sankhu final report
DESCRIPTION
Traditional settlement of Sankhu,TRANSCRIPT
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CHAPTER 1
1. BackgroundThis report is prepared as an academic requirement of module, “Urban Network and Services” of
Master’s Degree in Urban Planning. This study report covers 40% course weight and includes
different aspects of urban services in particular case study. Urban development is characterized
by the extent of services. The deficient urban services indicate the poor urban management and
development. This study helps to get familiar with present scenario of urban services of allocated
town, which is Sankhu.
1.1.Introduction
The world is in the trend of urbanization specially the third world is fattest rate among the
developed countries. There is always a concern to provide the basic amenities to the urban
dwellers incorporating the urban poor also. The living standards are intended to be minimum
requirements or thresholds for facilities and services that must be delivered to existing urban
development, or new development and redevelopment to be considered adequate. These
adequacy standards allow the country to determine if an urban level of services is met prior to
approving new urban development in the unincorporated area, and they provide the city a basis
for linking the phasing of growth to the planned provision of a full range of urban services.
Urban services are those additional public services normally provided or needed in urban areas,
including public water supply and distribution systems, sanitary sewerage systems, higher levels
of police and fire protection, solid waste collection, urban storm drainage systems, streets with
curbs and gutters, street lighting, neighborhood facilities such as parks and schools, and urban
transportation facilities such as sidewalks, taxi service and mass transit.
The Urban Network and Services can be categorized specifically into,
- Water and sanitation - Waste management
- Public Transport - Primary health and education
- Electricity and Telephone - Access Road
- Shelter - Employment and job
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- Security - Cultural Heritage etc.
1.2.ObjectivesThe objective of our study is to get acquainted with urban services of Sankhu which was a
renowned kingdom in historical time. Being Trade-hub between South and Tibet, development
of Sankhu was quite memorial and praiseworthy. The town is self-contained and has all urban
services and infrastructures. Specifically, the objectives of our study are,
- To have general overview of traditional settlement of Sankhu and its linkage with different
services and Infrastructures
- To focus on current scenario of solid waste management, sewerage, drainage and water supply.
- Recommend ways associated with Solid Waste Management, Sewerage and Drainage, and
Water Supply
1.3.Scope and LimitationsAn urban service incorporates vast area of urban function easement. This includes, solid waste
management, Sewerage, Drainage, Water Supply, Communication, Transportation, Security,
Open Spaces, Health and Education Facilities etc. The study of this module is limited only on
Solid Waste Management, Drainage & Sewerage and Water Supply of Sankhu core settlement
area.
This report doesn’t cover historical assessment of urban services. We have not conducted
detailed household survey and interviews. All the facts and figures are based on secondary data
sources and site observation. Report has not conducted in-depth quantitative survey on any of the
study field. The report is prepared in limited time of 2 day, so, it may not be able to cover studied
area in holistic approach. The data, facts and figures used in this report needs verification before
referring.
1.4.MethodologyGeneral methods of site observation were implicated after a group of 6 was formed out of 18.
The study area was randomly assigned to each group and among 3 such topics we were
opportune to study over urban services and network of Sankhu. The study process was followed
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by site visits, casual talk with public talk literature and internet study. Frequent discussion over
materials and content after collection was done before compilation.
CHAPTER 2
2. Introduction of Sankhu
The Lichchhavi period (2nd to 9th Century AD) settlement of Sankhu lies on the northeastern
corner of the Kathmandu Valley on the ancient trade route to Tibet. The traditional Newari
settlement still retains its medieval character with narrow streets, public squares with in
dispersed tiered temples and rest houses.
Location: It is 18 Km north east of Kathmandu district toward the ancient trade route to
Tibet. Sankhu comprises of 3 VDC (Suntole, Pukulachhi and Bajrayogini
VDCs). There are total 8 toles in core Sankhu settlement.
