sat 2 biology e/m guide

7/27/2019 SAT 2 Biology E/M Guide

1/23


2/23

Molecules of Biology

!Atomsform in reactions to form molecules.

! Molecules with different atoms are compounds.

! Molecules with a single type of atom are

elements.! Reactants!products

!Organic chemistrydeals with molecules thatcontain carbon except CO2.

! 4 important types of organic macromolecules.

!Polymersare strings of repeated monomers.

!Proteinsare polymers of amino acids.

! Tere are 20 amino acids. Te blue section is theamino group(NH2). Te red part is the carboxylgroup(COOH).

! Te green part is the side-chain. Each of the 20amino acids has a different R group.

!Amino acids combine to form protein. Te bondsformed are peptide bondsand are formed bydehydration synthesis. H2O is removed to jointhem together.

! Peptide bonds can also be broken in a hydrolysisprocess; water is added to the structure.

!

! Forming proteins: dehydration; Breaking proteins:hydrolysis

! Te monomer for a carbohydrateis a saccharide.

! Carbohydrates have only carbon, hydrogen andoxygen.

! Single saccharide carbohydrates aremonosaccharides.

! Monosaccharides have a ratio of CnH2nOn.

!Glucoseand fructosehave C6H12O6

! Tey are different because of a differently locateddouble bonded oxygen.

! In glucose, the double bonded oxygen is on thetop carbon. In fructose, it is on the second carbonfrom the top.

! Glucose can also form a ring structure.

!Disaccharidesare formed by the linking of twomonosaccharides.

!Maltoseis formed by a dehydration synthesis withtwo glucose. Water is lost, so the formula isC12H22O12.

!Sucroseis formed by a dehydration synthesis withone fructose and a sucrose. Te formula is alsoC12H22O12. It is table sugar.

!Polysaccharideshave multiple monosaccharides.

!As they are large chains, polysaccharides are goodways of storing glucose.

!Animals store glucose in the form of glycogen.

! Plants store glucose in the form of starch.

!Celluloseis another polysaccharide that forms cellwalls in plants.

!T

e monomer for a lipidis a hydrocarbon.T

eyfunction as energy storage compounds.

! Tey form really long chains of hydrocarbons.

! Tey are hydrophobicand nonpolar.

!Triglycerides have three fatty acids bonded to aglycerol molecule.

NH2 C C OH

OH

R

C CNH2

OH

R

CN C OH

OH

R

H

OH H

C

C

O

H

C

C

C

C

H OH

HO H

H OH

H OH

H OH

H

C

C

O

H

C

C

C

C

OH

HO H

H OH

H OH

H OH

H

HO

C

H

H

......


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!Fatty acids(purple) are hydrocarbon chains witha carboxyl at the end.

!Glycerol (red) molecules are alcohols with threecarbons

! Te body stores fat in the form of triglycerides.

!Phospholipids are like triglycerides, but one fattyacid is replaced by a phosphate group(PO32)

! Te phosphate group (yellow) is hydrophilicandpolar.

!Cholesterol is a special type of lipid wherehydrocarbons form rings. Tey are found only inanimal cells.

! Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol.

! Te monomers of nucleic acidsare nucleotides.Tey are made of a phosphate, a sugar, and abase.

! Te four bases in DNAareadenine, guanine,cytosine, and thymine.

! DNA is double-stranded and forms a doublehelix.

! Te complementary basesare A-T and C-G.

! Te bonds between the base pairs are hydrogenbonds.

!Adenine and thymine are held together by 2bonds. Cytosine and guanine are held together by3 bonds.

!Ribonucleic acidis similar to DNA, but is single-stranded.

! Its sugar is ribose, and in place of thymine it hasuracil.

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

CO

O

...

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

CO

O

...

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

CO

O

...

C

C

CH

H

H

H

H

O

O

PO

O

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

CO

O

...

C

H

H

C

H

H

C

H

H

CO

O

...

C

C

CH

H

H

H

H

SAT Biology E/M Subject Test Review Guide Page2


4/23

Cells

!A cell has three main areas: the cell wall(and/ormembrane), the cytoplasm, and the nucleus.

! Plants have cellulosecell walls.

!Bacteria have cell walls of peptidoglycan.

! Fungi have cell walls of chitin.

!Animal cells dont have cell walls.

! Te cell membrane is made of lipidsand proteins.Te main lipids are phospholipids.

! Te phospholipids have hydrophilic/polarphosphate heads and nonpolar fatty acid tails.

! Cell membranes are lipid bilayerswhich areselectively permeable; they only allow some to gothrough.

!Diffusionis the movement of a substance from an

area of high concentration to an area of lowerconcentration until there is an equilibrium.Hydrophobic molecules can cross this way.

!Facilitated diffusionis diffusion with hydrophilicmolecules that cant cross the membrane withouthelp from certain protein channels.

!Active transportis the transport of substancefrom a lower concentration to a higherconcentration. It requires energy.

!Bulk transportis the movement of larger itemsacross the cell membrane.

!Endocytosismoves substances into the cell. Tecell forms avesiclearound the object and eats itin. Phagocytosisis endocytosis for particles, andpinocytosis is for liquids.

!Exocytosisis the opposite of endocytosis.

!Osmosisis the movement of water across aconcentration gradient. Waters concentration

gradient is opposite to the solutes gradient. Higherconcentration of water = lower conc. of solutes.

!A hypertonicsolution has more particles outside

and thus less water outside. Water will move out,causing the cell to shrivel.

!A hypotonicsolution has more water outside.Water will enter, causing the cell to swell up.

!An isotonicsolution has the same concentrationinside and outside of the cell.

! Te cytoplasmholds the organelles of aneukaryoticcell.

!All organelles but the ribosome are membrane-bound.

! Tevacuolestores wastes and other material.

!Ribosomesare used for protein synthesis.

! Te smooth endoplasmic reticulumtransportssubstances around the cell.

! Te rough ERhas ribosomes on them. Teysynthesize special proteins.

! Te Golgi apparatussorts of packages proteinsmade by ribosomes on the ER.

!Mitochondriaare double-membrane bound andproduce ATP in cellular respiration.

!Lysosomesdigest substances and old organelles.

!Centrioleshelp in making the spindle for mitosis.

! Te nucleusis double-membrane bound andcontains genetic material such as DNA.

! Te nucleolusis the site of ribosome synthesis.

! Te cell membranecontrols what leaves andenters.

!Enzymesare organic molecules that help inchemical reactions. Catalysts increase the rate ofreaction in chemical reactions.

! Enzyme catalysts are reusable and not used up in areaction.

! Reactants bind into the active sitesof enzymes.

! Only a certain enzyme can catalyze a certainreaction. Tis follows the lock and key model.

! Enzymes are specic.

!Substratesare the reactants in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.

! Enzymes are proteins with specic 3D shapes.Tey can be denaturedand make them unable tocatalyze reactions.

! Heat and pH are two ways of denaturingenzymes.

!Coenzymeshelp enzymes function.Vitaminsareexamples of coenzymes.



5/23

Cellular Respiration

! Te goal of cellular respiration is to createadenosine triphosphate(ATP).

!ATP has a molecule of adenosinebonded to three

phosphates. A lot of energy is stored in the bondthat holds the third phosphate.

!When energy is needed, the bond will behydrolyzed (broken), to form adenosinediphosphateand a molecule of phosphate.

! C6H12O6+ 6O2!6CO2+ 6H2O + ATP

! Not all energy released is in the form of ATP.Tey are instead stored as electrons in electroncarriers. Tey will accept these electrons to bereduced until they can be used to make ATP.

! NAD++ H+!NADH (2e)

! FAD + 2H+!FADH2

! Te rst step is glycolysisin the cytoplasm. Amolecule of glucose is split into two molecules ofpyruvate.

! 2 ATP are used at rst, but 4 ATP are produced. 2NAD+are also reduced to 2 NADH.

