sÃo paulo, a water city

1 5 t h I N T E R N A T I O N A L P L A N N I N G H I S T O R Y S O C I E T Y C O N F E R E N C E

1

SÃO PAULO, A WATER CITY

SAIDE KAHTOUNI Rua Ministro de Godoi, 478, conjunto 41, São Paulo – SP Postal Code 05015-000 – Brazil e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

São Paulo, a Water City

The history of São Paulo can be divided into three main periods

based on the relationships between the city and its water

resources.

The first period goes from the 16th century to the first half of

the 19th century. During that time, the natural waterscape was

the main geographical feature in the São Paulo urban core. It

was incorporated in the ways of life in which rivers are an

integral part of the inhabitants’ routines and play the role of

promoting the urban drift as essential means of transportation

and communication for the system.

The second period, spanning between 1850 and 1930, saw the

advent of technological possibilities and choices that reshaped

the relationships between the city’s population and its rivers.

With the possibility of supplying water through piping systems

and bringing it from increasingly distant areas, water sources

were located farther away from the city. As a result, the old

public fountains disappeared and in-home running water was

introduced in São Paulo. Consequently, the nearby rivers lost

their importance as the City’s water sources and started being

considered obstacles in the urban expansion. On the other

hand, an interest emerged in acquiring land as a form of

investment and integrated São Paulo City into the context of

the new global capitalism. That was also when the large

companies responsible for supplying infrastructure and new

technologies arrived.

mailto:[email protected]

C i t i e s , n a t i o n s a n d r e g i o n s i n p l a n n i n g h i s t o r y

It was during the third period (1930 to now) that the city

started occupying its floodplains, in a runaway expansion in

these areas. The Plano de Avenidas [Plan of Avenues],

introduced during the mayoralty of engineer Prestes Maia,

included a system based on valley bottom avenues and avenues

running along the main rivers (Tietê and Pinheiros) in which the

car prevailed. The cityscape then started being adapted to

these new urban designsmost of which from the U.S.which

are adopted throughout Brazil. According to this vision, the

backbone of the city’s road network would be its main rivers

and their tributaries would serve as distributing axes of local

traffic. Curiously, this technological model of disposing of

urban waste on reclaimed land was devised in Ancient Rome

over two millennia ago, when the Cloaca Maxima and the Circus

Maximus were built on land drained and reclaimed from the

Tiber River. The magnificent Roman Forum was built on this

great sewerage system.

In addition to these works and engineering interventions, the

intense metropolization process of São Paulo brought an

excessive specialization in the management systems of the

infrastructures required by the city, thus leading to a

fragmented water resource management, a task shared by

energy generation, sanitation, flood control and drinking water

supply agencies.

This citylike others in their growth processes during the 20th

centuryseriously damaged its water resources, which are

becoming increasingly scarce worldwide.

INTRODUCTION

Infrastructure, water and landscape in history

The economic and cultural relationships in a society inevitably impact

its choices and priorities throughout time, thus giving rise to unique

“ways of doing things” and techniques, as well as their ensuing effects

on the previously existing natural world.


3

The Landscapein its broadest sense, the material manifestation of

the “spacialization process” 1 could be considered the fleeting

portrait of a society. It is fleeting because the cultural changes made

in Nature (whether or not it is still in pristine condition) depend on

the techniques available, coupled with society’s cultural and historical

associations at specific times and in specific contexts2.

As far as water is concerned, there is a close connection between the

appearance of the first urban settlements, and the presence and

management of water bodies. The first cities worldwide came into

being and grew over five thousand years ago owing to technical

improvements and a more complex social structure (which allowed

human communities to become organized as cities), along with the

possibility of performing water infrastructure works that enabled the

first major settlements to thrive, based on the development of

farming techniques, as examined by a number of anthropologists3.

There was still a certain balance between the first urban settlements

and the pre-existing environmental conditions.

Let us imagine, for example, an original link between water, a vital

element, and humankind, which is always seeking that connection in

its most elementary constructs. It arises from the need to regulate the

use of water to ensure the survival of the first hierarchy-based urban

social systems, thus leading to the first laws in History, which

appeared alongside writing, in the fertile valleys of arida reas. In

addition, there was a need to manage the farming surpluses made

possible by irrigation techniques whereas the geometry of the canals

1SANTOS, Milton. Metamorfoses do espaço habitado. HUCITEC, São Paulo, 1994, pgs. 67-64. 2 Kahtouni, Saide. Notas de aula de História da Urbanização para alunos da graduação em Arquitetura e Urbanismo. 2006, São Paulo. 3Childe. V. Gordon. O que aconteceu na história. Rio de Janeiro, Zahar, 1978.


also served as a guideline for the first city layouts, as well as farmland

demarcation and surveying in the great empires of the Ancient East.

