satisfaction of dba graduates

8/3/2019 Satisfaction of DBA Graduates

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The Satisfaction of DBA Graduates: A Matter of Return on Investment and PromotionDr. Laurent Scaringella & Delphine Vidal

Business Leadership ReviewVIII:D www.mbaworld.com/blrSeptember 2011Page 1 of 11 2011 Association of MBAs

The Satisfaction of DBA Graduates: A Matter of Return onInvestment and PromotionDr. Laurent Scaringella & Delphine VidalGrenoble Ecole de Management

AbstractThe Doctorate of Business Administration (DBA) is a very particular doctoral programme as it combinesthe business and academic worlds through a single research project. DBA candidates come mostly fromtop-management positions in business and have decided to enter an academic process to produceapplied research to solve real business problems. The specificity of this programme can also allowdrastic career changes from business to the academic world depending on the initial motivation of

candidates.

This article puts forward a statistical analysis to bring a better knowledge of DBA alumni satisfaction.Our objective is to gain a better understanding of what DBA students can expect after completing theprogramme. This statistical processing aims to support our identification of concepts that strongly affectthe satisfaction of graduates. Positivism epistemological philosophy has been chosen to criticise theliterature review on education in using a particular sample of DBA graduates. Two multivariateregression analyses address the two following stakes:

- DBA alumni satisfaction: a matter of return on investment- DBA as a catalyst for career progression and earning increase

Our research on DBA alumni is expected to bring a contribution to the programmes governance and tolead some universities/ business schools toward best practices by taking into account the importantstakes of DBA programmes. This research should also bring a contribution to our personal developmentas a DBA alumnus and a DBA student. The in-depth understanding of motivations and outcomes ofDBA studies in business and academic world shall lead us to take up the process with consciousness ofpotential strengths and limitations of the programme.

As an historical introduction, this article will refer to a very original article published in 1967 inwhich John T. Wheeler

1, former Associate Dean of the Haas School of Business (University

of California at Berkeley) provided a historical explanation of the development of theDoctorate of Business Administration. At this time, most of the professors in business schoolscame from the field of economics. Already in 1967, Wheeler was predicting a chronic andindefinite shortage of qualified faculty. To offset this shortage of faculty, the American

Association of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) encouraged the creation of doctoralprogrammes in business in the 1970s because of this concern related to the shortage ofbusiness faculty and to hire professors from different backgrounds. However, outside of theUS the DBA has developed into a programme for practising managers, business leaders andchange agents, training students to utilise academic research skills to solve unique businessproblems in a rigorous manner.


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Motivations to pursue a DBA have also changed over time2. What is often sought by DBA

students is a major learning experience3. For those who want to acquire in depth research

skills, the PhD seems more suitable because of a larger taught component compared to theDBA

4. For those PhD students, a doctorate degree is a starting point or an initiation to an

academic career which is far different from what DBA students are looking for. In addition to alearning experience, DBA students are motivated by a professional continuation, careerdevelopment and enhancement

5that strongly depend on personal career trajectory

6. Most of

them also wish to have more flexibility and a good life balance between work, studies andfamily, which would not be necessarily the case for faculties holding a PhD

7. Since the higher

education environment and motivation of students have changed, the article will address tworesearch questions related to satisfaction and salary of DBA alumni after graduation:

- What are the determinant factors of the effect on job satisfaction for DBAs?

- What are the determinants of salary increase after completion of a DBA?

DBA programme satisfaction and salary post-graduationStudying the impact of the DBA degree on graduates job satisfaction might lead businessschools to consider more carefully key variables. It may help to increase the satisfaction ofgraduated students after the completion of their degree. This section lists potential variablesleading to satisfaction or non-satisfaction. From the literature review, the following variableshave been selected and measured: second career planning, job efficiency, recognition bypeers and position/salary increase.