Pukulachi VDCDolnhaPukhulachhi Suntole VDC Bajrayogini VDCImla Suntole SalkhaIpa Dhungahiti Chalakhu
Geographic Location: Longitude : 85º 27’ 46’’Latitude : 27º 43’ 40’’
Altitude : 1412mArea : 278ropanies (14 Hectors)Settlement Type : Newari Settlement with very few non-newarsBoundary : Sindhupalchowk district on east, Bhaktapur on south and
Kathmandu on North and west.
2.1.Historical Background
Sankhu is a Lichhavi settlement which date back to Kaligat Samvat 1801, around 1300 B.C and
if it is true, then the city is 3300 years old which is older than ancient city of Rome, though there
is no strong evidence to prove this. The city is believed to be settled during reign of Sankher dev,
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who is Lichhavi ruler, but history shows that there are 3 kings holding similar name. According
to Manisail Mahavaadan, Vaastu Sastri and city designer Jogdev Bajracharya designed the city in
the shape of Conch Shell, which is called Sakhna in Nepali, accordingly the name is derived as
Sankhu.
The name Sankhu is also believed to be derived from original linguistic, SAKWE/SAKO: SA
means Tibet and KWE means Down, that is a town which lay downhill of Tibet. Another saying
is that, SAKVA means crow and Sankhu is derived from being crow city. The city of Sankhu is
also known as Sakharapur which means kingdom of king Sankher dev. Buddhist Newar call
Sakhu as Gu Baha, which means 9 bihara of hills.
As the town is in traditional setting, its urban services are also traditional in nature. People have
been recently upgrading sanitation to private toilets. The traditional setting has been slowly
ingested by modern lifestyle and setting.
2.2.Demographic Overview of Sankhu
Caste No. of HH % of HH Claimed Hindu HH Claimed Buddhist HH
Shrestha (Trader) 442 56% 442 0
Jyapu (Farmer) 77 9.8% 75 0
Nay (Butcher) 48 6.1 48 0
Bajracharya (Priest) 37 4.7 0 37
Malla (Mixed Descents)
28 3.5 28 0
Saymi: (Oil presser) 25 3.2 0 25
Jogi/Kapali 19 2.4 19 0
Joshi 18 0.5 18 0
Others 95 13.8 89 6
789 100 % 721 68
(Source: Sankhu Heritage Conservation Society)
CBS data of 1991 and 2001 is shown in table below
1991 2001 Growth Rate
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S.No Name of VDC Total Male Female Total Male Female 1991-01
1. Pukhulachhi 2760 1374 1386 2,746 1,344 1,402 -0.5%
2. Suntole 3980 1959 2021 4,417 2,161 2,256 10.9%
3. Bajrayogini 3798 1935 1863 3,880 1,950 1,930 2.5%
Total 10,538 11,043 4.8%
The latest CBS data of 2011 shows population distribution of Sankhu as,
VDCHousehold Total Population Male Female
Bajrayogini (Sankhu) 928 4,333 2,086 2,247Pukhulachhi 596 2,676 1,298 1,378Suntol 1,021 4,819 2,351 2,468Total 2545 11,828 5,735 6,093
The data shown represents population data of 2 VDC of Sankhu but the town of Sankhu is small
and probably covers 60% of total population. Population trend sows that there has been
significant increase from 1991 to 2001 but has not been notably increased from 2001 to 2011 and
that might be due to migration. Migration could have been occurred due to poor inhabitation and
management of town seeking better facilities outward.
2.3.General overview of Town
Town is always associated with variety of inhabitant and their different dynamics dictated the
arrangement and setting of town. Traditional towns have been rich in urban services and so is
Sankhu. The socio-economics, culture and religion, education and awareness level of dweller
depicts the strength of settlement. It is not necessary to go through detailed study of every
aspects, we have listed few facts that has direct impact on urban services and infrastructures
The educational condition of Sankhu VDC is satisfactory for primary level and not much
satisfactory for higher education even though the village is much closer to Kathmandu City.
Literacy rate is 58.7% and there are altogether 17 schools. Health Post located in the Village for
emergency and a hospital named SKM Hospital with 15 beds. Little health pharmacy is also
serving people of Sankhu. Occupation is another fact affecting urban services which is
represented in a pie-chart below.
