sago cassava book
TRANSCRIPT
RENEWABLE ENERGY SCIENCE SERIES X
CASSAVA FOR FOOD AND ENERGY SECURITY
emerging options
DR. P. RADHAKRISHNA
DIRECTOR
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA MINISTRY OF NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES
Regional Office E1, B-Block, Rajaji Bhawan, Besant Nagar, Chennai
Tele Fax : 044-4918742 / 4462158 E-mail : [email protected]
1
This book is very quick response to examine the ever-growing importance of cassava as an industrial and commercial crop. The socio-economic changes in the societies of various cassava cultivating countries are reexamining their traditional preferences to cassava as food in terms of cost and nutritive value. On average, the decline of cassava as a food crop is a recognized fact and similar trends are more pronounced in India. Inherent problems of cassava as a feed on its own without external nutrients addition has not yet over come and it is expected that the price structure and availability of minor cereals have a major say on this business too. Actual data on cassava utilization in various countries is lacking due to its nature of cultivation, harvesting and the like. It is seen that cassava introduced in countries adopted for industry & export are more successful than others. This phenomenon is clearly visible when cassava performance is evaluated with major player like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu when compared to Kerala. In India a number of factors like crop area, quality, productivity levels, transportation, process technology, efficiencies of plant & machinery, and post processing activities are contributing to the quality of the end products. This is further influenced by power tariff rates, pollution control measures and lack of assured support prices of the products. With this background, many industries fear that the scenario after 2005 seems grim and discouraging. However, a bold step is taken in this short preliminary examination of Cassava in India by proposing to the industry and policy makers to modernize their equipment and to derive maximum captive energy requirements from the crop itself to make the business attractive and remunerative. This helps in streamlining production levels and price structure of sago and starch. Small and marginal farmers can benefit and cassava appears as a kitchen garden crop in its various forms of application. Cassava as food and energy security has a greater relevance in the present context of energy scenario of the country and has a great future not only to the industry concerned by also to the dependent society and the country at large. Views expressed in this book are those of the author and does not purport of the Ministry.
Dr P Radhakrishna Director
05-02-2002
2
World Scenario: -
Cassava (Mainhot esculanta sp or M. Utilissima sp & M.Aipi sp) is
known popularly as Tapioca in world over and in India. This plant belongs to
Euphorbiaceae family with known 160 varieties under cultivation. Various
governments in the world had attached adequate recognition to this crop.
However, for the ever-changing scenario food demand & supply, and
preference to a particular quality of food are demanding reorientation of the
seriousness of R & D activities on crop production and related industrial
activities.
With an annual output of cassava during early 1980's (126 million
Tons), the growth of cassava production is visibly impressive with 22%
registered by the turn of the '90s and further improvement of 14% growth over
the next decade with annual production pegged at 175 million metric tons
during crop year 2000. Sub-Saharan African countries account 50% of the
world's production whereas the productivity levels are stagnant over many
years. Cassava as a food is more prominent in sub-Saharan Africa, with an
estimated 60% of total world cassava production was consumed as food
during 1980's. However, these levels are coming down drastically due to
various issued linked to socio-economic aspects and some countries are
3
registering negative growth rate in cassava as food. The average annual
growth rate in cultivation, production levels always exhibit marked fluctuations.
A number of reasons are attributed to this, but it clearly indicates that cassava
crop required serious attention to examine its strengths as an energy option
also. Table I & II indicates the trends in the world and in Asian countries.