! Glycolysis is anaerobic.

! C6H12O6 + 2ATP + 2NAD+!2 Pyruvate +4ATP + 2NADH

! Te pyruvate dehydrogenase complexis a group

of enzymes that helps the pyruvate enter theKrebs cycle.

! It removes a carbon from pyruvate as CO2andattaches coenzyme A. NADH is produced.

! Since glycolysis yields 2 pyruvate, two moleculesof acetyl CoAand NADHare produced, whiletwo molecules of CO2are released.

! PDC is an aerobic process.

! Te Krebs cyclefollows the PDC. Its also knownas the citric acid cycle.

!Acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acidtoform citric acid, which is broken down a carbonat a time (CO2released).

! It eventually is rearranged to form oxaloacetic acidagain.

! 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP are made ineach cycle. (Two cycles for one glucose molecule)

! Tis is also an aerobic process.

!Electron transportand oxidativephosphorylationreturn aim to oxidize the carriersand to use the electrons to make ATP.

! Electron transport is aerobic.

! Oxygen is the final electron acceptor. It formswater with hydrogen.

! In the ETC, NADH and FADH2pass downelectrons to carriers which nally give it tooxygen.

! Te electron acceptors use the energy of theelectrons to pump H+into the intermitochondrial membrane.

! Tis makes a H+gradient. Te ions cannot diffuseregularly because they are charged and need to gothrough facilitated diffusion.

! TeATP synthaselets the ions return to thematrix, and energy is used to phosphorylateADPto ATP.

!About 36 ATP is made for each molecule of

glucose.

!Without oxygen, the electron carriers cannot beoxidized, so PDC and the Krebs cycle shut down.

!Fermentationis the regenerating of emptyelectron carriers.

! In fermentation, NADH reduces pyruvate intodifferent molecules. NADH becomes NAD+.

! In yeast, pyruvate is reduced into ethanolandCO2is released in the process of alcoholic

fermentation.! In muscle cells, pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid

in the process of lactic acid fermentation.

! Both of them only produce 2 ATP fromglycolysis, and the end products are not benecial.

!

Process Location Uses Net Yield

Glycolysis Cytoplasm1 Glucose2 ATP

2 Pyruvate2 ATP2 NADH

PDC Mito. matrix 1 Pyruvate2 Acetyl CoA2 NADH2 CO2

Krebscycle(1 cycle)

Mito. matrix1 Acetyl CoA1 Oxaloacetate

3 NADH1 FADH21 ATPCO2Oxaloacetate

ETCMito.membrane

NADHFADH2O2

~36 ATPH2O

SAT Biology E/M Subject Test Review Guide Page 4


6/23

!Transcription and Translation

! Te cell nucleus contains genetic information.

!Chromosomesare bundled DNA in the nucleus.

!ProkaryoticDNA is in a single circular

chromosome.! DNA can replicate, so that cells can divide.

! Tere are four steps of DNA replication:1.Te double helix unwinds and the strands

separate.2.DNA polymerase form second strands by getting

free nucleotides to bind to the parent strands.3.Hydrogen bonds form.4.Te DNA molecules twist into helices.

! Each DNA strand is a templatefor thecomplementary strand.

! Non-sex cells are somatic cells. A person has 46chromosomes in their somatic cells. Each personhas different chromosomes (except for identicaltwins).

! Each somatic cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes. Aset of 23 comes from the father, and the other 23come from the mother. Tey form homologouspairs.

!Diploid cellshave two sets of chromosomes (eachhas a homologous pair).

! Human cells are diploid.

! DNA carries instructions for making proteins.

!Genesare DNA parts that carry instructions forprotein synthesis.

! DNA controls RNA synthesis, which controlsprotein synthesis.

! DNA is transcribedto RNA, which is translatedinto protein.

! DNA unwinds in transcription, and one of thestrands is used as a template.

!RNA polymerasecreates a complementary strand,

but instead of thymine on the RNA strand, uracilis added.

!After transcription, the RNA is set free. Only apart of the DNA is transcribed.

! Transcription occurs in the nucleus.

!mRNAis messenger RNA. It carries informationfrom the DNA to the ribosomes.

!rRNAis ribosomal RNA. It interacts withribosomes and ribosomes are made of them.

!tRNA is transfer RNA. Tey carry amino acids.

!A sequence of three nucleotides is a codon. TeGenetic Codeis the dictionary for proteintranslation.

! Tere are 64 codons (of ACUG).

! Te codons are read in a nonoverlappingway, sothat something like AUGGCACAGCUU wouldbe read AUG GCA CAG CUU.

!AUG(methionine) is the start codon.

!UAA, UGA, UAGare the stop codons.

!tRNAis a clover shape, with an anticodon loop.Tis anticodon can pair with the codons on themRNA.

! Te anticodon is complementary to the codonwith a base pair.

!

! So if an mRNA has the codon CUU (leucine),then the anticodon is GAA.

!T

e ribosome synthesizes protein.! Tere are two places on the ribosome to bind: the

P-site(peptide site) and theA-site (amino site).

! Te mRNA binds so that the rst codon is in theP-site and the second in the A-site.

!When the tRNA brings the appropriate aminoacid, a peptide bondwould form between them.

! Te rst tRNA is released again, and the ribosomemoves one codon, so that the codon in the A-siteis now in the P-site. Tis allows a new codon tomove in for another peptide bond to form.

! Te nal tRNA is released when a stop codonappears in the A-site.

!

AMINO

anticodon

codon codon

anti anti

codon

amino aminoamino



7/23

Mitosis and Meiosis

! Cell division is mitosis.

! Somatic cells have 23 pairs of homologouschromosomes.

!Before mitosis begins, all chromosomes have toreplicate.

!Interphaseis when chromosomes replicate. Tecell still carries out normal activities, but is notactively dividing.

!After interphase, each chromosome and itsduplicate are held by a centromere.

!An individual part of a chromosome is called thechromatid. Two of these are held by thecentromere.

!At the end of interphase, each of the 46

chromosomes have doubled. Tere are still 46chromosomes, but each of them have twochromatids.

! Te rst step is prophase. Centrioles move to theopposite sides of the cell, forming the mitoticspindle.

! Tese bers attach to the centromeres of thechromosomes so they can be moved.

! Te nuclear membrane starts to break up.

! Te second step is metaphase.

! Chromosomes line up at the equator (metaphaseplate).

! Te third step is anaphase. Te chromatids splitso each chromosome only has one chromatid.

! Each of these chromosomes move to the oppositepoles of the cell.

! Te cell begins to split into two. It pinches at thecleavage furrow.

! Te fourth step istelophase.

!A nuclear membrane reforms in each cell andthere are two daughter cells, each having 46

chromosomes.! Te cytoplasm divides during cytokinesis.

! In plant cells, mitosis only occurs in meristems.Te apical meristemis found at the tip of thestem and roots.

! Te lateral meristemallows widening of plants.

! In the past, the one-gene-one proteintheory saidthat each gene corresponds to a single protein.

!A chromosome is a long piece of DNA, whichcontains many genes.

!When a gene makes a protein, the gene is

expressed.

!A set of 23 chromosomes came from your motherfrom an ovum (egg), and another set from yourfather from a sperm.

! Tese gameteshave only 23 chromosomes, sothey are haploid(n). Somatic cells are diploid(2n).

! Sex cells undergo meiosis.

! Te zygoteformed from a fertilized egg is diploid.

! In the beginning of meiosis, the cell stillundergoes interphase DNA replication.

!Meiosis I has four phases. It differs from mitosisbecause homologous pair up in a process calledsynapsis.

! In prophase I, the chromosomes pair up withtheir homologous pair. When it is done, there are

only 23 pairs of replicated chromosomes, eachcontaining four chromatids (tetrad).

! Te chromosomes condense, the membranedisintegrates, and segments on the homologouschromosomes are exchanged in crossing over.