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We are
basically focused into sanitary and water supply aspect of urban services which are discussed in
up-coming section in detail.
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Fig: Water Spout at Bajrayogini
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CHAPTER 3
3. Urban Network and Services in Sankhu
3.1.Water SupplyWater is an important resource for human
beings, animals and plants without which
life cannot be imagined on earth. Water
supply is the provision of water by public
utilities, commercial organizations,
community endeavors or by individuals,
usually via a system of pumps and pipes.
Water supply is used for various purposes.
Drinking water being the most important
use of water, water is generally used for domestic and household purposes, industrial and
technological requirements, aesthetic/luxurious requirements like parks, greenery etc and also for
calamities like fire hazards.
Basic elements of water supply system may contain one or more of the following units/systems.
Intake structures Pumping stations Treatment systems Pipelines, distribution pipeline network Reservoirs Distribution network
Water Supply system can be classified based on the following
1. By type of consumer: domestic, agricultural, industrial and technological etc
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2. By type of object: rural, urban, semi-urban, industrial estate etc
3. By type of the source: surface water, groundwater, rainwater etc
4. By type of the delivery-system: gravity-flow, pressure pumping, mixed etc.
For the water supply, water quality should also be considered. Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations, including groundwater (aquifers), surface water (lakes and rivers), etc. The water should be purified, disinfected and sometimes fluoridated. Drinking water should be mostly considered during quality control of water.
3.1.1. Water Supply in SankhuIn case of Sankhu, there is sufficient water source for the town but not sufficient home supply. Sankhu is a town where every household had water flowing canal in the past. The water flowed through RajKulo. Few years back, the canal was in good working condition, but due to road construction, channel is broken in several places. Water from Rajkulo, was not potable but used in every household. A dam was built at the bottom of Lapsifedi village to lead river from Sali nadi river in the water channel. The branch of the water channel enters the town from the North East part and is divided into two branches: one to Dhunla tole (west) and another to Salkha tole (east). This water channels all the ponds inside the town and reaches almost every street touching maximum houses and finally this rankle is used for irrigation of rice fields in the western and southern part of the town.
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=Hitiis
Water from Channel
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The main sources of water supply in Sankhu are community taps and hitis/stone spouts found in
different chowks and wells as well. There are 7 traditional hitis in Sankhu. Natural underground
water and the water from the channel flow from the hitis and are functioning very well. We can
also find community taps in different places but most of them are not in use and no water flows
from them. There are around 6 community wells in the town which are still functioning. There
are total 7 ponds in Sankhu. But they are not maintained properly and are in very bad condition.
More than 400 houses have community managed water supply. Water supply is done by 200 mm
dia. cast iron pipe. The water from hiti and well are not ensured potable but water from piped
supply is treated in source through sand filtration.
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3.1.2. Brief Description of Sankhu community water supply:Around 400 houses have piped water supply from community water supply project managed by
3 VDC’s of Sankhu along with Lapsifedi VDC under the ownership of Kathmandu Uptyeka
Khanepani Limited. The management is done by local community and operation and
maintenance part is looked after KUKL. The water supply project supplies water daily for 2-3
hours to Sankhu Bazzar. The water source is ground aquifer whose discharge rate is
approximately 2 ltr/sec in dry season and increases in monsoon. The water from aquifer is
collected in a tank of capacity around 50000 ltr and through that tank water goes to filtration
chamber which is a large tank filled with fine sand particle in upper layer and gravel in lower
layer. A storage tank of capacity 100000 ltr is adjacent to filtration chamber through which water
is discharged to town intermittently. The water from the source is clean but not ensured bacterial
free.
There are several community tap which serves urban houses to meet water demand. Water from
such community tap are free but facility of private connection is also available which requires
monthly charge of Rs 200. Among 789 household of Sankhu, private connection has not reached
more than 50%. Due to slope condition and pressure, houses which are located comparatively in
higher land are deprived from water connection and they are forced to depend on insecure water
from wells and hitis. Basically, southern part of Suntole VDC and Buspark area has not been
able to taste fresh water from Lapsifedi.
