sanskrit and its development from proto-indo-europeanabuch/14ws/referat2.pdf · sanskrit and its...
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Sanskrit and its development from Proto-Indo-European
Miriam Kennerknecht und Sonja Eberhardt
15.12.2014
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Content
1 History of Sanskrit
2 Phonology
3 Morphology
3.1 nominal
3.2 verbal
4 References
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1. History1.1 The Indians
• Original homeland of the Indians:
a region north-west of India
• Around the middle of the second millennium BC the forebears of the Indians moved into India
• The oldest Indic language:
Sanskrit
• Sanskrit is an Indo-European language
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1. History1.2 The writing system
• first texts were transmitted orally
• The inscriptions of the ruler Aśoka in the third century BC were the first documentary evidence for Middle Indic
• The first direct attestation of Sanskrit: inscription of the ruler Rudradāman AD 150
• Sanskrit is written in the ‘devanāgarī’ script
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1. History1.3 The Indo-Iranian language family• Consists of Indo-Aryan and Iranian and
the Kafir languages of the North-west India
• The speakers referred to themselves as ārya- (Aryans)
• is without doubt the most archaic of the Indo-European languages
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1. History1.3 The Indo-Iranian language family
Indic (Indo-Aryan)• Oldest form is called Vedic• As of the fifth century B.C. we speak of
Middle Indo-Aryan• Languages of modern India:
→ Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarathi• The land of origin of the Rig Veda is the
Punjab→ From there the Indo-Aryan language
spread toward the south
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1. History1.3 The Indo-Iranian language family
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1. History1.3 The Indo-Iranian language family
Iranian• Old Iranian languages: Avestan & Old
Persian
• Modern Iranian comprises: Modern Persian (Farsi), Pashto, the official language of Afghanistan, Kurdish, and the Ossetic language spoken by a minority people of the Caucasus
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1. History1.3 The Indo-Iranian language family
• Sanskrit and Iranian share a number of common features
→ vocabulary is largely shared→ the nominal declension and verbal
flexion• There was a period of extensive contact
between the two languages• There subsequently occurred a process of
fragmentation
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1. History 1.3 The Indo-Iranian language family
• differences between Sanskrit and Iranian:
→ in Iranian *(-)s- becomes (-)h-; in Sanskrit it is preserved
→ in Sanskrit the voiced aspirates *bh, *dh, *gh remain as such while in Iranian they lose their aspiration
→ in Sanskrit there appears a series of retroflex phonemes (t, th, d, dh, n, s) which do not exist in Iranian
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1. History 1.3 The Indo-Iranian language family
The Kafir languages (Nuristani languages)• Ashkun and Prasun of Northeastern
Afghanistan
• Perhaps a third branch of the Indo-Iranian group
• Could also be derived from the Iranian languages
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1. History1.4 The Hurrians
• The Aryans are the only IE peoples of whom linguistic traces remain outside their historical homelands:
in Asia Minor and Mesopotamia• The Hurrian kingdom of the Mitanni was dominated by
an Aryan aristocracy→ The rulers of the Mitanni had names with a clear
Aryan stamp→ numerals and horsemanship terms are of Indian
derivation→ aika “one” (Skt. eka-), panza “five” (Skt. pan͂ca)
• The Aryan linguistic remains outside India resemble Sanskrit more than Iranian
→ aika “one” (Skt. eka) but Iran. *aiwa-
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1. History1.5 The Aryan dialects
Vedic:• literary language of the vedic tradition• the oldest document:
→ the Rig Veda
→ goes back to around 1000 BC
→ a collection of hymns composed in the western regions of India
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1. History1.5 The Aryan dialects• Early and Later Vedic
→ Early Vedic: based on a western dialect→ Later Vedic: more features deriving from
central dialects
• theory fails: → Some texts classed as later vedic are in
fact very ancient→ Central dialect features are also present in
the Rig Veda
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1. History 1.5 The Aryan dialects
