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Project Time Management

PMP® Exam Preparation Guide

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PMP® Exam Preparation Guide Based on PMBOK® Guide

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Project Time Management

Lesson 7

7.1 Introduction 7.2 Importance of Project Time Management 7.3 Processes of Project Time Management 7.4 Define Activity [PMBOK® Guide, Section 6.1] 7.5 Sequence Activity [PMBOK® Guide, Section 6.2] 7.6 Estimate Activity Resources [PMBOK® Guide Section 6.3]

Module4: Project Time Management 7.1 Introduction:

Perhaps, the most important resource needed by us, in a Project, is time. Unfortunately, this is perhaps the only resource which continues to slip out of our hands leaving us wondering what more we could do to manage it. For decades, right since the concept of project management was introduced, project management meant no more than time management ("scheduling", to be precise). Many of us still tend to think that, by managing time alone, we have managed our project. But, have we? We just need to recall the concept of “triple constraints” to remove this wishful thinking from our minds. Scope and Costs do not let us loose in any way, nor do considerations for quality, risks or customer satisfaction! Sooner we get out of the "scheduling box" the better for us!

What is time, by the way? Deepak Chopra says, "People who feel that they are 'running out of time' have speeded up their biological clocks. They have faster heart rates and jittery platelets with high levels of adrenaline. When they drop dead from a premature heart attack, they have literally 'run out of time.'"

"Time is nature's way of keeping everything from happening at once". This quote, attributed variously to Einstein, John Archibald Wheeler, and Woody Allen, says that time is what separates cause and effect. Einstein showed that people traveling at different speeds, whilst agreeing on cause and effect, will measure different time separations between events and can even observe different chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Even in the presence of timepieces, different individuals may judge an identical length of time to be passing at different rates. Commonly, this is referred to as time seeming to "fly" (a period of time seeming to pass faster than possible) or time seeming to "drag" (a period of time seeming to pass slower than possible). The psychologist H

Who owns time? Refer to thinkbox-7.1 to get a perspective of your own. Can we do anything to change the rotation of earth or its revolution? What about the movements of the sun or the moon; the moments that pass by or do not seem to arrive? We cannot do anything simply because we don’t own any of them. Therefore, “managing time” is a definite misnomer, and earlier we get out of this misconception the better for our own selves! Since we can’t manage time, we need to manage ourselves against inevitable passage of time. 7.2 Importance of project time management: Widely referred Chaos report from Standish group found the following conflict sources of conflict intensity, during various phases of projects, in descending order:

Jean PiagetH called this form of time perception "lived time."

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Module4: Project Time Management

Table 7.1: Sources of conflict in a Project, in descending order of importance

Project Initiation Early phases Middle phases End phases

1. Priorities 2. Procedures 3. Schedules 4. Manpower 5. Cost 6. Technical opinions 7. Personality conflicts

1. Priorities 2. Schedules 3. Procedures 4. Technical opinions 5. Manpower 6. Personality conflicts 7. Cost

1. Schedules 2. Technical opinions 3. Manpower 4. Priorities 5. Procedures 6. Cost 7. Personality conflicts

1. Schedules 2. Manpower 3. Personality conflicts 4. Priorities 5. Cost 6. Technical opinions 7. Procedures

[Source: Chaos Report of Standish Group, 2003]