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This section shows different units of water treatment plant in Lapsifedhi which has became spine of water supply in Sankhu area. Though during our field visit,
we were unable to trace the use of chemical for water treatment,
the water from aquifer seems pure and potable. The filtration chamber is kept to segregate suspended particles from water.The catchment area lies in well preserved forest and far from urban encroachment but doubt can be made whether it can fulfill water demand of increasing settlement of Sankhu and the fact to be remembered is that, Sankhu has been recently declared as Sankharapur Municipaity.
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Fig. Stone spout
Fig. Recharge Pond
Fig: Water from natural Spring
Fig: Water from natural Spring
Fig: Filtration Chamber
Fig: Storage Chamber
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3.2.Sewerage and Drainage:Sewerage refers to the infrastructure that conveys sewage. It encompasses components such as
receiving drains, manholes, pumping stations, storm overflows, and screening chambers of the
sanitary sewer. Sewerage ends at the entry to a sewage treatment plant or at the point of
discharge into the environment. There are mainly three types of sewer system:
1. Sanitary:
- domestic
- industrial
- infiltration/ inflow
2. Storm sewer system
3. Combined sewer system
Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from an area. Many
agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies.
3.2.1. Sewerage in Sankhu:At past toilets were absent with agricultural fields
(community toilets for woman) being used instead. But
now almost all the households have their own toilets. Like
wise the sewer system is available in almost the entire
household. There is no septic tank in individual house.
The waste are however disposed directly into community
septic tank though sewer line. From septic tank, sewage
goes to agro-field as fertilizer. Community septic tanks
were constructed recently about 6-7 years ago. There are
altogether 3 community septic tank, two in Suntole and
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one in Pukulachi. There is no sewerage treatment system in septic tanks of Suntole. Sewerage
treatment system is out of order in Pukulachi.
The septic tanks are located in lower slopes with compare to main settlement area for easy
collection of sewages. Septic tank in Suntole is located towards South- east and Septic tank in
Pukhulachi is located towards North-west. Lack of proper light and ventilation can be seen in the
toilets as they are made unplanned around and inside the old houses. The grey water from
sewages collected in community septic tank is then taken to agricultural field through open drain
system as shown in figure above. This further helps in irrigation as acts as a fertilizer.
There are two public toilets in Mahadev dhoka
and Buspark area. These toilets are mostly used
by the visitors during festive times and jatras.
The wastes from both the toilets go to two
separate community septic tanks. Sewerage line
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Fig: Community Septic tank in Suntole Fig: Community Septic tank in Pukhulachi
Fig: Public toilet in Mahadev Dhoka dhoka
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of Buspark’s toilet is connected to Suntole’s septic tank whereas Mahadev dhoka’s to
Pukhulachi’s septic tank.
3.2.2. Drainage in Sankhu:Sankhu is one of the oldest traditional settlements where we can find the covered drainage line
provided connecting every house. It was provided from the very old time and is a very good
example for old towns like this. They used stones to cover the drain present at just infront of
their houses, supporting the plinth. At present due to negligence of people they are clogged and
are not functioning properly in many places and are even left open. Whereas, in some places the
stones has been replaced by concrete slabs for the drainage cover. As like sewerage lines, it also
finally goes to agriculture land.
The drains are left open in most of the places during normal days whereas during festive times
the whole chamber of drain system is
maintained, running all over the towns and
finally to the agriculture land.
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Fig: Drainage covered by Stone stones. Fig: Drainage covered by concrete slabs.
Fig: Wastes dumped Elsewhere
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The overall sanitary condition of Sankhu, which may be better from majority of rural setting in
Nepal, is found unsatisfactory during our site visit. The scattered wastes and improper drainage
has created mess in town. The photographs aside is enough to reflect sanitary condition of
Sankhu.
The map below is of Sankhu showing drainage and sewerage lines.
The dark blue one indicates drain line and the dotted pink indicates
sewerage line. From this map we can see that the drain line and
sewerage line runs parallel.