Therefore, the ability to control major rivers in the East allowed the

complex demarcation of farmland and led to the creation of the first

gardens worldwide, in Mesopotamia as early as ancient times. The

sequences of rectangular tanks for river water transported through the

canal systems and the symmetry of that organization resulted in the

construction of gardens as designed areas based on the presence of

water, which was also used as a partition between designed areas.

Later, the temples of classical times in the West were designed to

include storage systems for rainwater, which ran to tanks, many of

which contained sand to filter the stored water, which was sometimes

distributed to city dwellers4.

The connection between water and the symbols associated with purity

and purification led water to be present even in the most remote

sacred places, ceremonies and as an integral part of the first human

civilizations. The symbolical aspect of water was examined extensively

by BACHELARD 5 in his philosophical essay on the imagination of

matter.

4Jellicoe G.; Jellicoe, S. El Paysage Del hombre, La conformacion Del entorno desde La prehistoria hasta nuestros dias. Barcelona: Gustavo Gilli, 1995.p.132 5 Bachelard, Gaston. A água e os sonhos, ensaio sobre a imaginação da matéria. Martins Fontes, São Paulo, 2002.


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FIGURE 1Alhambra, medieval gardens and water, memories of

the East.

Photo Author: Kahtouni, Saide. 1999.

At present, there is undoubtedly a great distance between civilized

humans and the pristine elements of nature, such as water. Rivers in

urban settlements serve as mere waste dumps and/or are seen as

obstacles to the urbanization process. The water cycle, taught to

young school children, is quickly forgotten by adults, who are

responsible for the indiscriminate use of groundwater, for example,

and for other inappropriate forms of treatment of surface water

resources.

Despite its extensive drainage system and bountiful supply of

freshwater, Brazil already has an urban population of 190 million

people (about 80% of the total population), but no more than 20% of

the sewage produced in cities is collected and treated6. We have a

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of 7.6 million kilograms per day

and discharge 6.5 million kilograms per day in our streams. Our cities

are growing, new exciting metropolitan areas emerge and urban

settlements need an ever greater amount of water7.

6IBGE 2010 Census. 7Rebouças, Aldo. Uso inteligente da água. São Paulo. Escrituras, ( first edition). 2004, pp.54-55.


In the case of water resources, there is a clear imbalance between

population growth ratesand the ensuing higher demand for drinking

waterand the supply of these resources. The negligible demand of

Ancient Times (between 2.5 and 4.0 liters per inhabitant per day) has

soared to about 250 liters of drinking water per inhabitant per day 8 in

our modern-day metropolitan areas. We use drinking water in

kitchens, washing machines, flush toilets, showers and swimming

pools; in addition, we use it to wash sidewalks and floors, and to

water plants. The amount of wastewater is increasing more quickly

than practical solutions for the problem are devised and the technical

concerns about the conservation of urban water resources have an

impact. The same phenomenon is observed as regards solid waste

generation in cities.

This situation involves a process that led to the creation of

development policies and the introduction of basic infrastructures, a

problem that has yet to be fully solved in many countries. The

fulfillment of the so-called basic needs undoubtedly produces changes

in the landscape itself, which is often damaged by the impacts of the

structures that the very system created to make urbanization possible

needs to survive.

The problems connected to water include scarcity, flooding,

contamination and conflicts caused by its use. Regardless of the large

number of construction projects involving water resources in different

areas, there are an increasing number of problems and an ever greater

distance between modern society and water resources. The same

problem is observed in large cities worldwide, irrespective of the

cultural development level of the societies and countries in which

8LIEBMANN, Hans. Terra, um planeta inabitável? Da antiguidade até nossos dias toda a trajetória poluidora da humanidade . Rio de Janeiro, Biblioteca do Exército editora, 1979. .p.48.


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they are located. It is largely accepted among experts that a lack of

drinking water is imminent, and there is a sense of alarm that varies

greatly.