TABLE I
WORLD CASSAVA CULTIVATION, PRODUCTION & PRODUCTIVITY TRENDS
1979-80 1989-90 1999-2000
Sl.No. Country
Area Million
Hectares
Production
Million Tons
Productivity
Tons/ Hectare
Area Million
Hectares
Production
Million Tons
Productivity
Tons/ Hectare
Area Million Hecta
res
Production Million
Tons
Productivity Tons/ Hectare
1 World 13.59 123.97 9.12 15.63 157.65 10.08 106.1 19 10.08
2 Asia 3.78 44.15 11.64 3.96 51.44 12.97 3.8 49.4 14.6
3 Africa 7.05 49.08 6.96 8.93 73.3 8.2 11.09 94 8.42
4
Latin America & Caribbean
2.73 30.58 16.41 2.72 32.71 17.25 2.8 31.9 18.25
4
TABLE II Cassava cultivation, production & productivity trends in important
Asian countries.
Under
cultivatio
n 000 ha+
Productio
ns 000 tons
Productivity Tons/ha+
Sl.No
Country
1978
1988
1998
1978
1988
1998
1978
1988
1998
1.
India
345
270
244
5,921
5,213
5,868
18
19
22
2.
Indonesia
1,413
1,303
7,531
13,500
15,471
14,728
10
12
19
3.
Thailand
1,053
1,547
6,527
15,128
22,307
15,591
14
14
16
4.
China
231
237
230
3,39
3,43
3,60
14
14
15
5
0 5 0
INDIAN SCENARIO: -
This crop is introduced in India during 17th Century in Kerala and was
promoted by the erstwhile rulers of Kerala as a food crop to suit as a source
of carbohydrate. This crop became more popular in Southern States of this
country due to its tolerance to draught, grown on a variety of soils, low levels
of investments on comparison, similarly low levels of known pest and other
forms of damage. It is estimated that about 24 lakhs hectares are being
under this Cassava cultivation, with average production 5.1 million tons. Of
the total area under cultivation in India, 9% is contributed by Andhra Pradesh,
61% by Kerala and 29% by Tamil Nadu and the rest by States like Karnataka,
Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Andaman and Nicobar Islands (UT),
Pondicherry and others. On comparison, except Tamil Nadu (30-35 T/ ha+),
the rest of the Southern States and Union Territories record an average yields
ranging from 10-13 T/ ha+, whereas other states as mentioned above range
from 2T/ ha+ to 6T/ ha+.
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The most attractive aspects of Cassava cultivation basically stems from
the fact that:
i) Per unit land on comparison, Cassava yields higher amounts of
Carbohydrates, with comparatively high photosynthetic
efficiency.
ii) Cost of cultivation is comparatively cheaper.
iii) Less vulnerable to diseases.
iv) Suits for inter cropping with perennials.
v) Short periods of harvesting and immediate processing.
Cassava in Andhra Pradesh (A.P.): Just 40 years back a mere 4
hectares of land under cultivation of this crop, rose to 20,500 hectares with
average per ha+ production stood stagnant at 10-11 Tons. (Total production
2,07,183 tons of tuber as per 95-96 estimation) This crop is more popular in
Northern district of Andhra Pradesh with 95% of the area under cultivation
distributed in East Godavari District alone. Out of 10 districts found to
cultivate this crop, except Visakhapatnam district, the remaining other districts
recorded 10-tons/ ha+ yields on average. In Andhra Pradesh, Cassava is
found also as an inter crop with mango, Coconut and vegetables. It is
estimated that the cost of cultivation per acre stands between Rs.3500-5000
7
depending on additional features like irrigation, pest control and the quality
seed material. Cassava is grown in Andhra Pradesh. basically as a rain fed
crop. Sandy loam soils are generally used for cultivation. All the practices
required for transplanting the seed material will be kept ready by June and
transplantation takes place once rains set in. It is observed that inorganic
fertilizers are used in sufficient levels to support the crop. To suit the crushing
season ending by middle of March, the harvesting starts accordingly. As a
result the availability of tuber is limited to ± 2 months only.