It is amply clear from table-7.1 that schedule issues are top sources of conflicts on projects and unless we take utmost care of time management, we may be leading the project towards failure. It is amply clear from table-7.1 that schedule issues are top sources of conflicts on projects and unless we take utmost care of time management, we may be leading the project towards failure. 7.3. Processes of Project Time Management: PMBOK® Guide (chapter-6) lists the following processes mastering of which could get us closer to managing ourselves against the time (which is destined to fly by) – refer to table 7.2 also: 7.3.1 Define Activities (PMBOK® Guide, section 6.1): Once we have produced a WBS and WBS dictionary, we have enough information to define all the activities of the project in hand, starting from the deliverables of the WBS [in some small projects, we may consider the same deliverables as activities whereas in larger projects, deliverables are decomposed further to facilitate more accurate estimation of duration and resources required]. This results in a list of activities that must be undertaken to execute the project. 7.3.2. Sequence Activities (PMBOK® Guide, section 6.2): Once we have the list of activities developed in the previous process, we need to know the sequence in which they need to be executed so that the project progresses in an orderly manner without loss of time anywhere. 7.3.3 Estimate Activity Resources (PMBOK® Guide, section 6.3): Each activity needs resources to complete, and this process takes care of arriving at the resource estimates for all the activities. It is important to know what kind of resources each task will consume and in what quantity. Remember that resources include manpower, equipment, materials. If a resource is not available the task cannot be performed, so it cannot be scheduled unless an alternative is available. Thus when a resource would be available to perform project activities will influence the schedule development. WBS dictionary may help general proper estimates and get updated with more accurate estimates arrived at, here. 7.3.4 Estimate Activity Duration (PMBOK® Guide, section 6.4): This process is undertaken to estimate the time (duration) that will be taken by each of the activity. This may be the last information before a preliminary level schedule can be developed. Activity scope, required


Module4: Project Time Management resource types, and estimated resource quantities are factors that will affect activity durations. Estimate activity duration will be more accurate as the project activities get progressively elaborated. 7.3.5 Develop Schedule (PMBOK® Guide, section 6.5): Once the estimates of resources and duration are known for each activity, a schedule is developed which becomes the baseline for time. The schedule remains the soul of time management as this was the final goal to be achieved with a view to have a baseline for time against which the progress would be tracked, project monitored and controlled so that time does not slip away. After we have developed network diagram for the project and estimated the duration, we place the information over a calendar, and that is our schedule. The output of this process (schedule) presents a clear picture of when the project would start and when it would finish, thus often prompting stakeholders to seek revision of resource and duration estimates to arrive at an acceptable schedule. 7.3.6 Control Schedule (PMBOK® Guide, section 6.6): Using the baseline developed in the previous process, we monitor and control the sequence in which each activity is undertaken, resources they consume and the time each of them take. Your main goal in schedule control should be to know the status of schedule regularly, influence factors that cause schedule changes (proactive effort is the hallmark of a successful PM), determine that the schedule has changed, and manage changes when they occur. Since you have been working in the project management industry for some time, it is expected from you to be aware of the above processes and many of the tools and techniques mentioned against the processes. We normally use different terminologies and the purpose of going through these notes is to acquaint ourselves with the PMBOK® Guide terminologies. Please notice that except for one process (Control Schedule), all other processes in this knowledge area falls under the planning process group. In your professional career, if you have not undertaken planning of a project until now, you would find this chapter interesting enough to plunge yourself into this most important area of project management. Since PMBOK® Guide is nicely written, and should be referred to for explanation of all the ITTOs listed against the six processes of project time management, let us focus here on the areas that need further elaboration, mostly, the Tools and Techniques (TTs). 7.4 Tools and Techniques of Define Activities (PMBOK® Guide section 6.1.2) 7.4.1 Decomposition: In module-3, lesson-6 (PMBOK® Guide Chapter-5), we discussed in detail this TT. The question that may tinker our minds, here, is why do we need to do it twice? Well, if you feel comfortable, and have enough information, you may go ahead with decomposing the scope of project work into activities simultaneously with creation of the WBS. Naturally, we cannot arrive at the level of activity unless we have reached the work package level in the WBS. The purpose of decomposition, here, is to get a list of activities that can define the project's scope of work completely, and no more. Some people do get confused with respect to the extent of decomposition to be undertaken. We go through these processes to make our life easier, is it not? So, we would carry out the decomposition neither more nor less than required. So, a wise PM like you would do this only to a level where resources and duration can be accurately (desired level of accuracy) estimated for the items of work.