The “Water for People, Water for Life” document was presented during

the 3rd World Water Forum (held in Kyoto, Japan) on March 22, 2003,

the World Water Day. All the organizations and committees connected

to UNESCO that focus on water issues collaborated in producing this

report. In 2003, UNESCO estimated that about 2 billion tonnes of waste

per day was disposed of in rivers, lakes and brooks worldwide9. Under a

best-case scenario, the UN expects 2 billion people to be faced with

water scarcity by 2050, versus 7 billion people under a worst-case

scenario.

The small percentage of freshwater existing on this blue planet is well

established (2.7%). An even smaller percentage of the total amount of

water (about 0.01%) is in surface rivers, considering the amount of

saltwater, frozen water, groundwater and in lakes and swamps, in

addition to the water found in the atmosphere as vapor.

9 Rebouças, Aldo. Uso inteligente da água.. São Paulo. Escrituras, 2008. p. 39


FIGURE 2 - MAP - Populations Without Access to Safe Drinking

Water Worldwide. Source: Gleick, Peter. The world’s water. The

biennal report on freshwater resources, 1998. Island Press,

Washington. p.41

Our water resources are, therefore, polluted by the waste produced

by our consumer society on a daily basis. Pollution has also been

affecting groundwater seriously since the early days of the Industrial

Revolution.

If we do not change our attitudes and behaviors as individuals and

nations, there is a great risk that a crisis will ensue in the near future.

Data from the Brazilian Ministry of Science and Technology indicate

that over 120,000 cubic km of the water on the planet has already

been contaminated, and this figure may rise to 180,000 cubic km if

the current pace of contamination persists. The Yellow (China),

Colorado (U.S.), Nile (Egypt), Volga (Russia), Ganges (India) and


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Jordan (Middle East) Rivers are all in critical situations according to

the World Water Commission for the 21st Century. 10

But we do not have to go very far…

There is a scarcity of water in major metropolitan areas in Brazil like

São Paulo, which is crossed by a large river, the Tietê, which we have

been trying to clean up for some time. In the Upper Tietê area, in

which the Metropolitan Area anchored by São Paulo is located, there is

201 cubic m of water available per inhabitant per year, versus 1,000

cubic m per inhabitant per year in Pernambuco State, in Northeast

Brazil. This is far below what is internationally considered the

appropriate amount of water per inhabitant11.

This situation resulted from a historical process in which the river was

cast into oblivion by the society living along its banksthus losing its

original features and roles, as well as its connection to the city’s

inhabitantsand now serves the same function as the Cloaca Maxima in

Ancient Rome.

1. São Paulo, a Water City, the Tietê City

This specific aspect of the history of São Paulo was examined

intensively in a five-year study, conducted between 1997 and 2002,

within a doctorate program at FAUUSP12. The study focused on the

relationships between the urban structuring process of the São Paulo

Metropolitan Area and its rivers, which belong to the Upper Tietê

River Basin. The study was based on the history of the public works,

10 Anais do IV Dialogo Interamericano Das Águas, 2001.

11 Rebouças, Aldo. Uso inteligente da água.. São Paulo. Escrituras, 2008.

ps.137-138 12

Kahtouni, Saide. Cidade das águas. São Paulo, FAUUSP. (doctoral thesis),

2003.


how they were planned and what policies were adopted for them, as

well as their relationship with the local geography, resulting from the

current features of the city.

The Tietê River, which starts in the foothills of the Serra do Mar [close

to the ocean] but runs inland, created a peculiar geographical

situation, of a river flowing into a larger river, the Paraná. It was,

therefore, a major colonization route since it leads into southern

South America as a long river and a traditional artery into the heart of

Brazil’s Southeast Region by Parana River and La Plata Basin.

FIGURE 3 Reproduction of the map drawn by Diogo Homem in

1568, highlighting the La Plata Basin, in southern of Brazil.


11

Source: Biblioteca Nacional [Brazilian National Library], Rio de

Janeiro, iconographic archives.

FIGURE 4 – Study of the natural accessibility of the Brazilian

territory as determined by ancient routes by boat or land starting

from São Paulo. Source: COUTO E SILVA, Golbery do. Conjuntura

Política Nacional , o poder executivo e geopolítico no Brasil.

(second edition), Rio de Janeiro, José Olympio, 1981.p.40.

Based on the view that water resources are important factors in the

division into periods of the history of São Paulo City, I was able to

identify three main periods in this process in my study13.