Cassava as a primary food has no special recognition in Andhra
Pradesh. Most of the human consumption is in the form of snacks, cooked
fresh tubers and to some extent in pappads. It is estimated that the average
consumption of Cassava in season stands as low as 20gm/day mostly in
rural, among agrarian population. By and large, the cultivation of Cassava in
Andhra Pradesh is in the rich rice belt and this alone discourages it as a food
crop. Andhra Pradesh produces 25,000 tons of sago and out of this 20% is
consumed within the state and 80% being sent to West Bengal and
Maharastra. In addition to this about 35,000 tons of flour is produced from
8
chips, thippi and peal. This flour finds its way for manufacturing cattle feed,
adhesives and gums. Marketing of chips outside the country is limited to
orders managed from Europe. May be in the past many years, Andhra
Pradesh Cassava industry could be able to supply 8 crores worth chips on
cumulative basis. As a post harvest exercise, broken pieces of the tubers are
also collected from the fields and are used for making flour popularly known
as “Barada”. This low grade (?) stuff (2000 tons/season) goes for animal
feed, gum and sizing industry.
As a cattle feed, the popularity is on rise as a primary stuff, to source
carbohydrates. However, due to low protein, the share of this flour is presently
limited to 10% maximum. On comparison, Cassava flour is reasonably
inferior to bran, the traditional feed or de-oiled bran, Jawar and Maize. Unless
the Cassava feed is enriched with additional nutrients, the roles of Cassava
are limited to supplement carbohydrates. The other aspects are mentioned
are mentioned in Table III.
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TABLE III
Cassava Cultivation and Productivity – Pattern in A.P.
Sl.No. Representing
year Average area 000
ha+
Average production/000t
Average productivity
MT/ha+ 1. 1970-71 4.00 14.66 3.50
2. 1980-81 9.00 90.98 8.60
3. 1990-91 14.40 111.70 8.20
4. 1996-97 22.84 226.00 12.00
The above table indicates that, with an average growth of 82% in area
of cultivation, the productivity levels are clearly stagnant. Also it is obvious
that in A.P. Cassava is not a recognized staple food though consumed
sporadically. The ever-growing increase in the activity of Cassava forming
clearly indicates that in Andhra Pradesh Cassava cultivation is primarily to
serve the industrial activity associated with starch and other products. This
crop is more remunerative on all accounts on comparison and slowly attaining
the status of a cash crop. How far this trend can be sustained in future needs
to be carefully watched, and whether the market can potentially absorb the
productivity, induced by increased area under cultivation. Andhra Pradesh is
10
poised to emerge as a cassava producer and its related products. Excess
availability in Andhra Pradesh is anticipated once productivity levels are
improved.
CASSAVA IN KERALA: - During 1960-61 Kerala accounted for 88%
of the Cassava cultivation in India compared to Tamil nadu, stood at 9% only.
In just 20 years of time, during 1983-84, the Kerala share was down to 76%
whereas Tamil Nadu doubled its cultivated area to 16%. In terms of total
production of Cassava, two third of the Indian production came from Kerala
during this period, indicating higher productivity levels in Tamil Nadu. Around
this period (83-84), Cassava cultivation accounted for only 8% of the total
cropped area in Kerala and in terms of rice equivalent cassava represented
145% of the total rice production. In Kerala cassava cultivation is restricted to
rain fed areas, concentrated mainly in southern districts like Quilon, Kottayam
and Trivandrum. In fact, cassava is also grown all over Kerala as a farmyard
crop in very small quantities meeting the carbohydrate requirements of
individual households. The contribution of this kind of unaccounted cultivation
is not properly enumerated or not always possible to quantify. Till early
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1980’s, the net income from cassava on comparison was less than that of
paddy and other plantation crops.
During early 60’s, the Cassava as a food in terms of calories in take
per day stood at 16% and increased further significantly to 33%, when
compared to rice intake. During 1972, based on a survey conducted, at least
89% of the Kerala house holds consuming cassava as a rice substitute in
lower income groups and as a side dish in middle-income groups. The
average intake of cassava during this period stood at 200 gm. Per day in low
income and at 100 gm. Per day in townships and urban areas. Cassava as a
food supplement is always found prominent during June to October during
which period the monsoon sets. During 1984, 70% of cassava produced in
Kerala was locally consumed and production levels declined to 19% just in
one decade.