Second career planningThe possible shift from a practitioner position to an academic position can be considered as asource of satisfaction as it offers new perspectives and potentially a more balanced life whichis sought by a large number of DBA students. Hoffer et al.

8also studied this specific

population and estimated that most of these people were working on a full-time basis forseveral years as executives, managers, consultants, or entrepreneurs and then wished tochange their work to have a more balanced life. There is a current increase of faculties withsuch a profile

9which lead Larocco & Bruns

10to conduct a qualitative-based exploratory study

to examine the satisfaction perceptions of people making the choice to plan a second career.It appears to be a worthy choice considering the shortage of faculty and the scarcity of peoplehaving a dual profile combining practical and scholarly knowledge. It appears straightforwardto consider this potential second career planning option as a variable that significantlyimpacts DBA satisfaction.

Job efficiencyMoreover, respondents might be satisfied to complete their DBA for having improved jobefficiency because of the mastery of sophisticated statistical methods, case study know-howand other research-based frameworks which can be used to solve complex and uniquebusiness problems. This knowledge directly affects individual performance and has astraightforward impact on possible promotion

11. Indeed, according to Holmstrm

12, for any

sector, individual performance is benchmarked with other people working in the sameenvironment and this determines the likelihood of promotion

13. The Theory of Performance

Evaluation (TPE) can be applied for DBA alumni where efficiency at work can lead to apositive evaluation of satisfaction.


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Recognition by peersEarning a doctorate degree is considered as something that might lead one to be considereddifferently by peers. According to Brun and Dugas

14, there is an increasing need for

recognition by employees, which has a strong impact on motivation and performance at work.Brun

15emphasised the fact that at any layer of hierarchy there is a need for recognition. The

question of recognition is embedded with the concept of human dignity defined as theconsideration that a person is an end in itself

16. According to Aquino, Lewis and Bradfield

17,

such recognition is distributive, procedural and interactional. This does not necessarilymean monetary recognition but might be related to existential recognition. According to Brunand Dugas, recognition also stems from a judgment made about the work accomplished andits result. In regards to the DBA, it might lead other faculties to consider DBA graduates aspeers. Beyond the effect of recognition by peers on DBA satisfaction, this recognition

provides people with a meaning for their work, a promotion in their development and a feelingof well-being

18.

Promotion and salary increaseThe article hypothesises that promotion to a better position increases both salary and DBAsatisfaction. Both variables of promotion and salary increase are considered in this point.Promotion is seen as a critical element of job satisfaction since promotion and salary increaseare often closely related

19

Salaries and other kind of compensation are strongly related to individual performance asmentioned by the variable job efficiency

20. Regarding the analysis of salary increase, Meier

21developed a model on promotion and highlighted the existence of an optimum promotion

tournament system where winners of previous contests are more likely to win upcomingtournaments leading to salary increases and a higher position rank. This idea of tournamentoriginally came from Lazear and Rosen who defined a winner as someone who gets a highprize for each win. It implies a strong motivation for a young worker to provide good qualitywork with the hope of rewards, i.e. winning their first tournaments.

22Tournament dynamics is

limited by the level of incompetence of individuals where the productivity of workers declinesafter a promotion. The added value for a manager to hold a DBA would be to go beyond theirlevel of incompetence by learning from this academic experience with an ultimate effect onDBA satisfaction.

From an econometric point of view, there is a positive relationship between the level ofstudies and job opportunities. Those opportunities should be higher than costs for DBAprospects who are considering potential outcomes such as salary increase and drawbackssuch as time spent, fees, potential risk of over-qualification and unemployment

23. It is

necessary to highlight that DBA students have to pay high tuition fees and to dedicate time totheir studies to earn their DBA, leading to a high return on investment expectation. However,students considering going into academia have to be aware of the difference betweensalaries of the industry and salaries of universities

24.