! In metaphase I, the chromosomes line up on theequator.

! Chromosomes remain in their homologous pairs.Tere are 23 pairs instead of 46.

! Te way that the chromosomes line up inmetaphase affects the outcome of genetic

information.! Te Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

says that genes on non-homologous chromosomepairs are inherited independently.

! If n is the haploid number, and n is 4, then thereare 2n= 16 combinations of chromosomes in thegenes.

!Linked genesare on the same chromosomes andare inherited together, though crossing over couldseparate them.

!

In anaphase I, centromeres dont divide.T

ehomologous pairs separate, and on each side thereis a pair of chromatids and a centromere.

! In telophase I, the cells have 23 replicatedchromosomes, not 23 homologous pairs. Eachchromatid in a chromosome is identical.

!Meiosis IIis similar to mitosis. Each cell has 46replicated chromosomes, and so they split likemitosisthere is no pairing up and all that.

! Te process ends with four haploid cells.

!Gametogenesisis the formation of sperm and

ova.



8/23

! Formation of sperm is spermatogenesis, and itrequires meiosis.

! Spermatogenesis begins with a diploidspermatogonium.

! Spermatogonium are in the seminiferous tubulesof the testes.

!A diploid spermatogonium undergoes meiosis tomake four sperm haploid cells.

!All four sperm are functional, unlike oogenesiswhich only produces one egg.

!Oogenesisdeals with formation of the female eggcells ova.

! Te rst cell is the primary oocyteand are foundin the ovary.

! Te nal cell is an ovum.

! Oogenesis results in a single ovum from a primaryoocyte.

! Two daughter cells from meiotic divisiondisintegrate. Tey have no organelles. Tese arepolar bodies.

!An ovum is produced every month.

! Genetic variation results from independentassortment(metaphase I), crossing over(prophase I), and random fertilization.



9/23

Genetics

! Te phenotypeis the organisms traits.

! Te genotypedescribes the genes responsible for atrait.

!A cat has blue fur. Its genotype would be BB, andthe phenotype would be blue.

! Te dominanttrait decides the phenotype. Terecessivetrait will not be expressed if there is adominant trait along with it.

! Uppercase letters represent the dominant, andlowercase letters represent the recessive.

!Allelesrefer to genes that give rise to more than aversion of a trait.

!Homozygoustraits have the same alleles: BB orbb.

!Heterozygoustraits have different alleles: Bb.!Codominanceis when two alleles for multiple

alleles are both expressed. Example: AB blood.

! Tose are Punnett squares.

! BB x bb: 100% Bb

! Bb x Bb: 25% BB, 50% Bb, 25% bb

! Bb x bb: 50% Bb, 50% bb! Te sex chromosomesdetermine certain

attributes. Non-sex chromosomes are autosomes.

!A male chromosome is the Y chromosome, andthe female is the X chromosome. A male has thegenotype XY and a female has XX.

!Gregor Mendelis the father of genetics whoworked on the cross-breeding of pea plants.

!A monohybrid crossonly deals with one trait.

! Te law of dominanceshows that the dominant

allele can mask the recessive allele.

! Even though all the organisms in the F1generation seem tall, the alleles still segregateaccording to the law of segregation.

!Dihybrid crossesdeal with two traits.

!When there are two traits: tall and short (T, t) andgreen and yellow (G, g).

! Te law of independent assortmentshows thatthe alleles can combine to these: TG Tg tG tg.

! Te Law of Dominance- one trait masks theeffects of another trait

! Te Law of Segregation- alleles can segregate

and recombine! Te Law of Independent Assortment- traits can

segregate and recombine independently

!We can tell if an organism with a dominantphenotype is homozygous or heterozygous byusing a test cross(recessive).

! If no offspring is short (assuming the originalis dominant-tall), the original is homozygousTT.

! If short plants are present, the original isheterozygous Tt.

! Sex-linked traitsare traits with alleles on the sexchromosomes. Most of them are on the Xchromosomebecause it is larger.

! Examples of X-linked traits: hemophilia, colorblindness, and male baldness.

! Since a male has the X and Y chromosome, sometraits cannot be masked. A female will only getthese diseases when she is homozygous for thetrait.

! Females heterozygous for X-linked recessive traitsare carriers.

!An X-linked recessive trait cannot be passed fromfather to son.

!A pedigreeshows the phenotype in a family overgenerations.

! Males are squares and females are circles.

! Recessive conditions skip generations.

! Population geneticsis the study of alleledistribution over time.

b b B b b b

B Bb Bb B BB Bb B Bb Bb

B Bb Bb b Bb bb b bb bb

F1 F2

T T T t

t Tt Tt T TT Tt

t Tt Tt t Tt tt

TG Tg tG tg

TG TTGG TTGg TtGG TtGg

Tg TTGg TTgg TtGg Ttgg

tG TtGG TtGg ttGG ttGg

tg TtGg Ttgg ttGg ttgg



10/23

Evolution and Diversity! Life appeared on Earth ~1 billion years ago.

! Early atmosphere made of hydrogen, ammonia,methane, and water.

!More intense climate in the past: lightning,volcanoes, UV.

! Te heterotroph hypothesistheorizes that lifebegan because of these conditions.

! Tis environment was simulated in a ask.

!Heterotrophscannot synthesize their own food.

!Autotrophscan make their own food.

! Earliest organisms were anaerobic, currentorganisms are mostly aerobic.

! Te early atmosphere did not have oxygen.

!A populations gene poolis all the genes of a

population.! Each person in a population has a different gene

set: genetic variability. Gene pools have differentalleles.

! Tere can be a random mutation of DNAthatsomehow affects the DNA sequence, affecting thesynthesis of RNA.

!Evolutionis change in a populations gene pool.

! Darwin observed in On the Origin of the Speciessome stuffabout his theory of evolution:

! Each species produces more offspring than casurvive.

! Te offspring compete for limited resources.

! Offspring with most favorable traits can surviveand produce offspring.

!Geographic isolation- a new species may formwhen some individuals from a species are isolatedfrom the rest.

!Fitnessis an organisms ability to producesurviving offspring.

! Different speciescannot produce fertile offspring.

! Te formation of new species by evolution isspeciation.

!Divergent evolutionis the process where twopopulations with similar traits changed as theresult of multiple factors, making their traitsdifferent over time.

! Species that share a common ancestor usuallyhave really similar homologous structures, such asthe forelimbs of mammals. Tey might, however,have different functions.

!Convergent evolutioncauses two populations to

become more similar to each other.

! Convergent evolution cannot result in speciation.

! Convergent evolution can result in analogousstructuresthat dont come from commonancestors.

! Sometimes important structures becomeunimportant. Tese arevestigial structures.

! Domain - Kingdom - Phylum - Class - Order -Family - Genus - Species

! Scientists classify organisms based on theirphylogeny(relationships).

! Te science of classication is taxonomy.

!Carolus Linnaeuscame up with the binomialnomenclature: Genus species.

Domain Bacteria: prokaryotes and bacteria; it has onekingdom Eubacteria, which includes the blue-green algae

Cyanobacteria.Domain Archaea: prokaryotes. Tere is a kingdom

Archaebacteriaand they lack nuclei and membrane-boundorganelles (like Bacteria). Tey live in harsh environment.

!Tey are described as extremophilesand include theextreme halophiles(salty), extreme thermophiles(heat),and methanogens(methane gas).

Domain Eukarya: Eukaryotes

Kingdom Protista: Contains organelles which can formcolonies. Can be uni- or multi-cellular. Protozoa are animallike, and algaeare plant like.

Phylum Rhizopoda(Amoebas)

Unicellular. Tey move withpseudopodia.Tey are found insoils and aquatic environment.Can be parasitic.

Phylum Apicomplexa(Sporozoans)

Animal parasites that can causediseases. Can require multiplehosts for completion of life cycles.