13Kahtouni, Saide. Cidade das águas. São Paulo, FAUUSP. (doctoral thesis), 2003.


. The first period goes from the 16th century to the first half of the

19th century. During that time, the natural waterscape was the main

geographical feature in the São Paulo urban core. It was incorporated

in the ways of life in which rivers are an integral part of the

inhabitants’ routines and play the role of promoting the urban drift as

essential means of transportation and communication for the system.

References in the language such as names of rivers, places and old

fountains still pervade the collective memory, as surviving remnants of

the first period.

The Village of São Paulo, the origin of the current metropolis, was the

starting point of expeditions called “entradas” and “bandeiras” that

followed the rivers in search of wealth and natives to enslave early in

the colonization of Brazil. The city was structured along its rivers and

roads.


13

FIGURE 5 Early 19th century map showing São Paulo’s inhabited

areas and rivers. The Tamanduateí River is placing limits to the

historic center. The Tietê River, farther away to the North, is seen

on the left of the map. Source: COLEÇÃO DO QUARTO

CENTENÁRIO DA CIDADE DE SÃO PAULO, facsimile, 1954.

FIGURE 6 – View of the Tietê River in the city, with barges

carrying bricks close to Clube de Regatas [Regatta Club], 1905.

The second period, spanning between 1850 and 1930, saw the advent

of technological possibilities and choices that reshaped the

relationships between the city’s population and its rivers. With

possibility of supplying water through piping systems and bringing it

from increasingly distant areas, water sources were located farther

away for the city. As a result, the old public fountains disappeared

and in-home running water was introduced in the city by companies.

Consequently, the nearby rivers lost their importance as the City’s

water sources and started being considered obstacles to the urban

expansion.

On the other hand, amendments to real property laws in Brazil

starting 1850 sparked an interest in acquiring land as a form of


investment and integrated São Paulo city into the context of the new

global capitalism. That was also when the large companies responsible

for supplying infrastructure and new technologies arrived.

The installation of infrastructure within the new technological context

in Brazilian citiesat first as private enterprises and later as public

enterpriseshas been a major factor in environmental and landscape

changes, over the last one hundred years. Large foreign companies

such as The São Paulo Tramway, the Light and Power Company Ltd. or

the American Foreign Power Company all connected to the global

expansion of capitalism and some Brazilian capitalists of vision, in

individual, isolated initiatives, took charge of power supply and

transportation in recently founded capital cities.

The second phase of the European Industrial Revolution brought

technological industry, through these new products to be disseminated

throughout the Neocolonial world, and started reaching the Americas

in the second quarter of the 19th century.

In terms of water supply, the main focus of my previous studies14, a

major new development “mass-produced” by the Industrial Revolution

in the 19th century was the introduction of water pipe networks, which

replaced the old aqueducts, water collection directly from rivers by

water sellers15or the widespread open ditches connected to the public

fountains, where the population or slaves would collect water freely.

14 Kahtouni, Saide. Cidade das águas. São Paulo, FAUUSP. (doctoral thesis), 2003. 15 These sellers collected water in barrels and sold it door to door.


15

Concerning sewerage, Telles16 says that Rio de Janeiro was the fifth

city worldwide to have a sewerage system, even before major

European cities like Berlin (1874) and Rome (1879). In Rio de Janeiro

as well, the first pipes for underground connections, which brought

water from water sources to the public fountains, were imported from

Portugal as early as 1760. Incidentally, they were made of lead, a

material entirely inappropriate for this purpose. In São Paulo, a home

water supply networkmade of ironwas introduced only after 1876.

FIGURE 7. An 1855 map showing São Paulo City and its public

water supply tanks, developed by Eng. Rath. Source: Coleção do

Quarto Centenário da Cidade de São Paulo, facsimile, 1954.

Until 1860, São Paulo was supplied by water moving through open

ditches, pulled by gravity alone, from Tanque Reúno [Reúno Tank] to

Chafariz do Piques [Piques Fountain] and, later, to Jardim da Luz [Luz

Park] and to the public fountains. In 1855, there were a number of

16 Telles, Pedro Carlos da Silva . História da Engenharia no Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, Clube de Engenharia/Clavero, 1994, vol. 1.


different tanks (see Figure 7) interconnected with the fountain

system, which ceased to be used in 1893, after private sector

company Cantareira de Águas e Esgotos, established in 187717, was

taken over.