Table 7.2: Summary of ITTOs of Project Time Managament

Process PG Input to this process TTs for the process Outputs from this process

Def

ine

Act

iviti

es

Plan

ning

1. Enterprise environmental factors 2. Organizational process assets 3. Scope baseline

1. Decomposition 2. Templates 3. Rolling wave planning 4. Expert judgement

1. Activity list 2. Activity attributes 3. Milestone list

Act

iviti

es

Sequ

ence

Plan

ning

1. Project scope statement 2. Activity list 3. Activity attributes 4. Milestone list 5. Organizational process assets

1. Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) 2. Schedule network templates 3. Dependency determination 4. Applying leads and lags.

1. Project schedule network diagrams 2. Project document updates

Estim

ate

Act

ivity

R

esou

rces

Plan

ning

1. Enterprise environmental factors 2. Organizational processes assets 3. Activity list 4. Activity attributes 5. Resource calendars

1. Expert judgement 2. Alternatives analysis 3. Published estimating data 4. Project management software 5. Bottom-up estimating

1. Activity resource requirements 2. Resource breakdown structure 3. Project document updates

Estim

ate

Act

ivity

D

urat

ions

Plan

ning

1. Enterprise environmental Factors 2. Organizational process assets 3. Project scope statement 4. Activity list 5. Activity attributes 6. Activity resource requirements 7. Resource calendars

1. Expert judgement 2. Analogous estimating 3. Parametric estimating 4. Three-point estimates 5. Reserve analysis

1. Activity duration estimates 2. Project document updates

Dev

elop

Sch

edul

e

Plan

ning

1. Activity duration estimates 2. Project scope statement 3. Activity list 4. Activity attributes 5. Project schedule network diagrams 6. Activity resource requirements 7. Resource calendars 8. Organizational process assets 9. Enterprise environmental Factors

1. Schedule network analysis 2. Critical path method 3. Schedule compression 4. What-if scenario analysis 5. Resource leveling 6. Critical chain method 7. Scheduling tool 8. Adjusting leads and lags

1. Project schedule 2. Schedule data 3. Schedule Baseline 4. Project document updates

Con

trol

Sch

edul

e

Con

trol

ling

1. Project management plan 2. Project schedule 3. Work performance data 4. Organizational process assets

1. Progress Reporting 2. Change Control System 3. Performance measurement 4. Project Management Software 5. Variance Analysis 6. Schedule comparison bar charts 7. Resource leveling 8. What-if scenario analysis 9. Adjusting leads and lags 10. Schedule compression 11. Scheduling tool

1. Work performance measurements 2. Change Requests 3. Organizational processes assets updates 4. Project document updates 5. Project management plan updates


Module4: Project Time Management 7.4.2 Templates: Perhaps the most useful tool that could save us effort and time in arriving at the list of activities is the templates from previous projects. Here lies the importance of archiving project files properly! 7.4.3 Expert judgement: Another important short-cut is the expert judgement, but exercise it with caution! 7.4.4 Rolling Wave Planning: As discussed in the introductory chapters, uniqueness of projects demand that elements of project evolve progressively to reach a stage where we can have a workable plan. Rolling wave planning is a technique in which we decompose those work packages to lower levels (up to the level of activities) that would be performed in the near future and plan at a higher level of WBS those activities that will be performed far in the future. Postponing things is not a characteristic of successful PM, but progressive elaboration means that all of the project may not have evolved to the desired level when we are decomposing the work elements. Activities list (Output): This is the main output from the process of activity definition, other outputs, like the activity attributes and milestones, may be byproducts. Some important points are noted here, so as to develop a proper list:

1. The sum of all activities is the project scope, no more and no less. 2. All activities in the list should have unique identifiers and clear work description for

any member of the project team to understand exactly what work is desired from each activity.

3. There are no overlaps between activities 4. Activities are components of the schedule, not of the WBS.

Even if you consider yourself an expert in activity definition, it is better to go through the inputs and outputs described in the PMBOK® Guide, particularly because we have not discussed them here. Over confidence may be more dangerous than lack of it!