Phyla Myxomycota /Acriasiomycota (SlimeMolds)

Look like overgrown amoeba andhave many nuclei

Phylum Ciliophora

(Ciliates)

Unicellular organisms that use

cilia for movement, such asparamecium.

Phylum Euglenophyta(Euglena)

Unicellular photosynthetic algaewith agella

Phylum Bacilariophyta(Diatoms)

Unicellular organisms withglasslike walls that live infreshwater/marine environments.Te walls are diatomaceous earthsthat can be a ltering medium.

Phylum Phaeophyta(Brown Algae)

Seaweeds and are multicellular.



11/23

! Te evolutionary order of chordates: sh,amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals.

Kingdom Plantae: Multicellular, eukaryotic, andphotosynthetic. Tey have cell walls of cellulose. Instead ofphylum, the word division is used.

Division Bryophyta(Nonvascular Plants)

Tese plants dont have xylem orphloem, so they have to live in

damp areas. Tey need water forfertilization, and dont have truestems, leaves, or roots.

Division Pterophyta(Ferns)

Earliest vascular plants and havethe vascular tissue, true stems,leaves, and roots. Tey dont haveseeds, but have spores.

Division Coniferophyta(Conifers)

True vascular plants, and aremostly large evergreens. Teconifers are the cones that carrythe seeds. Te seeds aregymnospermsand dont produceowers.

Division Anthophyta(Flowering Plants)

Tey are true vascular plants thatmake owers and pollen.

> Class Monocots

Tey have single-seed cotyledons.Teir leaf veins are parallel, andhave parts in multiples of 3. Tevascular bundles are scattered andthey have a brous root system.

> Class Dicots

2 cotyledons, netlike veins, owerparts in multiples of 4 or 5,vascular tissue in ring, and

taproot system.

Kingdom Fungi: Eukaryotic, multicellular organisms withchitincell walls. (Yeast is unicellular). Tey have alamentous structure and have multiple nuclei. Tey areheterotrophic, and are often decomposers.

Division Zygomycota Tey reproduce sexually and

include molds and mycorrhizae

Div. Basidiomycota(Club Fungi)

Includes about 25,000 members,such as mushrooms and puffballs.

Kingdom Animalia: Eukaryotic, multicellular, and

heterotrophic

Phylum Porifera(Sponges)

Sessileand have a perforatedbody wall with two layers of cells.Water enters the body wall andthe food in it is taken in.

Phylum Cnidaria(Coelenterates)

Two cell layers, central saclikedigestive system and have radialsymmetry. Examples: hydra,jellysh.

Phyl. Platyhelminthes(Flatworms)

Bilateral symmetry and moderatecephalization(head). Tey can benonparasitic (planaria) or parasitic(ukes, tapeworms).

Phylum Mollusca(Mollusks)

Soft-bodied with a hard shells.

Tey have a foot, visceral mass(for major organs), and a mantle.

Phylum Annelida(Segmented Worms)

Closed circulation, mouth andanus, and excrete waste throughmetanephridia.

Phylum Arthropoda(Arthropods)

Most diverse phylum. Havejointed appendages, chitinexoskeleton, open circulatorytubules and eliminate wastethrough Malpighiantubules.Crustaceans, insects, andarachnids.

Phylum Echinodermata(Echinoderms)

Sessile/slow-moving and havespiny exoskeletons.

Phylum Chordata(Chordates)

Hollow notochord (exiblestructure), and are mainlyvertebrates.

> Class Chondrichthyes(Cartilaginous Fishes)

Flexible skeletons made ofcartilage and breathe throughgills, such as sharks.

> Class Osteichthyes(Bony Fishes)

True bone skeletons and breathethrough gills, such as tuna.

> Class Amphibia(Amphibians)

Adapted to land and water. Eggsneed to be laid in water, and havean aquatic larval stage but aterrestrial adult. Breathe throughlungs or skin.

> Class Reptilia(Reptiles)

Tick, scaly skin for water lossprevention. Can live in dry area.Shelled eggs.

> Class Aves (Birds)Tetrapods with forelimbs aswings. Endothermic.

> Class Mammalia

(Mammals)

Endothermic, and have hair.Tey

nourish young with mammaryglands.



12/23

Microorganisms!Fungiare multicellular eukaryotes.

! Fungal cell walls are made of chitin.

! Tey can be multinucleate.

!Yeast are fungi, not prokaryote.! Fungi cannot photosynthesize; they are

heterotrophs.

! Tey secret hydrolytic enzymes to digest foodbecause they are absorptive feeders.

! Fungi can reproduce in different ways.

!Asexual sporesare like seeds that fall offthefungus to grow a new organism.

!Sexual sporesare like sperm and ova that formnew organisms.

!Withvegetative growth, a part of the fungus

breaks offto form a new one.!A new fungus grows offthe old fungus with

budding. Yeast does this.

! Bacteria reproduce asexuallywith binary fission.

! Te bacterium replicates its only chromosome andsplits it in half.

! Tere is no genetic recombination in binaryssion.

! Bacteria are single-celled and are prokaryotes.Tey dont have membrane-bound organelles.

! Te DNA is freely oating in a circle.

! Teir cell walls are made of peptidoglycan.

! Bacteria can still mix up DNA in other ways:

! In transformation, bacteria can pick upextracellular new DNA. It is rare.

! bacteria + DNA

! In conjugation, bacteria replicate and donatesome of its DNA to other bacteria through apilus.

! bacteria + bacteria

! In transduction, a virus carries DNA from a

bacterium to another bacterium.! bacteria + virus

!A strain resistantto something will not bedestroyed by it. (Denoted: ampr)

!A strainsensitiveto something will be destroyedby it. (Denoted: amps)

!Saprobesare decomposing bacteria

!Parasitesgain nutrition from hosts whiledamaging them.

!Symbiontsare like parasites but they dont harmthe host.

! Cyanobacteria can undergo photosynthesis.

!Obligate aerobesneed oxygen to survive.

!Obligate anaerobes are harmed by oxygen.

!Facultative anaerobesuse oxygen but can alsosurvive by fermentation without oxygen.

!An auxotrophrequires supplementary nutrition.

! Non-auxotrophs arewild type.

!Wild type bacteria can synthesize what they needif they have a carbon source (i.e. glucose).

!Auxotrophic bacterianeed extra substancesbecause they might not be able to synthesize acertain amino acid.

! If it cannot synthesize a certain amino acid, it isdenoted arg.

! If it can synthesize something, it is denoted arg+.

! If something is denoted lacit cannot grow on

lactose.! Many plants need nitrogen, but cannot use N2

and need either NO3or NH4+.

! Nitrogen in soil comes from breakdown oforganic material.Ammonifying bacteriaconvertthe nitrogen to ammonium.

! Nitrogen-xing bacteria convert gaseous nitrogento ammonia, which is converted to ammonium inthe soil, than to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria.

! Some nitrogen-xing bacteria form a symbioticrelationship with plant roots.

! Tis relationship is mutualistic; both sidesbenet.

! Te bacteria live in the nodulesin the roots.Legumesestablish this relationship.

!Virusesarent considered alive.

! Tey have a protein coat called the capsid.

! Tey also have nucleic acid (the genome).

! Tey cannot reproduce on their own, so they needhelp.

! Te viral life cycle begins with the attachment: a

virus attaches to a host.! In infection, the virus injects its genome into the

host.

! Tere are two possible life cycles now.

! In the lytic cycle, the genome is transcribed andtranslated to make viral protein.

! Te host DNA polymerase replicates the genomeand are packaged into viral capsids.

! Te host is lysedby an enzyme and the virusesdestroy the host cell and new viruses leave toinfect more.

! Viruses are parasites.



13/23

! In the lysogenic cycle, the genome is rstintegratedwith the hosts genome and staysdormant.

! Te viral genome is replicated when the hostdivides.

!After a certain time, the virus can start the lyticcycle.