The trend of Cassava consumption as food is slowly coming down in
Kerala for obvious reasons in the recent past, though the productivity per
hectare has been steady around 20 tons; doubled over a period of 25 years.
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TABLE IV
Cassava Cultivation and Productivity – Pattern in Kerala
S.No. Representing
year Average area in 000 ha+
Average production/ooot
Average productivity MT/ha+
1. 1970-71 296.00 4391.00 9.90
2. 1980-81 298.00 4949.00 16.50
3. 1990-91 207.00 3356.00 17.20
4. 1996-97 133.00 2590.00 20.00
This table indicates that there is a significant 12% rise in cultivated
area between ‘70s and 80’s’ with concurrent rise in production. However, the
decade of 1980’s witnessed a steep fall of 32% in cultivated area. This further
continued and crashed to 22% of reduction in cropped area during 1990’s;
though the productivity levels are kept stable. This trend is clearly visible in
cassava consumption in Kerala falling gradually. This may be due to various
reasons associated in diversification of occupation, cropping pattern, due to
13
lack of attractive price in the market; followed by ever decreasing trend in
consumption as food in preference to rice & cereals. Urbanization is also a
major contributor.
Cassava in Tamil Nadu: -
The Cassava relevance to Tamil Nadu and its ever-expanding activities
had a different origin when compared to Kerala. In fact, historically the
demand for starch during and after the World War II induced Cassava
cultivation in Tamil Nadu. Otherwise, introduction of Cassava in Tamil Nadu
was never considered for food as in the case of Kerala. During 1960's, local
restrictions imposed on exporting processing cassava products from Kerala
also further encouraged cassava farming in Tamil Nadu and the focus was
always mainly for industrial applications.
During these early 60's the growth rate of Cassava cultivation in Kerala
was positive with 3.12% and fell to (-) 2.3% on comparison throughout late
70's and early 80s. However, cassava in Tamil Nadu was clearly steadier
with 9% growth throughout early 1960s and remained positive during 1970s
and 1980s with average growth rate of 1.3%. Similar trend is also visible in
14
Tamil Nadu in terms of yield per hectare. Till mid 1970s, the yields in Kerala
are always higher (13-16 Tons/Hectare) than Tamil Nadu (10Tons /Hectare),
which was stagnant till 1984-85. Around this period on wards Kerala could
not rise in its yields/Hectare and stagnant at ± 16 Tons/Hectare, whereas
Tamil Nadu rose to 31-32 Tons/Hectare. Otherwise to put it in a nutshell, the
average annual growth rate of cassava production in Tamil Nadu stood at 7.2
- 7.5% and in Kerala 2.9%. The main difference and change in cassava
production in these states is mainly the crop cultivated in Tamil Nadu for
industrial purposes. This book is further examining the growing relevance of
cassava for emerging production to sustain the industry facing both domestic
and external pressures.
TABLE V
CASSAVA CULTIVATION & PRODUCTIVITY PATTERN IN TAMIL NADU
Sl.No. Representing
Year Average area in cultivation ooo ha+
Average production
000 mt
Average productivity T/ha+
1 1970-71 45.00 481.60 10.80
2 1980-81 46.00 909.00 18.00(80)
3 1990-91 54.00 1582.60 29.00
4 1996-97 77.40 2794.00 36.00
15
Cassava in other states in India: -
About 10 states other than the known major states referred are also
cultivating cassava. The detail of the cultivation is known for the past 40
years most confined to specific applications. The area under cultivation is
known on average has no progressive significant change and too in the
productivity levels. However, few states have announced promotional
incentives to sponsor the industrial activity. The trend, past 4 years indicates
that years to come, these 10 states can support their local cassava based
products domestically. For reference the following table explain the trends in
cassava growth.