MethodologyThe article is based on primary data from a questionnaire distributed to DBA alumni fromGrenoble Ecole de Management which is a triple accredited French management school


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delivering Bachelors, Masters and Doctoral programmes. This programme has existed for 16years and had a total of 78 graduates as of December 2010. In 2010 a survey about theGrenoble DBA alumni was carried out to collect data about their professional and academicactivities and their satisfaction with regard to their job satisfaction.

The organisation of this four-year programme is on a part-time basis allowing experiencedsenior executives to attend workshops on weekends and enabling a work and study balance.The programme is delivered on three continents and students are international (with aboutone third American, one third Asian and one third European). As prerequisites, DBAapplicants need to hold an MBA, an MSc or a Master of Arts from a recognised institution, tohave at least three years of managerial experience and a good English level as well as a verydetailed and advanced research proposal.

The programme is composed of two stages: The first stage lasts between 18 and 24 monthsdepending on the students progress and on his attendance of the workshops on researchmethodologies, comprised of seven workshops to attend in order to complete the Training inDoctoral Research in Management Science. Stage 2 is also 18 to 24 months long and isdedicated to the writing of the thesis. Then the doctoral student has to submit his thesisdissertation. To meet the doctoral standards, the work must be 60,000 to 80,000 words inlength (without appendices). It must also be an original, scientific, rigorous work withsignificant managerial relevance.

During stage 1 and 2 DBA students work together with a supervisor from the definition of theirresearch question and design to the submission and defence of their thesis. In the case ofGrenoble, DBA alumni are either faculty members in universities or continue working in

business with some teaching appointments, depending on their initial motivation and personalsuccess.

The survey is based on 60 respondents from the DBA alumni of Grenoble Ecole deManagement. The survey was administrated to managers, consultants and entrepreneurs(61.67% of the response rate) and researchers and faculties (38.33% of the response rate)holding a DBA from three different DBA programmes delivered by Grenoble (Grenoble-Henley Management College DBA programme, Grenoble Ecole de Management DBAprogramme and Grenoble-Newcastle University DBA programme). The scope of this studyleads the authors to be conscious of the limitations of the sample used and of the context.The survey was administered via email linked to a self-administered on-line questionnaire andwas sent to 67 out of 71 graduates (four graduates were unreachable). The return rate washigh, with a total of 60 responses (an overall response rate of 89.55%). This high response

rate allows this article to generalise results as far as Grenoble Ecole de Management DBA isconcerned. Additional data collection would be required to generalise results on DBAprogrammes worldwide. The data collection has been processed from May to September2010.

The method of analysis is the multivariate regression analysis to measure the significance ofsome variables on the variance of the dependent variable. Having a stronger explanatory


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List of dependent variables List of independent variables

DBA effect on

job satisfaction

Position catalyser .155

New job finding .024**

Job efficiency .689

Peers' recognition .686

Earning increase .005***Table 2: Statistical significance of variables

power than descriptive statistics, it was relevant to use this method. It could also have beenpossible to use ANOVA between various groups of students.

VariablesDatacollection

Scaletype

Description

DBA effect onjob satisfaction

Primary datacollection

4-pointLikert

On the overall, do you think that the DBAhelped you to be more satisfied with your job?low satisfaction-high satisfaction

Positioncatalyser


4-pointLikert

What contribution has the DBA brought to yourprofessional life? It helped me to get a betterposition in my company: Not at all-yes a lot

New job finding Primary datacollection

4-pointLikert

What contribution has the DBA brought to yourprofessional life? It helped me to find a new job:Not at all-yes a lot

Job efficiencyPrimary datacollection

4-pointLikert

What contribution has the DBA brought to yourprofessional life? It helped me to be moreefficient in my job: Not at all-yes a lot

Peers'recognition


4-pointLikert

What contribution has the DBA brought to yourprofessional life? It helped me to be recognisedby my peers: Not at all-yes a lot

Earning increasePrimary datacollection

Yes - NoHave you increased your earnings aftergraduation from the DBA?