!Animal cells have no cell wall, so viruses donthave to break them apart. Tey can just escapethrough the membrane.

!When the virus leaves, it is coated in an envelope.

! Viruses with RNA genomes have more trouble inreplicating.

! Tey cannot use DNA polymerase to replicate. Itcannot replicate with the hosts RNA polymerase

because its based offa DNA template.! Te virus uses RNA-dependent RNA polymerase

to make a strand of RNA through an RNAtemplate.

! Te virus needs to have the enzyme in its capsidto inject or synthesize it in translation of genome.

!Retroviruses are RNA viruses that go through thelysogenic life cycle.

!A DNA copy of the viral genome needs to bemade rst, which requires the RNA-dependentDNA-polymerase(or reverse transcriptase).

! Te transcriptase creates DNA from RNA.!Restriction enzymesrecognize a DNA sequence

and cut the DNA strand.

! Some bacteria use it to stop growth of viruses. Tebacteria can have -CH3to prevent the enzymefrom destroying itself.

! Most restriction enzymes are palindromic.

! Te enzyme EcoRIinE. colirecognizes:5 G | A A T T C 33 C T T A A | G 5

!

EcoRI perform staggered cutsto produce stickyends. Te ends can be ligatedto another DNAcut with this enzyme.

! In a blunt cut, the DNA is cut straight through,so that it can be ligated with any enzyme.

!A plasmidis a circular DNA found in bacteria oryeast.

! It is not part of the bacterial genome and canreproduce independently. It has restriction sites.

! In recombinant DNA, new DNA is made bysplicing DNA.

!A restriction mapmaps the location of variousrestriction sites in a piece of DNA.

! First, you extract a sample of DNA.

! Ten, you cut the gene out with a restrictionenzyme.

!You can amplifythe gene by putting the segmentinto a plasmidthat has a site for the samerestriction enzyme.

! Tis makes a plasmid with a certain DNA, so itcan be grown in bacteria.

! Restriction enzymes help us cut and paste DNAinto specic combinations.

!Avectorcan move DNA between species.Plasmids and viruses can help do this.

!DNA ligasehelps glue DNA segments together.



14/23

Anatomy

! Te nervous systemconsists of millions of

neuronsthat carry impulses.! Te somais the cell body.

! Tings that stick offthe body are processes.

! Tere are many dendritesand one axon.

! Te branches offthe cell is the dendrite, and thered boxes are the myelin sheaths.

! Te dendritesreceive impulse to passes to theaxon.

!A polarizedneuron is not carrying an impulse.Te inside of the neuron is more negativelycharged.

!When resting, they maintain a resting membranepotentialof about -70 mV.

! Te Na/K ATPaseand the K leak channelmaintain the RMP.

! Te sodium-potassium pumpuses ATP to move3 Na ions out of cell and 2 K ions into the cell.

! Tere are also potassium leak channelsthatalways let potassium leak out of the cell if there isa gradient.

! Since Na+ions are pumped out, and K+ions leakout, the inside is more negative than the outside.

! Neurons also havevoltage-gate channels.

! Tey open when the cell membrane reaches acertain voltage.

! -50 mV is the threshold potentialthat will openthese voltage gates.

!When the threshold potential is reached, sodiumvoltage-gated channelsopen. Sodium enters thecell, making the inside more positive.

!At about +35 mV, the sodium channels close andthe potassium voltage-gated channelsopen.Potassium leaves the cell.

! Te potassium channel closes at about -90 mV,and the Na/K ATPase and leak channels restorethe RMP.

! Te process above is the action potential.

!A polarized stateis negative on the inside. Whenthere is an action potential, depolarizationoccurs. After that, depolarization occurs.

! Te axon has special Schwann cellsthat formmyelin sheaths.

! Spaces between the sheaths are nodes of Ranvier.! Myelin increases impulse travel speed.

! Only the nodes of Ranvier re action potentials sothe impulse jumps from node to node.

! Te jumping conduction is saltatory conduction.

!After ring an action potential, there is arefractory periodto prevent ring of a secondpotential.

!At the end of an axon, the impulse will gothrough a synapseto dendrites of another cell.

! Synapses use neurotransmittersto pass impulses.

! Tere is a small synaptic cleftbetween the twoneurons.

! Te terminal end of the rst neuron has vesicles ofneurotransmitters. Te impulse causes vesicles ofneurotransmitters to be released to the receptor ofthe second neuron, causing depolarization.

! Not all neurotransmitters can stimulatea cell anddepolarize it. Others can inhibitit. Te neuron

will add up all the stimulatoryand inhibitoryinput in a summationto decide whether an

action potential will be

red.! Common neurotransmitter: acetylcholine(ACh).

! Te brain and spinal cord are made of neurons.Tey are the central nervous system.

! Neurons not in the CNS are part of theperipheral nervous system.

!Sensory neuronssend information from sensoryorgans to the CNS.

!Motor neuronssend information from the CNSto organs.

!Interneuronsin the CNS connect the sensory and

motor neurons.

Nervous interprets information and controls body

Endocrine hormones to control body functions

Circulatory transports materials and cells

Lymphatic captures/lters uids to return to blood

Respiratory O2to CO2

Digestive takes in and breaks down food for nutrients

Urinary removes metabolic wastes

Skeletal supports and protects the body, movement

Muscular body movement

Skin protection

Reproductive offspring production



15/23

!All action potentials are equal.

! Te frequency of the action potentials ringdetermines the sensation a person feels.

! Te CNS can be subdivided into smaller parts.

! Te spinal cordis involved in reex actions.

! Te cerebrumis the conscious mind. Voluntaryactions are made here.

! Te cerebellumcontrols muscle movement andbalance.

! Te medullacontrols involuntary acts such asblood pressure regulation.

! Te hypothalamusdeals with homeostasis.

! Te PNS is also split into multiple divisions.

! Te somatic nervous systemis voluntary. Itcontrols the skeletal muscles.

! It uses ACh as a neurotransmitter. A somaticmotor neuron contracts muscles by binding tomuscle receptors.

! Te autonomic nervous systemis autonomousand involuntary. We dont have control: such asthe heart, digestive organs, etc.

! Te ANS can be split into more parts. Tesympathetic divisionis the fight or flightsystem.

! It prepares the body for stress, by increasing rateand force of heartbeats, breath rate, etc.

! Te neurotransmitter for the sympathetic division

is norepinephrine.! Te parasympathetic divisionis the resting and

digesting system.

! It is active when one is at rest, and decreases manyfunctions. It stimulates digestive activity.

! Te neurotransmitter here is acetylcholine.

! Organisms in thevertebrate grouphave similarsystems.

!Arthropods and annelids have a ventral nerve cordand a brain. Tey are just cluster of nerve cells

(ganglia) and there are neurons that branch fromthis.

! Te endocrine systemalso controls the body, suchas blood glucose and extracellular sodiumregulation or puberty.

! It controls the body with hormones, chemicalsthat made by endocrine glandsreleased into thebloodstream.

! Organs have receptors for certain hormones.

!Peptide hormonesare amino acid-based andsteroid hormonesare cholesterol-based.

! Peptide hormones are small protein molecules.Tey bind extracellularly. Tey cause effectsquickly by turning offor on certain enzymes.

! Steroid hormones are lipids and can bindintracellularly. Tey are slower because they canaffect DNA transcription.

Pituitary gland- controls many endocrine glands, and iscontrolled by the hypothalamus.

Anterior pituitary gland - there are corresponding releasinghormones in the hypothalamus

Growth hormone(GH)

targets all organs and helps them grow.In adults, they allow older cells to bereplaced (cell-turnover)

Tyroid stimulatinghormone (TSH)

stimulates thyroid to make hormones

Follicle stimulatinghormone (FSH)

stimulates gonads. Stimulates ovariesto release estrogen and stimulates testesto make testosterone

Luteinizing hormone(LH)

stimulates ovaries to develop corpusluteum, and stimulates testes to maketestosterone.