3.3.Solid WasteSolid wastes are substances regarded
useless, worthless and unwanted that are
disposed off or intended to be disposed,
usually solid in nature that include paper,
plastic, food wastes, garden trimmings, cans
,bottles, cardboard, tins ,exhausted batteries,
used electronic goods, old furniture and
even wastes from nuclear power reactors.
If treated properly solid wastes contribute
towards energy efficiency and if not treated
properly cause serious problem to environment ecology and
urban aesthetics. So in solid waste management we are dealing
with real urban problem with intrinsic potentiality to be converted
into a real opportunity.
“Waste is merely raw material in the wrong place.”
-Fedrick A. Talbot, 1920
Actually solid waste is a ‘relative term’ because waste to one may be important to other. for e.g.
Newspaper read may be a waste for one but useful for the other who hasn’t read it.
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Fig: Filth beneath a Residence in Sankhu
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3.3.1. Sources of solid wasteThe main sources of solid waste are:
Residential areas
Commercial areas
Industries
Institutions
Treatment plant sites
Wastes from construction and demolition
3.3.2. Need of solid waste managementSolid wastes are as important as they create a unhealthy environment and lives of human, plants
and other animals are victimized. They act as a home for flies, mosquitoes, insects,
microorganisms and other vectors which are responsible for different communicable diseases in
the environment. So there's a proper need of management of solid wastes so as to have a least
impact in the health of humans including other plants and animals. Needless to say, the
degradation of different biotic and biotic components of environment is pollution. We all know
‘just thrown away’ solid waste cause pollution. So, solid wastes are major pollutants that degrade
the air we breathe, water we drink and smell we take. Solid wastes cause the malfunctioning of
the ecosystem leading to the extinction of different species of plants and animals. Presence of
solid waste In the ecosystem Contaminates air, water And land that directly Or indirectly affect
the plants and animals
3.3.3. Solid Waste Management in Sankhu Sankhu is a small traditional settlement town rich in cultural heritages and monuments, not
densely populated and people activities are mostly related to agriculture.
The total number of households in Saankhu City is about 789 with an average of 6 persons per
family. The results of the household survey indicate that 63% of people are between 21-60 years.
The literacy rate is 85% and the land ownership rate is about 95%. The unemployment rate is
only 5% and many people are involved in agricultural products. The solid waste generation in the
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household is about 1 kg per day. In Sankhu, only 30% households have the access to SWM
services of the city. Others usually dump their waste into the nearby canal, low-lying areas and
open lands. The main problems associated with SWM are, lack of waste collection system,
proper disposal mechanism, public awareness, sufficient budget allocation, no waste separation
and recycling programs and public, private and community partnership.
Till few years past, the system of waste management in Sankhu was Traditional waste
management locally managed, that is one of the best examples of management of solid waste
with concept of reduce, reuse and recycle which functions for long time.
Organic wastes constituted the major part of the produced waste and are composted in
household composts -Saagas, and the rest that included non biodegradable waste those were
burnt, reused and recycled.
But these traditional practices could not continue due to the increasing population densities in
urban areas. Increase in population density has lead to the increase in the volume of waste. This
has created a massive threat to public health due to the lack of proper solid waste
management.The volume of non biodegradable waste is increasing.
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Fig: Saga, Traditional method of composting
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With the same pace, the pollution on different physical aspects like land, water, air and cultural
sites is increasing with the corresponding decrease in their quality and functional use. The shift
of people’s activities from agricultural to service oriented and commercials and urbanization in
the area have caused the rapid emergence of the non bio-degradable waste that have to be reused,
recycled or sanitarily dumped. But, no such collection, separation, transportation, processing and
safe dumping of the solid wastes were found in Sankhu area. However, some grocery and
vegetables shops were found to collect organic waste in polythene sacks for disposal on their
respective fields for the value of manure.