The possibility of having water supply reservoirs that received water

from more distant sources allowed the city to expand to its own

floodplains, thus stepping up the urbanization of its valley bottoms

and increasing pollution. Coincidentally, the first railroad stations and

water towers on metal stilts were built in major Brazilian cities as of

1860.

The construction of the first railroad in São Pauloa cutting-edge

infrastructure to carry passengers and cargocreated a new

transportation connection system in the city, which had been

structured along its port and road connections until then.

The city no longer needed its rivers as shipping routes and a new

cityscape emerged, characterized by industrialization and the

occupation of floodplains, at first that of the Tamanduateí River,

whose riparian zone was occupied by the Santos-Jundiaí railroad and

the large facilities of the first Brazilian factories, built along the river.

The Tamanduateí was straightened by Cel. Eng. Bresser in 1848, which

made it unnavigable and allowed the occupation of vacant land

between the railroad and the river.

The use of the city’s rivers as water sources was later abandoned as

well.

17Kahtouni, Saide. Cidade das águas, Rima editora, São Carlos, 2004 p.57-63.


17

FIGURE 8 STUDIES BY SATURNINO DE BRITO involving the

uptake of Tietê River water in São Paulo for water supply. The

project was abandoned. Source: Kahtouni, 2003.

The public works involving water resources created a new opportunity

for the city’s urbanized areas to grow. The land between the

Tamanduateí and the railroad became a new urban area, as shown in

the map above,

(FIGURE 9).


FIGURE 9 – São Paulo City plan by Cia. Cantareira de Águas e

Esgotos in 1881.The Tietê River can be seen to the North. The

Tamanduateí River and the new canals can be seen between the

center of the city and the railroad on the East. Source: Coleção do

Quarto Centenário da Cidade de São Paulo, facsimile, 1954.

On the other hand, the works of Companhia Light and its interest in

the Pinheiros River and its lands resulted in the construction of the

Guarapiranga and Billings Reservoirs, in 1907 and 1929 respectively.

In addition, the Pinheiros River was also straightened. The landscape

along the Pinheiros was altered by the Traição and Pedreira pumping

plants, used to control the flow of the river artificially and reverse its

course. The Sorocabana railroad and the electricity transmission

pylons and lines are part of this cityscape to this day.


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FIGURE 10 – São Paulo City Plan drafted by Gomes Cardim in

1897.There are railroads and new housing developments in the

Tamanduateí and Tietê floodplains. Source: Coleção do Quarto

Centenário da Cidade de São Paulo, facsimile, 1954.

During the third period (1930 to now), the city started occupying its

floodplains, in a runaway expansion in these areas. The Plano de

Avenidas [Plan of Avenues], introduced during the mayoralty of

engineer Prestes Maia, included a system based on valley bottom

avenues and avenues running along the main rivers (Tietê and

Pinheiros) in which the car prevailed. The cityscape then started being

adapted to these new urban designsmost of which developed in the

U.S. in modern dayswhich are still being adopted throughout Brazil.

According to this vision, the backbone of the city’s road network

would be the avenues along its main rivers, and their tributaries would

serve as distributing axes of local traffic.


Transportation in the city became a basis for the economic progress

that served as a guideline for decisions.

FIGURE 11 – Prestes Maia and Ulhoa Cintra’s theoretical Plan of

Avenues. Source: TOLEDO, Benedito Lima de. Prestes maia e as

origens do urbanismo moderno em São Paulo. Santiago do Chile:

empresa das Artes, projeto e edições artísticas, 1996. P.160.

This technological model of reclaiming land from bodies of water and

disposing of urban waste mainly in rivers was devised in Ancient Rome

over two millennia ago, when the Cloaca Maxima and the Circus

Maximus were built on land drained and reclaimed from the Tiber

River. The magnificent Roman Forum was built on this great sewerage

system.

In the plan of Ancient Rome, the Palatine Hill could be compared with

the so-called São Paulo’s Central Triangle where as the Circus Maximus

Valley would correspond to the Anhangabaú Valley, both separating

two traditional central areas located on hills. Coincidentally, a Y-


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shaped road system was created, based on the fork of the Via Appia

and the Via Latina. In São Paulo, the “Y” system was introduced by

Prestes Maia and is based on the fork of the 23 de Maio and the Nove

de Julho Avenues, which start in the Anhangabaú Valley and run along

two valley bottoms of its tributaries.