Table VI
Cassava Cultivation and Productivity – Trends in other States (1996-97)
Sl. No.
State Average area under
cultivation (10 years average)
10 years average
production ooo mt
Average productivity in
Ton/Ha.
1. Assam 2.10 9.50 4.40
2. Karnataka 1.00 9.20 9.00
3. Meghalaya 3.95 22.60 5.80
4. Nagaland 0.45 1.40 3.40
5. Rajasthan 0.21 0.34 1.80
6. A & N Islands 0.20 2.00 8.80
7. Pondicherry 0.70 12.50 19.00
8. Mizoram 0.50 3.40 9.10
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MAJOR FACTORS INFUENCING CASSAVA FOR FOOD: -
A. Per unit area, cassava is being a high energy density crop when
compared to rice and other cereals. However, in terms of overall
quality (Carbohydrate, protein, minerals), on average one Kg. of
Cassava can be equated to 0.300 Kg. of wheat. This contributes
mainly to preference of cereals though the energy densities are high as
250 X 10 3 calories per day per hectare compared to 176 X 10 3 for
rice 110 X 10 3 for Wheat.
The estimated utilization of cassava during 1980’s and projected
demand for 2000 as described (see table VI) indicates that in Asia,
Cassava for food to grow by a maximum of 22% over 20 years (?). it is
estimated that the projection levels are more than actual levels of
consumption. The figures in the brackets indicate the actual present
consumption pattern. In India, the major portion of cassava for food is
in Kerala. The other major states like Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
register bare minimum consumption as food. In fact, the area under
17
cultivation in Kerala during 1970’s to 1980’s has fallen by 2.3% in just
one decade. Similarly between 1980’s to 1990’s, the fall in area under
cultivation in Kerala represents the real urbanization, growth in per
capita income, preference to cereal grains and rice and competitive
market prices of various food sources in comparison to Cassava. The
overall fall in cultivation for this just one decade stands further at 10%.
Between 1990’s and 2000 the fall in area under cultivation alone has
come down further 20% in Kerala. This trend in reduction in cultivation
has shown clear impact on ever decreasing trend in per capita cassava
consumption in Kerala. The actual data is lacking though the said
symptoms are just a real fact.
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TABLE VII
NON-INDUSTRIAL CASSAVA UTILISATION PATTERN
Year Country
Group
As a food Feed Other
Purposes
Total
Asia 22.16 1.45 3.32 26.92
Sub-
Saharan
Africa
43.34 1.14 9.27 53.75
1980
Latin
America
12.20 9.97 6.01 28.90
Asia 27.21* 3.49 6.33 37.24
Sub-
Saharan
Africa
70.65 1.42 8.23 80.31
2000**
Latin
America
16.81 15.02 9.68 41.51
* In reality, the cassava consumption as food has not improved.
However, a quantitative details survey is urgent need.
* * Estimates may have ± 2% error.
B. As explained cassava can offer sourcing carbohydrate requirements.
This factor alone contributed to consider cassava as a secondary
19
foodstuff or a staple food. Also cassava comes to the rescue of
supporting severe drought conditions, famine and the like sourcing
carbohydrate requirements.
C. Unlike cereals, storability and self shelf life of fresh cassava tubers are
relatively very short. Damage to fresh tuber quickly spreads to the core
of the tuber and makes it unfit for consumption.
D. Unlike other cereal grain, the food items prepared from cassava are
dry or contain inadequate moisture levels to relish.
E. Preference to taste, flavor and to make a wide variety food items,
cassava is not suitable. Compared to the quality of tuber for industrial
requirements the food sector demands pure and high quality cassava
tubers.
F. In recent past, import of surplus cereal grains from developed
countries to cassava growing countries also influenced it as a food.
Subsidizing such high quality food grains further reduces the cassava
as a food option.
20
G. Endemic goiter due to iodine deficiency and consumption of cassava
has shown relationship and is being reported from various African
countries. The presence of thiocynate in cassava food was reported to
inhibit absorption of iodine leading to goiter.