Table 1: List of variables from primary and secondary data collection

Analysis

DBA satisfaction, a matter of return on investment- This section deals with the first research question: What are the determinant factors

of the effect on job satisfaction for DBAs?-

Test of theoretical relationsIt is necessary to detect any non-significantvariables in the prediction of DBA effects on job satisfaction. In the test of theoreticalrelationships, certain variables are notsignificant (>0.05). The following variableshave not been added, via a step-by-step

addition process: position catalyser, jobefficiency, peers recognition and new jobfinding. In the test of theoreticalrelationships, one variable is significant (


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characterised by * for a p-value below 0.1; by ** for a p-value below 0.05; and *** for a p-value below 0.01).

Estimating the regression modelIt is possible to build a model, and to provide estimation of the fit of the overall model. Thestepwise procedure is used for inclusion and removal in variate regression. Earning increasewas introduced. The R

2is .147 for the model with one independent variable. Adjusted R

2is

very similar (.130). The R2

change of the last model is .147 because there is only onevariable. The standard error of the estimate measures the accuracy of our predictions. This isthe square root of the sum of the squared errors, divided by the degrees of freedom. There isa .723 standard deviation around the regression line.

By adding one variable into the model, the error is reduced by 14.74%. This underlines theutility of adding earning increase into the prediction. Consequently, by knowing the valuesalary before and after the DBA graduation, the error is reduced by 14.74%. This reduction isstatistically significant (.005). The F ratio is equal to 8.643, with a significance level of .005.This means that the last entered variable has 0.5% of chance of not being significant. Here,the study stopped adding other variables because their contribution would be marginal, i.e.the prediction power would not be improved significantly.

25

Next, it is necessary to assess the assumptions of regression analysis for the variate.Linearity needs to be assessed by an analysis of the scatter plot. From this graph, it appearsthis represents a null plot, highlighting that the overall equation is linear. To assess whetherthe error terms are normally distributed, it is possible to run the Shapiro and Wilk test. Thistest is significant at .000. This means that it is possible to reject the normality, i.e. it is not

Gaussian which is a limit of the article mainly linked to the small size of the sample.

Interpreting the regression variateThe model estimation is fully complete, and the regression variate is specified with only oneindependent variable (earning increase). The prediction of DBA effect on job satisfaction is:DBA effect on job satisfaction = 3.050 + .606 x earning increase

The standard error of the coefficient is equal to .206 for earning increase. The t value is equalto 2.940 significant at .005 for earning increase. It is possible to affirm with confidence thatthe coefficient is not equal to zero. Consequently, earning increase definitely predict the DBAeffect on job satisfaction. The F ratio of the last entered variable (8.643) determines theentrance and removal of variables.

The analysis indicated from this study is that one of the only important things for DBAgraduates is to increase their salary in order to have satisfaction from earning this degree. Itimplies that student satisfaction is pecuniary driven. The hypothesis of having a positiverelationship between salary and satisfaction has been significantly assessed. DBA studentsare definitely taking part in a tournament where earning a DBA is related to a strong wish ofhaving financial benefit. For them, the DBA is a high level tournament where winning meansearning more. It comes to confirm the positive relationship between job opportunities


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List of dependent variables

List of independent variables

Increase of

earning

Position catalyser .000***

New job finding .225

Job efficiency .561Peers' recognition .753

Table 3: Statistical significance of variables

according to the level of study or at least some expectations of opportunities. Opportunitiesare opposed to costs, especially DBA tuition fees and time allocation, most of the time as apart-time commitment. However, this analysis also shows that a poor remuneration aftergraduation also leads to low satisfaction of the programme itself. Doctoral schools shouldthus have a follow up of DBA graduates to increase professionalisation post-graduation andto some extent to improve the positive word-of-mouth from alumni.

