to resign as Deputy Minister of Defence in 1978.

Abdulilah bin Abdul Aziz (1935-) - Former Governor of Al Jawf Province. Appointed Special Advisor to King Abdullah in 2008.

Salman bin Abdul Aziz (1936-) - Powerful Governor of Riyadh Region. Is considered a mediator between differing Royal Family factions. Diminishing health and the death of his two oldest sons within a 12 month period has, reportedly, dampened a desire for the throne.

Ahmed bin Abdul Aziz (1940-) - Deputy Minister of Interior, with a reputation for 'getting the job done,' since 1975. He has remained in the shadow of brother,Prince Nayef, though Ahmed may be the stronger candidate for succession.

Mamdouh bin Abdul Aziz (1940-) - Former Governor of Tabuk region who was removed from the post by King Fahd for insubordination. Later Director of Saudi Center of Strategic Studies.

Sattam bin Abdul Aziz (1943-) - Deputy Governor of Riyadh region since 1968.

Muqran bin Abdul Aziz (1945-) - Director General of the General Intelligence Directorate. Former Governor for Ha'il & Madinah regions.

Hathloul bin Abdul Aziz (1945-)

Grandsons of Abdul Aziz ibn Sa'ud

Muhammed bin Saud (1934-) - Governor of Al Bahah Province. Abdallah al-Khalid(1935-) - Chairman of the [[King Khalid

Mohammed al Faisal (1937-) - Former Deputy minister for Agriculture. Founder and Chairman of DMI Trust and the Faisal Islamic Bank Group, the world's largest Islamic organizations; member of the Board of Trustees for the prestigious King Faisal Foundation.

Khalid al Faisal (1941-) - poet, Governor of the Makkah Province and Managing Director of the King Faisal Foundation.

Saud al Faisal (1941-) - Long serving Foreign Minister and close confidant of King Abdullah. May have stepped aside as a succession candidate due to possibly, debilitating health concerns but is highly respected both inside the kingdom and internationally. Member of the Board of Trustees for the prestigious King Faisal Foundation.

Mutaib bin Abdullah (1943-) Competent Assistant Commander of the National Guard.

Faisal bin Bandar (1943-)- Governor of Qasim Province.

Turki al Faisal (1945-)- Adept Ambassador to Washington D.C. until his surprise resignation on December 12, 2006. Has received intense western media criticism for allegedly mishandling the growth of Al Qaeda during his long tenure as the head of Saudi Arabia's General Intelligence Directorate, where he oversaw Saudi Arabia's official and non official aid to the Mujahideen fighters during the Afghan Civil War.

His short tenure as Ambassador to Britain received wide accolades for his professionalism. Member of the Board of Trustees for the King Faisal Foundation.

Saud bin Abdul Mohsin (1947-)- Low profiled well regarded Governor of Ha'il Province. Father was late Prince Abdul Mohsin bin Abdul Aziz (1925-1985), much loved and repected Governor of Madinah.

Khalid bin Sultan (1949-)- Assistant Minister of Defence. Led Saudi military forces during first Gulf War. Considered both competent and arrogant but accumulation of extensive assets and wealth through his positions in government may hinder political future.

Mohammed bin Fahd (1950-)- Competent Governor of the Eastern Province and son of late King Fahd. His vast business interests, much of it acquired from his position, may be a negative factor for future roles.

Bandar bin Sultan (1950-)- Long serving Ambassador to US, maintaining close relations with the Bush Family and others across the political spectrum. Reportedly used his position to accumulate great wealth which, in addition to Bandar's lack of in-country popularity, may deter family consensus supporting future roles. King Abdullah, whose support he enjoys, appointed Bandar Secretary-General of the newly created National Security Council in October 2005.

Mohammed bin Nawwaf (1953-) - Saudi Ambassador to London. Gained kudos as competent former Ambassador to Italy. His growing prominence is closely connected to King Abdullah's trust & confidence with his father, Prince Nawwaf.

Al-Walid ibn Talal (1955-) - Has gained stature as a world class investor and is consistently ranked among Forbes magazine's wealthiest billionaires. Source of wealth reported to include private investments from other royals.

Saud bin Nayef (1956-) - Saudi Ambassador to Spain. Former Deputy Governor of the Eastern Province.

Sultan bin Salman (1956-)- Former astronaut and Secretary General of Supreme Commission for Tourism.

Mohammed bin Nayef (1959-) - Assistant Minister for Security Affairs in the Interior Ministry. He has taken over many of his father's (Prince Nayef's) duties including the day to day operations against Al Qaeda.

Faisal bin Salman (1960-) - Chairman of Saudi Research and Marketing Group, the Middle East's largest vertically integrated publishing group.

Abdulaziz bin Fahd (1973-)- Youngest, and reportedly, favorite son of late King Fahd. Minister of State and Cabinet Member though his power & political potential are in decline since his father's death in August 2005 - his finances remain controversial and substantial.

Bibliography

The House of Saud by David Holden and Richard Johns. Contains 538 pages, plus bibliography, index, and family history, also sections of Black and White plates.[10]

References

1. ^ "english.aljazeera.net". Retrieved on 2007-06-19. 2. ^ See for example: [1] [2] [3] [4]

3. ^ Rentz, G. "al- Diriyya (or al-Dariyya)." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online. 8 September 2007 [5]

4. ^ H. St. John Philby, Saudi Arabia, Ernest Benn. Place of Publication: London, 1955. p. 8 (retrieved through questia)

5. ^ For information on the Al Sauds' genealogy see:Hamad al-Jasir, Jamharah (Compendium of the lineages of the Settled Families of Nejd) (Arabic)Rentz, G. "al- Diriyya (or al-Dariyya)." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online. 8 September 2007 [6]C.M. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta, glossary

6. ^ The Middle East Review of International Affairs State, Islam and 0pposition in Saudi Arabia: The Post Desert-Storm Phase. Retrieved on 2006-12-29

7. ^ J.A. Kechichican, "Islamic Revivalism and Change in Saudi Arabia: Juhayman al-'Utaybi's 'Letters to the Saudi People'", The Muslim World, Vol.50 (1990) pp. 1-16.

8. ^ NPR: Did 'Siege of Mecca' Give Birth to Al-Qaida?

9. ^ Global Security Org; Mecca globalsecurity.org Retrieved on 2006-12-29

10. ^ Detail taken from The House of Saud, a reprint. First published by Sidgwick and Jackson in 1981 with an ISBN 0 283 98436 8

Alexei Vassiliev, The History of Saudi Arabia, London, UK: Al Saqi Books, 1998

David Holden & Richard Johns, The House of Saud, Pan, 1982, 0-330-26834-1

Madawi Al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-64412-7