CHAPTER 4
4. Conclusion and Recommendation
4.1.Effect of EconomicsUrbanization is the ongoing process; the trend of urbanization is the converting of agro – based
economy into non-agro based economy, which leads change in both economic and the socio-
cultural spheres. This is reflected by the development of the network society and the network
economy, which are in part the result of such factors as ongoing internationalization and the
specialization occurring in many economic sectors, as well as the ongoing expansion of scale in
many towns and cities further tothe process of sub urbanization seen in the past.
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Fig : Inorganic waste thrown at road side Fig: Inorganic waste dumped at backyard
Fig. Saptic Tank
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Technological progress has forested the conception of urban society, i.e. the people of Sankhu
are still following their traditional lifestyle at the same time they are trying to adopt modern
lifestyle but not in managed. While adopting the modernization, they haven’t utilized all the
services lacking far behind without proper drinking water, sanitation, sewerage, transportation,
social security etc. Rather they are losing their rich and boastful tradition, cultural values.
The impact of change of economic behavioral in urban services in Sankhu can be described as:
4.1.1. Drinking water:People of Sankhu are still depending upon the traditional well and some functioning Hities, the new change is that instead of old Rajkulos and water channels they have distributed drinking water on community based through GI pipe lines. The upper class of the community has private home connection and they pay Rs. 200 per month and has shortened the fetching distance and time.
4.1.2. Sewerage and Sanitation:
The economic and sanitation is directly
proportionate. With rise is economic condition the
hygiene and sanitation is improved and vice versa.
The past open defecating society has constructed
their private toilet and one public toilet this is of
course change in the economic standard of people.
The collection of sludge on pit and using in farm
has changed into collecting those in septic tank at
three places and water to farm has increased the
hygiene. The sewerage channel in front of houses are still functioning and although this seems
useless to this age society as they have piped water supply system for washing and cleaning
purpose so in most of places the stone are taken away. As described in earlier section, the
sanitary condition of Sankhu is not satisfactory. The malfunctioning of traditional excellent
drainage lines has not only created filth inside town when mixed up with solid wastes, but also
has fore signed threat of epidemic.
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Fig. Detoritation of Traditional Drainage
Fig. Unmanaged Waste Fig. Neglected Sewer Pipes
Fig. GI piped community tap
Fig. Transform of Solid waste from organic to inorganic
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4.1.3. Solid waste:The byproduct of previous agro based society and
present scenario has changed. The past society’s
waste was agro-organic and they were unaware of
plastics and papers. The household wastes were
collected in ‘Saga’ where as all agro wastes were
either feed to domestic animals or were composted in
farmland.
With the increase of economy and also the
availability of various plastic based commodities,
people are day-by-day changing their consumption pattern which has ultimately somersaulted the
waste generation behavior. Traditional concept was ‘Peta ko Kheta ma, Kheta ko peta ma’ which
indicates zero waste concept. The solid waste scenario shown in above photographs’ is common
inside the town of Sankhu.
4.2.Conclusion and Recommendation
As Sankhu is a historically important settlement its identity needs to be conserved and
maintained along with providing basic urban services. This case study makes us understand and
analysis to reestablish a new relationship between traditional city and the modern urban
amenities adopting the upgrading technologies with retaining unique identity of Sankhu.
The conclusion and recommendation for urban services in Sankhu are listed as
4.2.1. Sewerage and Drainage:
The water drain line in front of every houses seems neglected and in dilapidated
condition, the covering stones in most of the places have been lost, this may led to
unhygienic to the people in the house.
The water running in the drain are contaminated with different organic and inorganic
particles, these may be polluted while flowing through different places.
There is no separate drain line for rain and grey water, and go directly into farm lands,
this may cause soil pollution.
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The centuries old brick pavements have deteriorated and pot holes so formed has made
must of places muddy
Lack of integrated sewerage system and outfall treatment
Disposal of sewerage into agricultural field or water bodies without primary treatment
cause health hazard
The septic tanks collecting solid waste seems not functioning well, they should be made
technically fit so that residue can be made manure and treated water to field
4.2.2. Drinking Water Supply Whole Sankhu depends upon old Hities and community well for drinking water while
recently pipe line has used by collecting water from nearby river. This water must be
treated and distributed for safety of people.