From this statistical treatment, it was not possible to confirm potential linkages betweensecond career planning and the satisfaction of the DBA. Although a large pool of alumni hadthe initial motivation to shift from a practitioner position to an academic one, this reorientationdoes not necessarily imply a stronger satisfaction about the DBA. This occupational trajectorywould rather be related to personal aim than to some outcomes of the programme which

would significantly affect the perception of DBA satisfaction.

The hypothesis of having a greater evaluation of the DBA satisfaction with an increase of jobefficiency has not been confirmed. It means that the mastery, training and practice ofsophisticated statistical methods, case study know-how and other research-basedframeworks does not significantly affect their judgment on the DBA programme, which is fairlysurprising. It would mean that the DBA is rather seen as an end rather than a means forfurther academic research. Moreover, recognition by peers does not significantly affect theevaluation of the DBA. Even though the theory considers the recognition by peers as a keyfactor, DBA satisfaction is not affected by this perception. It would imply that the need forrecognition is not important for DBA students since it can be non-monetary. Following thequotation by Brun and Dugas, recognition also stems from a judgment made about the workaccomplished and its result, it seems that recognition would rather be related to the increase

in salary than any other non-pecuniary incentives. To answer the first research question, itseems that the return on investment with a potential increase of salary is significantlyinfluencing, leading to an increase in satisfaction for the DBA programme.

DBA, a catalyser toward better position and earning increaseThe second research question (What are the determinants of salary increase after completionof a DBA?), is dealt with in the sections below.

Test of theoretical relationsIn the test of theoretical relationships,certain variables are not significant (>0.05).The following variables have not beenadded, via a step-by-step addition process:

new job finding, job efficiency and peersrecognition. Only one variable is significant(


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Estimating the regression modelIt is possible to build a model, and to provide estimation of the fit of the overall model. Thestepwise procedure is used for inclusion and removal in variate regression. Position catalyserwas introduced. The R

2is .554 for the model with one independent variable. Adjusted R

2is

very similar (.545). There is a .331 standard deviation around the regression line.

By adding one variable into the model, the error is reduced by 14.74%. This underlines theutility of adding earning increase into the prediction. Consequently, by knowing the salaryvalue before and after DBA graduation, the error is reduced by 55.41%. This reduction isstatistically significant (.000). The F ratio is equal to 62.163, with a significance level of .000.This means that the last entered variable has 0% of chance of not being significant. Here, thestudy stopped adding other variables because their contribution would be marginal.

Next, it is necessary to assess the assumption of regression analysis for the variate. Linearityneeds to be assessed by an analysis of the scatter plot. From this graph, it appears thisrepresents a null plot, highlighting that the overall equation is linear. To assess whether theerror terms are normally distributed, it is possible to run the Shapiro and Wilk test. This test issignificant at .000. This means that it is possible to reject the normality, i.e. it is not Gaussianwhich is a limit of the article mainly linked to the small size of the sample.

Interpreting the regression variateThe model estimation is now considered fully complete with one independent variable(earning increase). The prediction of earning increase is:Earning increase = -.284 + .302 x position catalyser

The standard error of the coefficient is equal to .744 for position catalyser. The t value isequal to 7.884 significant at .000 for position catalyser. It is possible to affirm with confidencethat the coefficient is not equal to zero. Consequently, position catalyser definitely predictsearning increase. The F ratio of the last entered variable (62.163) determines the entranceand removal of variables.

From the first regression analysis, the article went beyond the fact that salary is significantlyaffecting the satisfaction of the DBA. The second step was to figure out what may increasesalary to have some second effect on DBA satisfaction. Both variables of promotion andsalary increase are strongly embedded where the promotion is compensated by pecuniaryincentives, which confirms the literature findings. However, from a statistical point of view,there is no significant impact of job efficiency on promotion. In other words, the DBA is notproviding tools to be more efficient or that individuals did not integrate all methodologies and

content taught during the programme. Knowledge provided for DBA students may not beaffecting individual job performance and eventual promotion. Recommendations for theGrenoble DBA could be to proceed to a continuous assessment before starting Stage 2 byhaving a set of exams to encourage students to learn more from the programme.