Sanskrit• Language of the classical literature of India• Heavily formalized and standardized
(saṁskr̥ta “perfected”)• Classical Sanskrit: language coded by the
grammarian Pāṇini• Basis of Sanskrit: a dialect of the central region of
India (Madhyadeśa)• Sanskrit shares many features with Later Vedic
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1. History 1.5 The Aryan dialects
Differences between Sanskrit and Vedic:
• Vedic preserves very ancient IE features:injunctive, subjunctive, some verb endings, the
infinitive expressed with a noun of action declined according to its syntactic function
• Vedic exhibits a series of innovations:a) The -a- stem nominative plural –āsas (Sanskrit has -ās < *-ōs)b) the -a- stem instrumental plural –ebhis (Sanskrit has -ais < *-ōjs)c) the first person plural active ending –masi (Sanskrit has -mas < *-me/os)
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1. History 1.5 The Aryan dialects
The Prākrits• Belong to the Middle Indian tradition
(300 BC to AD 200)• Do not derive from Sanskrit but from a parallel
tradition going back to Vedic period• Some innovative features are shared by Vedic and the
Prākrits but not by Sanskrit
→ The -a- stem nominative plural -āsas
→ dative plural -ebhis
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1. History 1.5 The Aryan dialects
• The Prākrits do not go back directly to the dialect which formed Vedic, but rather to a parallel tradition (Vedic Prākrits)
• The most important of the ancient Prākrits: Pāli
→ language of the canon of the Buddhist faith
• The modern Aryan dialects of India go back to the spoken dialects on which the Prākrits were based
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2. Phonology of Sanskrit
● 1860 – discovery of rules for sound changes
E. g. the assumption of analogy (cf. Beekes, 2011: 17) as
Sanskrit a becomes e in Greek
1. Skt. jánas Gr. génos (gender, race)
2. Skt. saptá Gr. heptá (seven)
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2. PhonologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit● PIE vowels e, o, a > Skt. a
some examples
PIE Sanskrit Latin
*esti asti est
*poti- pati- potis (lord)
*akso- aksa axis (axle)
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2. PhonologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit● PIE diphthongs *ej, *oj, *aj > *aj
*ew, *ow, *aw > *aw
→ Sanskrit monophthongs e and o
some examples
PIE Sanskrit Greek/Old Lat.
*ejti eti Gk eîsi (goes)
*wojda veda Gk (w)oîda (I know)
*lowko- loka OLat. loukom (free space)
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2. PhonologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit● long diphthongs shortened 1st element in PIE
and then became in Sanskrit ai and
*naws > naus (ship) ● schwa → i: *pəter > pitar (father)
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2. PhonologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit● PIE vowel triangle with symmetric long and
short sounds
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2. PhonologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit
→ length phonologically not relevant, morphophonological variants of the bi-phonemic clusters ai and au (PIE)
development maybe from the three laryngeals *h
1,
*h2, *h
3
Two asymmetrical triangles emerged.
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2. PhonologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit● PIE liquids l and r merge to Sanskrit r
Example with r:
*mrt- > Skt mrtyu- (mors, death)
● PIE nasals m and n become Skt a
Example with m:
*septm > Skt sapta (seven)
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2. PhonologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit● Velars belong to the most important changes.
Pure (*k, *g, *gh) and labiovelars (*kw, *gw, *gwh) before *i and *e > a became c, j, h and stayed in other environments pure k, g, gh.
● Palatals *k, *g, *gh > s, j, h● Example for velars: *kwid > cit (Lat. quid),
*kwe > ca (Lat. -que) and *kwos > kas (Lat. quod)
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2. PhonologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit
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2. PhonologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit● Accentuation is only known in Vedic Sanskrit
due to representation via diacritics in Vedic texts.
● Probably the pronunciation of present-day Sanskrit (accent on penultimate segment as in Latin) goes back to the classical age (Wackernagel 1896).
● Regarding pronunciation: some tendencies like the change of word-endings depending on the beginning of the following word.