The functioning Hities, Well aren’t well maintained, mosses, grasses are growing all
around, that should be cleaned from community level.
From the pipe lined water supply water are wasting continuously due to damaged taps
and negligence of people, this should be maintained and stalled in order to safe water.
The exposed pipe lines and plunging into sewerage water in most of places should be
managed and hide in order to avoid contamination.
4.2.3. Solid Waste Management The change in nature of solid water from Argo based into non agro based like bottles,
plastics seems spread all around the places, this should be managed by placing dust bin in
most of places like Chowks, bus station, schools etc.
Non bio degradable waste should be properly collected and treated with help of people
and VDC by revitalizing the concept of Saga and depositing the waste generated by
categorizing them and disposing separately
The collection and disposal of waste should be made systemic and regular
To make anything possible, without participation of local people, nothing can
be done. So to make above thing happen public awareness and clear finite
rules regulation must be set. By teaching children at school level,
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housewives by means of drama around Chowks can only make possible to
manage waste, cleaning water sources areas. Strict monitoring along with
rewarding and penalties can make people do better for their hygienic urban
living.
References1. Community based solid waste management system of Sankhu Nepal by D.G.J
By- Premakumara, 2013
2. Need for Alternative Approaches in Solid Waste Management
- Case Study Kathmandu Valley, 2004
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply
4. www.wikipedia.org/Sankhu
5. Conservation Studio Report of Sankhu, IOE, 064 Batch
6. VDC Profile of Pukulachi VDC
7. VDC Profile of SUntole VDC
8. http://sakwomi-worldwide.blogspot.com/2008/12/new-municipality-in-sankhu.html
9. Course Manual for Urban Network and Services, by Dinesh C. Devkota
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10. Urban Basic Services in UNICEF: A Historical Overview
- UNICEF History Series Monograph XIV
11. Urban Containment Principles; Services Growth Boundaries and Zoning
- By Susie Gabrielson, Geff Yorg And Richard Keith
Contents
CHAPTER 1..................................................................................................................................................1
1. Background............................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................1
- Water and sanitation - Waste management..........................................................................................1
- Public Transport - Primary health and education..............................................................................1
- Electricity and Telephone - Access Road............................................................................................1
- Shelter - Employment and job...........................................................................................................1
- Security - Cultural Heritage etc........................................................................................................1
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1.2. Objectives......................................................................................................................................2
1.3. Scope and Limitations....................................................................................................................2
1.4. Methodology..................................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 2..................................................................................................................................................3
2. Introduction of Sankhu..........................................................................................................................3
2.1. Historical Background...................................................................................................................3
2.2. Demographic Overview of Sankhu................................................................................................4
2.3. General overview of Town............................................................................................................5
CHAPTER 3..................................................................................................................................................7
3. Urban Network and Services in Sankhu................................................................................................7
3.1. Water Supply.................................................................................................................................7
3.1.1. Water Supply in Sankhu............................................................................................................8
3.1.2. Brief Description of Sankhu community water supply:............................................................9
3.2. Sewerage and Drainage:..............................................................................................................12
3.2.1. Sewerage in Sankhu:............................................................................................................12
3.2.2. Drainage in Sankhu:.............................................................................................................14
3.3. Solid Waste..................................................................................................................................16
3.3.1. Sources of solid waste..........................................................................................................16
3.3.2. Need of solid waste management........................................................................................16
3.3.3. Solid Waste Management in Sankhu...................................................................................17
CHAPTER 4................................................................................................................................................19
4. Conclusion and Recommendation.......................................................................................................19
4.1. Effect of Economics.....................................................................................................................19
4.1.1. Drinking water:....................................................................................................................19
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4.1.2. Sewerage and Sanitation:.....................................................................................................20
4.1.3. Solid waste:..........................................................................................................................20
4.2. Conclusion and Recommendation...............................................................................................21
4.2.1. Sewerage and Drainage:......................................................................................................21
4.2.2. Drinking Water Supply........................................................................................................21
4.2.3. Solid Waste Management....................................................................................................22
References……………………………………………………………………………… 23
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