To increase salary, changing from a practitioner to an academic career does not seem to berecommended except if those activities are conducted on the side of a main managerial,


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consulting or entrepreneurial activity. However, this choice is not common for most of DBAgraduates partially because of pecuniary drawbacks to a better balanced life. However, itseems that there are more positives than negatives by observing the increase of facultieshaving such a profile. Recognition by peers does have some effect on motivation andperformance but since it is not necessarily a monetary recognition, it is possible to say thatpeer recognition definitely does not significantly lead to an increase of salary. To answer thesecond research question, the article only identified promotion as a mean to increase thesalary which is not the case for practitioners shifting to academia.

ConclusionThis study emphasised the importance of return on investment for graduates which is stronglyrelated to career promotion.

Adopting a continuous improvement point of view, the Doctoral School from Grenoble Ecolede Management might consider ways to increase satisfaction of the programme post-graduation. It appears that the potential increase of salary is the only significant variableentering in the evaluation of satisfaction. The DBA is definitely pecuniary driven where thereturn on investment on tuition and time spent is crucial. Expectations from DBA alumni arehigh and it might be important in the future to have a follow up of graduates and theirintegration on the job market. If this follow up is not conducted, a difficult integration wouldhave negative effects on the overall quality of the programme which can be considered as aglobal offer made of lectures, supervision and also professionalisation. However, for DBAstudents willing to undertake second career planning, it was not possible to confirm thelinkage between a new job shift and satisfaction of the DBA which is rather related topersonal decision than directly affecting the perception of the programme in itself.

To go beyond increase in salary, the article investigates several hypotheses to raise thelikelihood of such an increase. From the analysis, promotion and salary increase are stronglyembedded. However, it was not possible to confirm the link between individual job efficiencyand salary increase which might lead the doctoral school to reconsider the content of theprogramme to assess that at the end of a DBA, graduates should be more efficient thanks tothe acquisition of knowledge, skills and know-how. People deciding to work on a full-timebasis in academia might consider the pros of having a well-balanced life and renouncementto salaries they had in the past in managerial, consultancy or entrepreneurial activities.

The limitation of this study is related to the population, which only focused on DBA studentsfrom Grenoble Ecole de Management which is not comparable with many other DBAs eitherthose that are not accredited or those with more of a practitioner focus for its students and

graduates.26


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References

1Wheeler, J. T. (1970). Doctorates in Business Administration: A Demand and Supply

Analysis. California Management Review.2

Breen, R., & Lindsay, R. (1999). Academic Research and Student Motivation.Studies inHigher Education, 24(1), 7593.3

Scott, D., Brown, A., Lunt, I., & Thorne, L. (2004). Professional Doctorates: IntegratingProfessional and Academic Knowledge(Open Unive.). Maidenhead.4

Maxwell, T. (2003). From First to Second Generation Professional Doctorate. Studies inHigher Education, 28(3), 279291.5

Wellington, J., & Sikes, P. (2006). A Doctorate in a Tight Compartment : Why do StudentsChoose a Professional Doctorate and What Impact Does it Have on Their Personal and

Professional lives ?Studies in Higher Education, 31(6), 723-734.6

Scott, D., Brown, A., Lunt, I., & Thorne, L. (2004). Op. Cit.7

Feldman, K. A., & Turnley, W. (2001). A Field Study of Adjunct Faculty: The Impact ofCareer Stage on Reactions to Non-Tenure-Track Jobs.Journal of Career Development, 28,1-16.8

Hoffer, T. B. et al. (2002). Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities: SummaryReport 2001. Chicago.9

Fogg, P. (2002). Moving to a Different World. Chronicle of Higher Education, 48(26), 10-12.Thomsen, S. R., & Gustafson, R. L. (1997). Turning Practitioners Into Professors: ExploringEffective Mentoring.Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 52(2), 24-31.10