FIGURE 12 – Republican Rome and the Circus Maximus ( scheme

by Benevolo, 1983).


FIGURE 13 – The Y-system in the center of São Paulo City,

designed by Prestes Maia. Source: TOLEDO, Benedito Lima de.

Prestes maia e as origens do urbanismo moderno em São Paulo.

Santiago do Chile: empresa das Artes, projeto e edições artísticas,

1996. p. 171.

In addition to these works and engineering interventions, the intense

metropolization process of São Paulo starting in the 1960s brought an

excessive specialization in the management systems of the

infrastructures required by the city, thus leading to a fragmented

water resource managementa task shared by energy generation,

sanitation, flood control and drinking water supply agencies, as well

as contradictions and conflicts.

As a result, São Paulojust like other cities in their growth processes

has seriously damaged its water resources, which are increasingly

scarce worldwide and whose use and management have many aspects.

Consequently, the problems discussed at the beginning of this paper

have become extremely complex in modern-day São Paulo City due to

a historical process in which the urban space has been produced based

on the government’s public and political projects. In addition, the

engineering challenges have been handled in an isolated and

situational manner by the local government. A purely economic vision

of the city’s growth and planning prevailed, to the detriment of the

landscape and water resources.

In conclusion, currently, the São Paulo population is suffering due to

a scarcity of water and regular flooding of urban areas. We have

invaded the domain of water in an indiscriminate, unplanned manner.

The Tietê River is still a mere open sewage, in a metropolis with

millions of inhabitants.


23

FIGURE 14 – The Tiete River and the São Paulo downtown area. Source:

SATELLITE IMAGE / Google, 2000.

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Anais do IV Dialogo Interamericano Das Águas, Foz do Iguaçu, 2001.

BACHELARD, Gaston. A água e os sonhos, ensaio sobre a imaginação

da matéria. Martins Fontes, São Paulo, 2002.

BRESSAN, Delmar. Gestão racional da natureza, São Paulo, Hucitec,

1996.

BENEVOLO, Leonardo. História da cidade. Perspectiva: São Paulo,

1983.

CHILDE. V. Gordon. O que aconteceu na história. Rio de Janeiro,

Zahar, 1978

CLARKE, Robin; KING, Jannet. O Atlas da água- o mapeamento

completo do recurso mais precioso do planeta. São Paulo: publifolha,

2005.


COUTO E SILVA, Golbery do. Conjuntura Política Nacional , o poder

executivo e geopolítico no Brasil. ( 2ª edição), Rio de Janeiro, José

Olympio, 1981.

ECKBO, Garret. The Landscape we see. USA, Hill Inc, 1969.

GLEICK, Peter H. The world's water 1998-1999, the biennal report on

Freshwater resources. Washington, Island Press, 1998.

JELLICOE, G. ; JELLICOE, S. El paysage del hombre, la conformacion

del entorno desde la prehistoria hasta nuestros dias. Barcelona :

Gustavo Gilli, 1995;

KAHTOUNI, Saide. Cidade das águas. São Paulo, FAUUSP, (Tese de

doutoramento), 2003.

KAHTOUNI, Saide . Cidade das águas, São Carlos, Rima, 2004.

LIEBMANN, Hans. Terra, um planeta inabitável? Da antiguidade até

nossos dias toda a trajetória poluidora da humanidade . Rio de

Janeiro, Biblioteca do Exército editora, 1979.

Mc HARG, Ian. Design with nature, New York ,The natural history

press., Garden City, 1969.

PROOST DE SOUZA, Saide K. Jardins e cidades, caminhos do

paisagismo, da jardinagem ao projeto ambiental, 1995, Revista

Projeto n. 190, outubro.

REBOUÇAS, Aldo. Uso inteligente da água. São Paulo, Escrituras, 2004.

(2008, second edition).

SANTOS, Milton. Metamorfoses do espaço habitado. HUCITEC, São

Paulo, 1994.

TELLES, Pedro Carlos da Silva . História da Engenharia no Brasil, Rio de

Janeiro, Clube de Engenharia/Clavero, 1994.


25

TOLEDO, Benedito Lima de. Prestes maia e as origens do urbanismo

moderno em São Paulo. Santiago do Chile: empresa das Artes, projeto

e edições artísticas, 1996.

sÃo paulo, a water city

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