H. It is also observed that cost of retail cassava to non- farming
consumers is relatively higher than bulk consumers of starch/ Sago
and is more pronounced in urban areas though such disparity exits in
rural areas.
I. Price of cassava and cereal grains decide the future of cassava as a
major secondary diet. Price preference, nutrient value, comfort,
availability etc., are not in favor of cassava in urban areas.
J. URBANISATION AND INCOME
This has direct and permanent impact on cassava for food security,
soon after the industrial growth started influencing the GDP of every
country, the mass migration of rural population to urban cities
continued constantly. This is primarily due to a sense of confidence,
for comfort due to job opportunities; recreational opportunities and
21
economic security leading to self-reliance of the migrants. As a result
of increased income levels over a period, the preference to soft and
tasty cereals has increased on comparison to cassava. This resulted
in cassava consumption in urban poor to come down drastically,
whereas urban elite consumes negligible amounts. This trend has its
effects in rural areas also and consumption of cassava as observed
depend only based on income levels.
K. The land use and cropping pattern of cereals and rice is well
established to suit the growing population and demand. In the last 30
years, the concerted efforts made to control population growth in
developing countries also has shown more preference to cereals than
cassava, as these primary food crops production is stabilized by
various supportive measures and surely will continue to play the every
possible major role in future also.
L. The importance and incentives enjoyed by other comparative crops
are not adequately extended to cassava in terms of subsidies,
22
supporting price fixation, and other activities to promote cassava as a
dietary item.
M. FACTORS INFLUENCING CASSAVA FOR FEED INDUSTRY: -
a) Due to presence of acetone (Oral LD 50 5,300); hydro cyanic acid
(Oral LD 50 3.7); oxalic acid (700 mg); saponin (mouse oral LD LO
3,000) and tryptophane (oral rat TDL 1,100 mg) some varieties of
cassava pose health problems in cattle and poultry.
b) Leaves of cassava are not preferred as feed for the reason that
100g of fresh leaves can supplement 60-80 calories with 82% of
water content. The bio-chemical potential of leaves and roots is
mentioned in the table below: -
FEED POTENTIALS OF CASSAVA VIII
Fresh leaves (100 g) Fresh Roots (100 g)
Calories 60 Calories 140 Calories
Protein 6.9 g 1.0 g
Fat 1.3 g 0.2 g
Total Carbohydrates 9.2 g 32.4 g
Fiber 1.2 g 1.0 g
Thiamine 0.16 mg 0.04 mg
23
Riboflavin 0.32 mg 0.04 mg
Niacin 1.80 mg 0.60 mg
Ascorbic acid 82.00 mg 34.0 mg
H 2 O 81% 65%
Ash 1.6 g 0.9g
c) Cassava contribution in feed depends only on its nutritious value.
Since protein is low, additional external supply of minor nutrients
are to be supplemented to reach satisfactory levels of shaping feed
concentrates.
d) Cassava on its own cannot substitute coarse grains in terms of
nutritional value.
e) Prices of cassava to coarse grains will decide the feed composition
and contribution of cassava in feedstocks.
f) Cassava in feed at present solely helps in carbohydrate supply and
experiments have shown increase in milk production in cattle.
However, the data is not consistent.
24
g) In fact, there is no need to supporting feed industry with fresh
cassava. Most of the supplement comes from the postindustrial
activity. Cassava adds to the bulk quantity only.
h) Present R& D activities indicate that the role of cassava in
feedstocks is ever increasing and better-improved varieties in future
can handle feed industry requirements effectively.
i) The trend in cassava as feed as seen from the table indicates that
price elasticity of other grains influences the cassava as a major
feed supplement. In India, in the last one decade, the quality of
feed material supplied for feed mainly comes from thippi and other
post processing waste residues. These material will not support
unless, fermented further by enriching the nutrients. Cassava as
feed requires activity R & D output and suitable process has to be
developed.
IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS ON SAGO & STARCH BUSINESS
A. Most of the starch and Sago produced in Andhra Pradesh is being sent
out to West Bengal and other States. 25-30% of Sago is consumed
25
within the state. This business is achieved through brokers and
middlemen who orient the business, marketing and out letting the
product.
B. Kerala contributes negligible business on comparison with Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in this context.
C. In Tamil Nadu, it is observed that 40-48% of starch & sago is sold
directly (?) without routing through sago serve.
D. On comparison with crop production, cost of tuber per ton, efficiency of
the industries, the production of sago and starch by and large have
been in the same production levels and the business indicates that
much is influenced by the availability of raw material at cost, production
capabilities of the industry in season in tune with fast and immediate
absorption by the market.
26
Table-IX
SAGO MARKET FLUCTUATION (SALES ROUTED THROUGH SAGO
SERVE)
Year
Lakhs of ton
arrival
Sale in lakh
tons
Cassava
Production
(In lakh tons)
Cost of Sago
per ton (Rs.)
1992-1993 -- 0.393 24.98 6644
1993-1994 -- 0.606 32.21 9722
1994-1995 -- 0.625 30.65 8377
1995-1996 -- 0.837 27.63 8744
1996-1997 1.02 1.04 30.43 11560
1997-1998 1.09 1.06 * 31.06 12540
1998-1999 1.18 1.22 * 32.00 9110
1999-2000 1.22 1.20 * 30.00 12730
2000-2001 1.33 1.26 * 33.00 12977
* Provisional
E. It is also observed that due to low levels of shelf life, the product needs
to be pushed through the market and in such occasions, the buyer
decides the rate at what is convenient for him (?) to some extent.
F. Both starch and sago have not shown any additional demand as their
prices are varying marginally, though cropped area and productivity
levels are comparatively increasing. This indicates that there is a
27
possibility of higher tuber production than required. When the sales of
sago and starch sold directly are also taken into consideration (at what
price such transaction are negotiated (?) is not known), it further
indicates that small and medium industries are exposed to excess
cassava production and limited market availability. Otherwise,
depending on the arrival of fresh tuber, its cost, readiness of the small
and medium industries, their energy consumption levels, labor costs
and other decides the profitability of the business in the season, when
quality of the fresh tuber is taken as common for all.
G. The uptake of other by-products for feed industry also influences the
overall profits depending on the quality.
H. The growing competition for quality starch products from maize and
others also has influence on cassava starch.
28
Table - X
STARCH PERFORMANCE DETAILS – MARKET SYMPTOMS (TN
data)
YEAR
Arrival in
Thousand Tons
Sales in
Thousand Tons
Cassava
Production
Thousand Tons
Cost of starch
per Ton (Rs.)
1992-93 -- 93.570 24.98 4366
1993-94 -- 72.508 32.21 6700
1994-95 -- 1.198 Lakhs 30.65 5788
1995-96 -- 1.142 Lakhs 27.63 5733
1196-97 82.830 86.500 30.43 8144
1997-98 73.747 76.031 31.06 8566
1998-99 91.017 90.468 32.00 6322
1999-2000 58.498 65.710 30.00 9144
2000-2001 47.800 44.055 33.00 9111
I. Cassava is also seen being cultivated in other states with an average
increase of 2-6% in cultivated area, though the productivity levels are
at present pegged at 6 – 9 Tons per Hectare. This also indicates that
in future, the local consumption of starch and sago for these states if
met with locally and exports from states like Tamil Nadu may face stiff
resistance.
29
J. Due to lack of modernization of Plant and Machinery; ever increasing
power tariff for the industry, cost of fresh tuber, labor; and quality of the
end product will be guided by competitive prices of Indian stuff to
market compared to imports from countries like Thailand, Malaysia and
others. In fact, these countries are doing better due to their modern
equipment and efficiencies achieved in a short span of time. The effect
of this scenario may be visible once WTO comes into force from 2005
onwards.