Adrenocorticotropichormone (ACTH)

stimulates adrenal cortex to secrethormones.

Prolactinstimulates mammary glands to makebreast milk

Posterior pituitary gland - hormones made in hypothalamusand sent to pituitary

Oxytocincontraction of uterus in childbirth andreleasing of milk in mammaries

Antidiuretichormone (ADH,vasopressin)

helps kidney retain water

Tyroid gland - located by the neck

Tyroxine

increases rate of metabolism. Itcontains iodine. Iodine is needed forthyroxin production. Not enoughiodine results in hypothyroidismwhich lowers metabolic rates, and

hyperthyroidism increases it.Calcitonin

removes calcium from blood and usesit to build bone.

Parathyroid glands - located on thyroid glands

Parathyroid hormone(parathormone)

dissolves bone to release calcium intoblood.

Epinephrine andnorepinephrine

Prolong effects of sympathetic nervoussystem. Epinephrine has longer effect

Adrenal glands(on the kidneys): adrenal cortex

Glucocorticoids

cause liver to release new glucose(gluconeogenesis). Tey tell body cellsto use fat instead of glucose. Tey areanti-inammatory, like cortisol.



16/23

! Organisms with closed circulatory systems haveblood in vessels. Organisms without these systemshave blood (hemolymph) in body cavities.

! Blood plasmahas water but also other dissolveditems: glucose, albumin(a protein), fibrinogen,and lipoproteins.

! Plasma makes up about 50% of blood volume.

!Red blood cells make up 45% of blood volume.

! Tey have a protein called hemoglobin.

! Red blood cells dont have a nucleus.

! Hemoglobin can bind oxygen.

! Hemoglobin is made partly of iron.

! If these blood cells cant bind to enough oxygenbecause of anemia, you have less oxygen forcellular respiration.

! 5% are made ofwhite blood cells.

!White blood cells called lymphocytesparticipatein immunity.

!B-cellsmake antibodies, which are markers thatbind to foreign things.

!Helper T-cellshelp B-cells and T-cells divide.!Killer T-cellsdestroy cells infected by viruses to

prevent them from expanding.

!AIDS is caused by HIV, which kills the helper T-cells, preventing the other immune cells fromghting infection.

!Plateletsare structures that help blood clotting.

! Tey secrete substances that convert fibrinogen, aprotein into insoluble fibrin, which makes a netthat clots up blood.

! It needs calcium, vitamin K, and other chemicals.

! Blood cells are made in the bone marrow.

! Membrane proteins determine blood type.

! Te I gene has three alleles: IA, IB, and i. IAhastype A protein, IBhas type B, and i has none.

! IAand IBare codominant.

!Agglutinationoccurs when red blood cells clumptogether, because a body does not recognize thenewly received proteins.

! Te heartis a pump for blood.

!Arteriescarry blood away from the heart.

! Te arterial blood pressure is higher.

! Tey have muscular walls.

! Tey regulate blood ow.

! Tey branch into arteriolesand then tocapillaries.

! Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels.

! Tey are the site of blood/tissue exchange.

! Capillaries merge tovenuleswhich becomeveins.

! Veins return blood to the heart.

! Veins havevalvesto prevent blood from backow.

! Tey do not have muscular walls.

! Tey dont regulate blood ow.

! Te pressure on the artery side of a capillary hashigher blood pressure.

! Te vein side has a lower blood pressure, andsome intercellular fluid returns to tissues.

! Te lymphatic systemis a vessel network that

begins at tissues to veins.! It captures extra uid from the tissue and lters it

before it returns to the blood.

!Lymph nodes are the places of ltration.

! Tey are clumps of white blood cells.

! Lymphatic vessels are like veins with valves andlow pressure.

! Fluid in these vessels are lymph.

!Edemais the swelling of parts from trapped uid.

! Te heart has two atriaon top and twoventriclesunderneath.

MineralocorticoidsFor the kidneys. Aldosterone tellskidney to keep sodium in body.

Pancreas (Islet of Langerhans)- secretes hormones anddigestive enzymes

Insulin

Stimulates liver to convert glucose to

glycogen for storage. Blood glucosefalls.

GlucagonStimulates liver to break downglycogen to glucose. Blood glucoserises. Glycogenolysis.

Gonads- the sex organs; ovaries for females, and testes formales

AndrogensMale sex steroids, such as testosteronewhich helps develop secondary sexcharacteristics

Estrogens and

progesterone

Female sex characteristics and the

menstrual cycle. (estradiol)

Type Genotype Can Receive Can Donate

A IAIA, IAi A, O A, AB

B IBIB, IBi B, O B. AB

O ii O A, B, AB, O

AB IAIB A, B, AB, O ABUniversal donorUniversal recipient



17/23

! Te right side focuses on the pulmonary circuitand the left side focuses on the systemic circuit.

! Te pulmonary circuittakes blood from the bodyand pumps it to the lung for gas exchange.

! Path of blood:vena cava$right atrium $rightventricle $pulmonary artery$lungs

(oxygenated!) $ pulmonary veins$left atrium

$left ventricle $aorta(largest artery) $body

! Te atrioventricular valvesare between the atriaand the ventricles.

! Te semilunar valvesare between the ventriclesand the arteries.

! Te AV valves close before the semilunar valve,causing the lub-dub sound.

!A heart beat begins with the sinoatrial nodeinthe right atrium. Te contraction is systole, andthe relaxation is the diastole.

! Fish have a 2 chambered heart.

!Amphibians have 3 chambered heart.

!Arthropods have an open circulatory system.

!Ventilationis moving air in/out of lungs.

! Exchanging O2and CO2is gas exchange.

! Te conduction zoneis only for gas exchange.

! Te nose is for warming and ltering the air.

!Air goes down the pharynx(throat), the larynx(voice box), trachea(wind pipe) into two tubes.

! Each of these bronchilead to the two lungs,where they split into bronchioles.

! Te bronchial walls have mucus to trap dust.

! Small bronchioles have alveolusbubbles where gasexchange takes place.

! Te alveoli walls are thin; capillaries surround it.

! Oxygen moves from the alveoli into blood, andCO2moves to alveoli.

! Te gases are hydrophobic.

! Blood pH is from about 7.35 to 7.45.

! Carbon dioxide cannot dissolve in water.

! It is converted to H2CO3(carbonic acid) and toHCO3(bicarbonate) which can dissolve throughplasma.

! If blood pH is too low, we breathe faster to get ridof the carbonic acid. If blood pH is to alkaline, webreathe slower.

! Te medulla oblongatain the brain monitors thisand adjusts our respiratory rate.

! Te diaphragmis the muscle of breathing.

!When relaxed, it curves up. When contracted, itattens out and the chest cavity increases.

! Te increase in volume = decrease in pressure,causing air to rush to lungs (inspiration).

! Relaxing the diaphragm pushes air out in

expiration.! Te alimentary canalstarts at the mouth to the

anus.

! Tere are accessory organsthat help the digestiveprocess but are not part of the alimentary canal.

! Te mouthtakes in food and the teethandtongueform the food into a bolus lump.

!Salivary glandssecrete salivawith amylasetomoisturize food. Te amylase can digest starch.

! Te bolus enters the esophagusinto the stomachvia peristalsismotion.

! Te stomachis acidic because of the gastric juices.! Te gastric glands secrete pepsinto break down

protein.

! HCl lowers the pH to activate pepsinogenin thepepsin to digest proteins.

! Food turns into chymeto enter the smallintestine.

! Te small intestine digests the most.

! Te liverproduces bilewhich is stored in thegallbladder.

!

Bile is used to emulsify fat, not digest it.! Te pancreassecretes amylasefor carbs, lipase for

fats, proteasefor proteins, and also bicarbonatetoneutralize the acidic chyme.

! Te small intestine hasvilliand folds to increasethe surface area.