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.1 Gender
• Three grammatical genders
→ masculine, feminine and neuter
→ is the result of an innovation
• The contrast between masculine and feminine has been generalized
→ all nouns in -a- (<*-o-): masculine
→ all nouns in -ā- (<*-ā-): feminine
• the distinction between masculine and neuter is often only expressed by the case endings
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.2 Case endings
Stems
• Vowel stems:
→ the short a thematic type:
→ ā and ī feminine stems
→ stems in i and u:
•
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.2 Case endings
• Nominal stems in -a- (devas “god”)
•
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.2 Case endings
Nominal stems in -a-
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.2 Case endings
Consonant stems
• stems with: an-, ar-, ant-, vas- and as-
• Nominal stems in -n-: rājan- “king”
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.2 Case endings
The dual
example: somone‘s two eyes → Skt. akṣī
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.2 Case endings
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.3 Adjectives• The adjectives follow the noun flection
→ when the masculine is in -a (<*-o-), the feminine shows -ā- (pāpas/pāpā “bad”)
→ otherwise the feminine is formed with the suffix -ī- (uru/urvī “broad”)
• Extremely archaic are the several instances of suffixal suppletion where the masculine in -van contrast with the feminine in -varī (pīvan-/pīvarī “fat”)
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.3 Adjectives
• The comparative:→ suffix -iyas- added to the full grade root (<*-ios-): dūras “far” > davīyas-→ suffix: -tara- (< *-tero-) added to the adjectival
stem: dūra-taras “further”
• The superlative:→ suffixes: -isṭḥa (< *-istos-) and -tama (< *-tomo)→ In Proto-Indo-European the two types were
functional distinct: *-tero- und *-tomo- indicate a separative-spatial value, *-ios- und *-istos- a qualitative-dimensional value
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.4 Pronouns
Exhibit the following PIE characteristics• Frequent suppletion of the stem
→ aham “I”, acc. mām• In some cases, a special set of endings, different from those
of the nouns → n.nom.sing. ta-t “that” beside yuga-m
• Infixed elements →acc. ta-m “that”, abl. ta-sm-āt beside deva-m, devā-
t• Scope for expansion by using particles; some of these are
reanalyzed as inseparable parts of the pronoun → n.nom.-acc.sg. id-am
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.4 Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns:• m. ayam, f. iyam, n. idam „this“
→ PIE: *h1e, f. *(h1)ih2, n. *(h1)id
• m. asau, f. asau, n. adam „that“
Relative pronouns• m. yas, f. yā, n. yat
→ PIE: *yos-, *yā -, *yod
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.4 Pronouns
Anaphoric pronoun:• sa, sā, tat
→ also used as a personal pronoun→ usually in the third person
• forms: → Sg.: nominative: sa, sā, tat / accusative: m.
tam, f. tām / genitive: m. tasya→ Pl.: nominative: m. te / instrumental: m.