Larocco, D. J., & Bruns, D. A. (2002). Practitioner to Professor: An Examination of SecondCareer Academics Entry Into Academia.Education, 626-640.11

Cichello, M. S., Fee, C. E., & Hadlock, C. J. (2009). Evaluation : Evidence from the Careers

of Division Managers, 84(4), 1119-1143.12

Holmstrm, B. (1982). Moral Hazard in Teams. The Bell Journal of Economics, 13(2), 324-340.13

Lazear, E. P., & Rosen, S. (1981). Rank-Order Tournaments as Optimal Salary Schemes.Journal of Political Economy, 112, 141-163.14

Brun, J.-pierre, & Dugas, N. (2008). An Analysis of Employee Recognition: Perspectives onHuman Resources Practices.International Journal, 19(4), 716-730.15

Brun, J.-pierre. (1999). Une question d'identit: Une question de dignit humaine.Echange, 13(2), 2-4. Brun, J.-pierre. (2000). La reconnaissance: Une responsabilit digned'tre partage.Travail, reconnaissance et dignit humain. Quebec.16

De Konink, T. (1999). L'humain, un tre de dignit. Echange, 13(2), 2-5.17

Aquino, K., Lewis, M. U., & Bradfield, M. (1999). Justice Constructs, Negative Affectivity,and Employee Deviance: A Proposed Model and Empirical Test.Journal of Organizational

Behavior, 20, 1073-1091.18

Grawitch, M., Gottschalk, M., & David, M. (2006). The Path to a Healthy Workplace: ACritical Review Linking Healthy Workplace Practices, Employee Well-Being, andOrganizational Improvements.Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 58(3),129-147.19

Pienaar, C., & Bester, C. (2004). Addressing Career Obstacles Within a Changing HigherEducation Work Environment : Perspectives of Academics. Society, 39(3), 376-385.


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Fairbrother, K., & Warn, J. (2003). Workplace Dimensions, Stress and Job Satisfaction.Journal of Managerial Psychology, 18, 8-21.. Nelson, D. L., & Burke, R. J. (2000). WomenExecutives: Health, Stress, and Success.Academy of Management Executive, 14, 107-121.Olivier, M. A. J., Venter, D. J. H., & De Lange, N. (2004). Emotional Intelligence ofAcademics. 2nd South African Wellness Conference. Potchefstroom: South Africa. It isuncontroversial according to Anderson et al. (2002), Barkhuizen et al. (2004), Ksk (2003),Olivier, Venter, and De Lange (2004) that the salary is an important aspect of job satisfaction.20

Aggarwal, R., & Samwick, A. (2003). Performance Incentives Within Firms: The Effect ofManagerial Responsibility.The Journal of Finance, 58(4), 1613-1649. Barron, J., & Waddell,G. (2003). Executive Rank, Pay and Project Selection.Journal of Financial Economics,67(2), 305-349. Wulf, J. (2007). Evidence from Division Manager Positions Inside Firms.The

journal of industrial economics, 55(1), 169-196.21

Meier, V. (2004). Setting Incentives : Temporary Performance. Technology, 18(4), 661-674.22

Some additional literature body can be found in McLaughlin (1988), Prendergast (1999)and Gibbons and Waldman (1999).23

Mangematin, V., & Mandran, N. (2000). Carrires des docteurs en sciences sociales:qu'apporte une thse? Revue de GRH.24

Koen, C. (2003). Academics.Human Resource Development Review, 501-517. Anderson,D., Richard, J., & Saha, L. (2002). Changes in Academic Work: Implications for Universities ofthe Changing Age Distribution and Work Roles of Academic Staff. Canberra.25

It is, therefore, possible to reject the hypothesis that the reduction in error might haveoccurred by chance (because this would equated to 5% of the time).26

Authors for correspondence: Tel.:+33 4 76 70 61 62

E-mail addresses:[email protected](L. Scaringella);[email protected](D. Vidal)
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]

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