! Te nutrients are absorbed to the blood to theliver.

!Portal veinsare veins from the intestinalcapillaries.

! Te hepatic portal systemdelivers nutrients from

intestine to the liver.

VENTRICLE

ATRIUM

RIGHT LEFT



18/23

! Digestion and absorption takes place in the smallintestine.

! In the large intestine/colon, water is reabsorbed.

! Chyme solidies into feces.

! Te large intestine has both non-pathogenic andpathogenic bacteria.

! It supplies essential vitamin K.

!Amylase breaks carbs to glucose.

! Protease breaks protein to amino acids.

! Lipase breaks lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

!Vitaminsfunction as coenzymes, and there aresome minerals that are important.

!Waste products are

ltered by the kidneysandeliminated in urine.

! Te wastes are urea, uric acid, and creatinine.

!Nephronsare functional units of the kidney

! Blood enters the renal arteriesto the kidneys.

! Te glomerulusis a tiny knot of capillaries in thenephron, and sits in a Bowmans capsule.

! Blood pressure force blood through thesecapillaries. Large cells left behind

! Te filtratetravels thru nephron and is modied.

! Important substances are returned to blood.

! Te ltrate turns into urine.

! Urine goes down ureterto be stored in bladder.

! Urineeliminated through the urethra.

!Reabsorptionis taking stuffout of the ltrate.Glucose is reabsorbed.

!Secretion is taking substances out of the blood toadd to the ltrate, such as toxins.

! It takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule.

!Water is reabsorbed in the loop of Henle.

! Salt leaves the ltrate and enters the kidney,creating a concentration gradient.

! Te medulla(inner part of kidney) becomessaltier than the cortex.

! Te ltrate enters the distal convoluted tubule,where more reabsorption and secretion occur.

! Te process here is more specialized.

! Here, aldosteronecontrols the sodium

reabsorption.! Te last part is the collecting ductthat receivesltrate from many nephrons.

!Antidiuretic hormone makes the collecting dictpermeable to water.

!ADH levels are high when the body is dehydratedso that the body can concentrate urine.

! Kidneys can regulate blood pressure by releasingreninwhich makes angiotensin II to constrictblood vessels.

! Tis can increase aldosterone levels which

increases sodium reabsorption, waterreabsorption, and then blood pressure again.

!Worms use metanephridiato remove nitrogenouswastes. Insects have Malphigian tubules.

! Vertebrates have endoskeletons.

! Other animals have exoskeletons.

!Boneis made of cells in a Ca-P matrix. Itsupports the body, supports organs, producesblood cells, and stores minerals.

!Cartilageis exible and is like a shock absorber.

!

Some structures are made of cartilage.! Bonds are held to bones with ligaments.

!Cardiac muscleis found in the heart. Smoothmuscleare found in the walls of organs. Tese areinvoluntary muscle.

!Skeletal muscleis attached to bone.

! Muscle is made of actin (long chains)and myosin(thick bers).

!Actin and myosin form sarcomeres.

! Many sarcomeres form myofibril.

! Myobril bundled with parts form a muscle cell.

! Muscle cells are organized into fascicles.

Name Function Deficiency

Vit. A Make retinalfor sight night blindness

Vit. B Cell resp, DNA replic. skin disorders, anemiaVit. C collagen

scurvy, non-healingwounds

Vit. D calcium absorption week bones, rickets

Vit. E protect cell membranes anemia

Vit. K blood clotting excessive bruising

Iron hemoglobin anemia

Calciumstrong bones / musclecontraction

rickets, osteomalacia

Iodine thyroxine decreased metabolic rate



19/23

! Fascicles group to form a muscle.

!A muscle shortens as it contracts.

! Te sarcomere contracts, not the actin/myosin.

!Z-linesare the end of sarcomeres.

! Myosin doesnt touch the Z-lines.

! During contraction, myosin drags actin to thecenter of the sarcomere.

!Actin slides over the myosin, dragging the Z-line.

! Tis is the sliding filament theory.

! Skeletal muscle is striated. Tey attach to bonewith tendons.

!Skinis the largest organ in the body.

! Te epidermisis the thin layer of dead cells at thesurface.

! Te dermishas blood vessels, nerves, follicles, andglands.

! Te hypodermicis a fat layer that insulates thebody.

! Te skin protects the body from friction, heatloss, water loss, infection, and radiation.

! Cold-blooded organisms are ectothermic.

!Warm-blooded animals are endothermicand havea constant body temperature.

!When the body temperature rises, the braindilates dermis vessels so that heat can leave thebody. Sweat is secreted.

!When the body temperature falls, dermis vesselscontract, sweat production halts, and the bodybegins to shiver to raise temperature.

! Testes are found in the scrotumout of the body.

! Sperm is made in seminiferous tubuleswhichform thevas deferens.

! Te vas deferens connects with urethra to bringout sperm.

! Sperm and some other uids make up semen.

! Te ovariesmake gametes; the uterusis forpregnancy.

! Te uterine cyclehas three phases.

!Menstruationis the shedding of theendometriumof the uterus. Estrogen/progesterone levels are low. (Days 1-5)

! Te proliferative phaseis the rebuilding of an

endometrium. Estrogen is secreted. (Days 6-13)

! In the secretory phase, the uterine lining isprepared for pregnancy. (Days 14-28)

! Blood vessels are added, and sugars are secreted tothee lining. Progesterone controls this.

! Te ovarian cyclehas three phases.

! Te follicular phaseis caused by FSH, whichresults in follicle development. (Days 1-13)

!A follicle is a maturing oocyte and cells.

! Tey result in rising estrogen.

!Ovulationis the release of the oocyte to theFallopian tube. (Day 14). Tere is a LH surge.

! Follicle part forms corpus luteumwhich makesprogesterone in the luteal phase. (Days 15-28)

! If the ovum is implanted, the embryo secreteshuman chorionic gonadotrophin(hCG).

! hCG prolongs corpus luteum lifetime to secretemore progesterone; endometrium doesnt shed.

! hCG levels stay high for 3-4 mo. in pregnancy.

! Gametes are formed.

! Te egg falls down Fallopian tube to meet sperm.

! Te acrosomein sperm allows it to penetrate egg.

!A diploidzygoteis formed.

!Cleavageis rapid mitosis of zygote which forms amorula.

! Te morula hollows out into a blastocyst.

! Te cell mass clumps to one side and forms the

embryonic parts. Te outer ring forms placenta.! Te blastocyst is implanted in the uterus.

!Embryonic stage 1 is gastrulation.

! Te cell mass divides into germ layers.

!Endodermbecomes inner linings of body systems.

! Te mesodermbecomes the non-gland organsand bones, heart, etc.

! Te ectodermforms external structures.

! Te second stage is neurulation.

! Te nervous system is formed.

!

Other organs are also formed in this stage, calledorganogenesis.

! In the fetal stage, the baby grows.

! Teyolk sacsurrounds the yolk of an egg.

! Human eggs have little yolk.

! Others develop out of body; they need yolk.

! Te amnionis a membrane which is lled withthe amniotic fluidas a shock absorber.

! Te allantosisbecomes the umbilical cord.

! Te chorionforms the embryos placenta andencloses other membranes.



20/23

Plants!Photosynthesisis use of sunlight for food.

! Te epidermisis the outer layer.

! Te cuticleis a wax layer for protection.

! Te palisade layerhas most photosynthesis.

! Te spongy cellshas air pockets for gas exchange.

! Te stomateshelp with gas exchange and water.! Tey are controlled by guard cells.

! Te chloroplastis double-membraned.

! Te stromais the interior uid.

! Te thylakoidare sacs that make up grana stacks.

! Te thylakoid membranes have chlorophyll.

! 6CO2+ 6H2O + energy $C6H12O6+ 6O2

! Te light-dependent reactionsconvert solarenergy to NADPH and ATP.