tais, genitive: f. tāsām / locative: m. tesu→ PIE: *so, f. *seh2, n. *tod
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.4 Pronouns
Interrogative pronoun:• formed from the PIE interrogative-
indefinite stem *kwo-/*kwe-, *kwi-• m. kas, f. kā, n. kim (kat)
→ ka comes from *kwo-• *kwe-, *kwi- survive only in cana- and cit-
→ when added to the interrogative, it forms the indefinite
→ kas “who” > kas cit “someone”
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.4 Pronouns
Personal pronouns:
• aham “I” (acc. mam, instr. mayā) < *eĝ(h)om
• tvam “you” (acc. tvām, instr. tvayā) < *tw-om
• vayam “we” (acc. asmān, instr. asmabhis)
• yuyam “you” (pl) (acc. yuṣmān, instr. yuṣmabhis)
• for the third person sa is used
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.5 Numerals
Cardinal numerals:• from one to four: declined
for all three genders→ m. trayas, f. tiṣras,
n. trīṇi “three”• from five to ten:
declinable, but without distinction of gender
→ pañca, instrumental: pañca-bhis “five”
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.5 Numerals• from eleven to nineteen:
form of copulative compounds
→ ekadaśa “eleven” > lit. “one-ten
• The reconstruction of the PIE forms is not possible
”
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.5 Numerals
Ordinal numerals:• formed with the suffix –ma• or the suffix –tama
→ pañcaśat “fifty” > pañcaśattamas “fiftieth”
• both suffixes are also superlative morphemes
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.5 Numerals
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3.1 Nominal Morphology3.1.6 Development from PIE to Sanskrit
• Still eight cases in Sanskrit
• three genders in Sanskrit
• No articles in PIE and Sanskrit
• No personal pronoun for the third person in both languages, a demonstrative is used
• Still singular, plural and dual in Sanskrit
• Proto-Indo-European nominal derivation is well preserved in Sanskrit
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3.2 Verbal Morphology inClassical and Vedic Sanskrit
● Verb conjugation via processes and states with distinction of present and past tense
Representation of actions
Representation of states
present presentpolymorphism
(present) perfect
past characterized by augment+special set of endings
Imperfect (present stem)/Aorist (independent stem)
pluperfect
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3.2 Verbal Morphology inClassical and Vedic Sanskrit
● 6 athematic and 4 thematic flection present stem classes of the Indian grammarians
(verbs can form more than one present stem)
Example (Engl. 'he bears')● Class 1): bhár-a-ti → full grade, root-accent
thematic vowel *e/o > a/ā betw. stem+ending ● Class 2): bharti → radical (*bherti), athematic
endings added directly to stem● Class 3): bi-bhar-ti → reduplicated
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3.2 Verbal MorphologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit● Ablaut alternation in the stem of athematic
flection:
- *e > a, *ej > e, *ew > o (full grade in sg. active indicative)
- 0, i, u (reduced grade in the other forms)
Example
*es-ti > asti and *s-me/os > smas
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3.2 Verbal Morphology inClassical and Vedic Sanskrit
● The scheme bears features of PIE and other languages which links Sanskrit, Iranian and Greek verbal systems.
● A Difference: Sanskrit imperfect indicates distant past and the aorist recent/immediate past
Augment: particle a- (*e-) as prefix to stem● Vedic and Sanskrit express future tense
grammatically
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3.2 Verbal MorphologyDevelopment from PIE to Sanskrit
Primary and secondary verbal endings
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3.2 Verbal Morphology inClassical and Vedic Sanskrit
● Moods:
1) Indicative: general present
2) subjunctive: action with certain realization
3) optative: action with possible realization
4) special case: injunctive: + preterite + modal values
5) imperative
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3.2 Verbal Morphology inClassical and Vedic Sanskrit
● Numbers: singular, dual, plural● Voices: active, middle, passive
→ passive = innovation, the others from PIE
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3.2 Verbal Morphology inClassical and Vedic Sanskrit
● Present tense (primary endings)● Aorist (root and sigmatic) and imperfect (secondary
endings)● Perfect: reduplication vowel *e > a + set of endings
→ The features are from PIE
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4. Quellen
● Beekes, Robert S. P. (2011): Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. An Introduction. Second Edition. Amsterdam/Philadelphia. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
● Giacalone Ramat, Anna/Ramat, Paolo (1998): The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. London/New York.
● Jamison, S. W. (2008), Sanskrit. In Roger Woodard The Ancient Languages of Asia and Americas. Cambridge.
● http://www.google.de/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.languagesgulper.com%2Feng%2FIndoaryanmap_files%2FModer%252520Indo-Aryan%252520final.jpg&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.languagesgulper.com%2Feng%2FIndoaryanmap.html&h=847&w=707&tbnid=rC3aHxWRTEku6M%3A&zoom=1&docid=M-uEQZVoERIy0M&ei=HaeFVPvnFMu6ygPY_oHgDg&tbm=isch&iact=rc&uact=3&dur=645&page=1&start=0&ndsp=19&ved=0CCYQrQMwAQ
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Thank you for your attention.