7.5 Tools and Techniques of Sequence Activities (PMBOK® Guide, section 6.2.2): Sequence of activities follows a logic (logical sequence) and are best represented by means of diagrams (called network diagrams), so that their flow is equally understood by all the team members. Sequence results from the need for dependency, i.e., the need for one activity to precede one or more activities. Since every activity has a "Start" event and a "Finish" event the combination of "Start" and "Finish" results in four types of dependencies discussed below. 7.5.1 Dependency Determination (TT): It is important to know if some activities are dependent on others, before we could find the logical sequence in which they could be completed. Following types of dependencies between activities are more common:

Finish-to-Start dependency (FS): the successor task depends upon the completion of the work of the predecessor, i.e., predecessor must finish for successor to start.



Finish-to-Finish dependency (FF): predecessor must finish for successor to finish, i.e., completion of successor's work depends upon completion of work for the predecessor. Start-to-Start dependency (SS): predecessor must start for successor to start, i.e., the initiation of the work of the successor depends upon the initiation of the work of the predecessor. Start-to-Finish dependency (SF): predecessor must start for successor to finish, i.e., the completion of the successor task cannot be considered as complete unless the predecessor task has commenced.

Figure 7.1: Types of dependencies, as seen in Microsoft Project's Bar Chart view

Some dependencies could be such that we cannot manipulate them in any way. Some times we may like to introduce a dependency, because we believe that performing a task (we are making it a successor) after some other task (we are making it a predecessor) may be more convenient for us. Some times, we are constrained by an external demand which may force a certain sequence of tasks. With respect to these considerations, dependencies could be of the following three types:

Mandatory dependency: in this case, the nature of work for two activities, being performed on a project, is such that one of them must follow the other. This dependency is sometimes referred to as hard logic (more common in the IT industry – "logic" comes from the logical relationship between two activities).

Discretionary dependency: this is a case in which the project team introduces a logical relationship which was not mandatory, i.e., the tasks could have been done simultaneously as well. This dependency is sometimes referred to as soft logic (more common in the IT industry). This dependency should be used with care because it may limit our scheduling options, at later stages).

External dependency: This relationship is forced upon a project's activity by a non-project activity. For example, to plant a tree (project activity) it is mandatory that we obtain approval from the local government authority (non-project activity).


Module4: Project Time Management 7.5.2 Network Diagrams (not a TT): Network diagrams constitute of nodes (most commonly represented by numbered circles or squares) and arrows. Since there may be two ways of representing the activities in these diagrams, i.e., activities may be either represented by the nodes or by the arrows, there are two common methods of developing the network diagrams: (1) Activities on Node (AON, also known as Precedence Diagramming Method - PDM) and (2) Activities on Arrow (AOA, or Arrow Diagramming Method - ADM). 7.5.2.1 Network Diagram Templates: 7.5.2.2 Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM - TT): This network diagramming method

is also known as Activity on Node (AON) diagramming method.

B

A

Figure 7.2: Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) [Source: PassPM.com]

Refer to figure 7.2, above, then remember the following characteristics of this method of sequencing (or producing network diagrams):

1. This is the most popular method used manually as well as by software packages. 2. The activities are represented by nodes and relationship between them by arrows. 3. There is no need for dummy activities. 4. All the four types of logical relationships (FS, FF, SS and SF) can be used in this

network diagram.

C

F D

E

End

Start

You may expect some questions based on the characteristics of PDM & ADM. So, before you decide to proceed any further, make sure you would remember the above until the exam day.



7.5.2.3 Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM – not a TT): This network diagramming method

is also known as Activity on Arrow (AOA) method – this method has not been included in PMBOK® Guide, but may still appear in the exam.

A

E

Dum

my

D F

C

End

Start

B

Figure-7.3 Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM) [Source: PassPM.com]

Refer to figure 7.3, above, then remember the following characteristics of this method of sequencing (or producing network diagrams):

1. This method is hardly used nowadays. 2. The activities are represented by arrows and start and finish even of the tasks

are represented by the nodes. 3. Dummy activities may be required to complete the network. 4. Only one type of logical relationship (FS) can be used in this network diagram.