! Electrons are excited by sunlight which go downan electron transport chain to make NADPH.

!Water is split into hydrogen and ions.

! O2is released, and H is used in the ATP synthase.

! Te light-independent reactionstake place in thestroma (Calvin cycle).

!Ribulose bisphosphate has 5 carbons.

! CO2makes RuBP into some 6C compound,which breaks down into 2 3C glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate(G3P).

! 1 G3P is used for glucose. Another remakesRuBP.

!Carbon fixationis plants making carbohydrates.!Rootsanchor a plant to the ground.

! Root hairs grow to increase surface area forabsorption.

!Water and minerals are transported withxylem.

!Xylem tissues are made from tracheidsandvesselelements.

! Te phloemtransports nutrients. Tey are madefrom sieve cellsand companion cells.

! Sieve cells carry out transport.

! Companion cells help sieve cells with metabolism.

! Flowering plants are angiosperms.

! Te stamenis the male part. Te anther(whichmakes pollen) is supported by the filament.

!Pollenis made from microsporesand pollengrains can form two sperm.

! Te pistilis the female part. It has a stigma, style,

ovule, and ovary.! Te ovule forms megasporeswhich can make eggs

and polar bodies.

! Pollen fall into a sticky stigma and germinates.

! Te pollen tube grows from the style to the ovary.

! Te pollen sperm fertilize: one with egg, anotherwith a polar body.

! Te fertilized egg becomes the embryo, and polarbodies become endosperm.

! Te endospermis a food-storing tissue.

! Te ovule develops into seed, and the ovarybecomes fruit, which protects the seed.

! Te seed is released and regrows.



21/23

Behavior!Instinctis unlearned and inherited behavior.

!Fixed-action patternsare behaviors triggered by aspecic stimuli.

!Baby ducks swim when they enter water.

!Imprintingis recognition of an object as mother.

! Tese patterns occur even if the stimulus isnt anatural stimulus.

!Learned behaviorrequire interaction w/environment.

!Habituationis when a non-harmful stimulus isrepeated until it gets ignored.

!Conditioning is when a stimulus is associatedwith a certain behavior. (Associative learning)

!Classical conditioning is the association of a

stimuli with a response.!Operant conditionis learning that occurs with

reward and punishment.

!Insight learning is the ability to gure out how todeal with situations. (Reasoning)

!Tropismsare turning behavior in response tostimuli.

!Phototrophismis growth of plant towards light.

!Positive gravitropismis the growth of roots downtowards the Earth.

!Negative gravitropismis growth of stem up awayfrom earth

! Gravitropism is also called geotropism.

! Tigomotropismis the growth of plant along asurface.

!Auxinsare plant hormones that induce thesetropism behaviors.

!An instinctive biological clock that makes anorganism do something daily is a circadianrhythm.

!Pheromonesare chemicals that are released by a

member of a species that affect other members ofthe species.

!Hormonesare released into blood to affect theorganism that secreted it.

!Symbiosisis when species share living space.

!Mutualism is when both organisms benet.Bacteria in intestines produce vitamin K and feedoffour waste.

!Parasitism is when one organism benets whileharming the host. Tapeworms are parasites.

!Commensalismis when an organism benets

while the other is not effected.



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Ecology! Biological organization: cell < tissue < organ

organism < population < community < ecosystem< biome < biosphere

!A populationis a group of individuals in an areathat share the same gene pool

!A speciesneeds to be able to interbreed

!An individual cant evolve; a population can.

!Exponential growthbegins exponentially until alevel where it cannot grow as rapidly

! However, the maximum population size is limitedat the carrying capacity.

!A communityis a group or populations in anenvironment.

!An organisms nicheis how it lives in itsenvironment.

! If two populations have similar niches, there iscompetition.

! One population will win and grow, and the otherwill shrink.

!Predationis when a predatoreats a prey.

! Predation can cause the prey to evolve.

!Coevolutionis evolution based on interactionbetween two species.

! Te primary producersbegin the food chain.

! Tey are photosynthetic.

! Te next are the primary consumers(herbivores)

! Ten there are secondary consumers(carni- oromnivore).

! Ten there are tertiary consumers.

! Tere are decomposersthat eat the dead.

! Tere are more producers and less consumers.

!AAAA $BBBB on a food chain means thatBBBB eats AAAA. (AAAA eaten by BBBB).

! Only about 10% of energy is transferred to thenext level on the food change. 90% is lost inactions such as heat, respiration, etc.

!Ecological successionis the change in anecological community.

! Te rst organisms that move into a new area arepioneer organisms.

! More organisms move in.

! Te community with the nal organisms is stableand is the climax community.

! Ecological succession is the continuous changes ina community. It takes place quicker thanevolution and is not evolution.

!An ecosystemis the community with itssurroundings.

!Evaporationis water escaping as vapor from awater source.

!Transpirationis water leaving from leaf stomates.

!Water cycle- vapor from plants and lakes formclouds that rain down into soil. Te runoffgointo oceans. Te ocean water evaporates andcondensate in clouds that precipitate over land.

!Carbon cycle- atmospheric carbon taken in viaphotosynthesis and enters the soil through rootrespiration. Plants are eaten by animals whichrespire, putting CO2back into the air.Te soilalso has carbon that enters the atmosphere.

! Nitrogen is important in amino acids and protein.It needs to be taken in to plants in NO3, and notN2. In the nitrogen cycle, N2is xed by bacteriaand used by plants. Animals eat plants and dead

carrying capacity



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animals decomposed again.

!Biomesare communities with their climates. As awhole, biomes make up the biosphere.

! Te greenhouse effectis the increasing CO2

concentration in the atmosphere that can causeglobal warming, pattern changes, and melting icecaps.

!Ozone depletionis caused by using CFCs whichcan destroy the O3layer.

!Acid rain is caused by SO2and NO2that destroyecosystems.

!Desertification comes from the overgrazing ofanimals, and deforestationhappens becauseforests are cleared.

!

Te use of toxic chemicals can pollutetheenvironment. Te situation is amplied by

biomagnification.

! Destruction of habitats can reduce biodiversity.

Terrestrial Biomes

Tundra

Found in the northern parts of NA, EU,and Asia. It has permafrostand there arefew trees, only small shrubs. Several insectsand a few mammals.

Taiga

Also known as the coniferous forests. Tereare many conifers, and are southward oftundras. Tere are small mammals andlarger herbivores and carnivores

DeciduousForest

To the south of the taiga. Tere is a lot ofrain and a distinct hot/cold season split.Tere is great diversity, and the trees losetheir leaves in winter.

Grasslands

Also known as the savanna. Tere are low-growing plants and some trees. Tere canbe droughts and res. Split into tropicaland temperate. Insects are dominantherbivores.

Tropical

Rainforest

Highest rainfall and the greatest diversity.Trees are tall and plants grow around them.

Tere is a canopy layer and sunlight doesnot reach the lowest area.

DesertDriest biome. Can be hot or cold.Organisms have to adapt to aridenvironment.

Aquatic Biomes (Marine)

IntertidalZone

Land and water meet. Can be wet or drydepending on the tide.Clams, sea stars, snails, crabs, sponges.

Neritic ZoneTe shore to the continental shelf. Coralreefs can be found here.

Seaweeds, crustaceans, sh.

OceanicZone

Te open ocean. Little nutrients but somephytoplankton. Large free-swimminganimals. Divided into open water pelagic(photic + aphotic) zone and ocean bottombenthiczones. Lowest is abyssal zone.

Aquatic Biomes (Freshwater)

Littoral ZoneNear the shore of a lake. Many plants,amphibians, insects, some sh.

LimneticZone

Farther from shore and extend up to wherelight can penetrate. Tere arephotosynthetic organisms and primaryconsumers.

ProfundalZone

Aphotic part of the lake. Nutrients oatdown to support the consumers in thisarea.


sat 2 biology e/m guide

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