Practice Example-7.1: Draw the PDM network diagram for the following project activities:

Tasks A D B C E F

Predecessor (None) (None) A B, D D E

Solution to Practice Example 7.1:



B

A

Figure 7.2: Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) [Source: PassPM.com]

Practice Example-7.2: Draw the ADM network diagram for the project activities of example-7.1

Tasks A D B C E F

Predecessor (None) (None) A B, D D E


Figure-7.3 Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM) [Source: PassPM.com]

Start

End

B

D

E

C

F

Dum

my

A

C

F D

E

End

Start



Practice Example-7.3: Draw the PDM network diagram for the following project activities:

Tasks A B C D E F G H I J

Predecessor (None) (None) A A A B, C D D, E F G, H


Start

A 5

E 6

D 4

H 6

J 4

G 5

C 3

F 4

I 6

B 4

End

Figure 7.4: Solution to Practice Example 7.3 [Source: PassPM.com]

Practice Example-7.4: Draw the ADM network diagram for the project activities of example-7.3



E

Figure 7.5: Network Diagram Example 7.3 AOA If you have not taken any classes in network diagrams, it is suggested that you go thorough the basic ground rules in any text book on project management. Although, you will not be asked to draw a diagram in the exam, if you have good practice, you will feel confident while answering some questions.

7.5.3 Applying Leads and Lags: Dependencies may not always be absolute, e.g., in a Finish-to-Start dependency relationship, successor may not have to wait for the predecessor to complete fully; on the other had, it may be possible that the successor is constrained by some factor because of which it may not be possible to commence immediately after the completion of its predecessor.

Lead: As per PMBOK® Guide, Lead is "A modification of a logical relationship that allows an acceleration of the successor task. For example, in a finish-to-start dependency with a ten-day lead, the successor activity can start ten days before the predecessor has finished." Lags: As per PMBOK® Guide, Lag is "A modification of a logical relationship that directs a delay in the successor task. For example, in a finish-to-start dependency with a ten-day lag, the successor activity cannot start until ten days after the predecessor has finished."

A

B

D

C

F

5

H

I

J

Start

G

6

6

6

4 4

5

3 End

4 4



Image source: http://office.microsoft.com/training/Training.aspx?AssetID=RP011359221033

Figure 7.6: Lead and Lag

7.6 Tools and Techniques of Estimate Activity Resources (PMBOK® Guide, section 6.3.2): Tools are required to process the inputs like project management plan, list of activities, their attributes, availability of resources required and market conditions, so as to arrive at fairly accurate estimates for all the resources. 7.6.1 Expert Judgment: Expert judgment, like in many other processes, will help in listing out the types of resources required and in assessing their quantities for each activity of the project. In the absence of a database of estimates or software programs, experts always prove to be great saviours! 7.6.2 Alternatives analysis: Some activities may be actually be done by alternative methods, e.g., getting a task done by a more skilled person or a larger capacity machine or by outsourcing – alternative options, if available become very handy, particularly when resource constraints challenge us. 7.6.3 Published Estimating Data: These may be available from commercial databases or from association (chambers) of industries, etc. Some governments may also regularly publish such data. Care should be taken about relevance of the data during the period when resources would be deployed. 7.6.4 Bottom-up Estimating: This involves a first-hand estimating of resources, and may provide the most accurate estimates. We are some times forced to adopt this method, e.g., when not an activity is so complex that it cannot be estimated accurately, unless we decompose the work into further details and aggregate the resource estimates of all the pieces. 7.6.5 Project Management Software: Market is full of project management software that can save a lot of our effort in estimating as well as in planning, organizing and managing the resource pools. You could choose an estimation-specific software, if you wish to save some money, but a package software will be useful in many other processes and end up saving a lot of money.




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