THE FACTS AND CONSIDERATIONS
A. Cassava production levels are becoming more than the requirements
and is decided by the market based on various aspect of quality of the
raw material and market.
B. This will have a negative impact on the industry itself.
C. The energy efficiencies of the Plant & Machinery are not competitive
and comparable with other Asian countries.
30
D. Effluent treatment plants are to be considered as energy recovery
plants rather than meeting statutory laws to satisfy pollution control
boards.
E. Post World Trade Organization scenario needs to be discussed further
to impress both political and administrative will to announce support
base price of cassava products.
F. Quality of the food products needs to be improved and concessions
should be passed on to the customer to encourage diversification of
products for food.
G. The need to develop high yielding varieties; identifying areas of
additional use in the industry; prolonged storability of the products; and
the like are also to be addressed.
H. To sustain this industry, support minimum price for tuber and products
needs to be addressed, for the industries able to address energy
efficiency measures to show quantitative achievements. This criteria
enforces the efficient industrial activity and quality of the end product.
31
POLICY OPTIONS;
1. Cassava in India is basically introduced as a staple food. Cassava as
a Commercial crop to produce primary starch started after Second
World War. The conflict between staple food and as an industrial raw
material is emerging as a reality due to ever changing preference to
rice & cereals. This will continue in all accounts and now it is the time
to explore possibilities to stabilize and to stimulate the existing
cassava utilization pattern to continue. In fact, in some Asian
countries, for example: Thailand, the beginning of cassava
introduction was in response to an opportunity of export as live stock
feed, and crop expanded further and established industries for making
high quality starch suited for international export. This trend is found
with Indonesia also.
2. In the wake of stable yields per ha+ in India, a break through research
is expected to develop a highly acceptable variety to suit various agro-
climatic conditions to stabilize & improve yield in states that are
emerging as cassava growers keeping in view in rate at which the
32
situation is changing. Also, to encourage small dry land farmers to
grow this crop under rural employment option and stabilize cassava for
feed and as food to some extent. This trend helps in producing more
cassava and to bring down costs of industrial products and exposing
excess cassava for other options.
3. Incentives to produce Cassava in very inferior soils; concessions for
products used in food and feed may help further. Facilities to transport
Cassava to processing units or to encourage local processing units
help this sector to search for local utility options and encourage stable
economy in rural areas.
4. There is a greater scope to improve on post harvest technologies in
transporting fresh tubes to processing industry, on methods of
processing it self; storing of by-products, packing of products after
proper drying. In fact, every step in this whole exercise requires
efficiency and promptness. The existing industries must further
improve on this to suit products sold over the world in quality and price
competitiveness.
33
5. 95% of Indian Cassava processing industries is energy inefficient (?) to
a maximum extent. Due to unprecedented price fluctuations of raw
material and market absorption trend, the investments to improve on
plant & machinery is always relegated. In fact, this is a vicious circle
and if the industry does not attach importance, the products may not
find outside market and local markets prices may not be
commensurate.
6. The socio-economic change due to growth in per capita income and
preference to food choices requires an honest assessment based on
geographically different regions of this country based on different
strata. This analysis helps in identifying existing over production of
cassava and helps to divert the same for better options to sustain the
economy of the sector. May be inclusion of Cassava products and
their purchase under international aid programs that are in operation in
war-torn, natural disasters and the like can help and support cassava
without loosing its status of a staple food and promotes exports.
34
7. A National Policy on Cassava, based on scientific consensus is
required to promote further cassava based rural, urban economies and
the dependent industrial activity. To effect this change ----
(I) To encourage Cassava cultivation further on all very poor
soils and on waste lands by incorporating high yielding
varieties & other agricultural practices to increase higher
levels of cassava availability.
(II) To encourage diversification of cassava utilization by offering
incentives on par or in line with that of other minor grain
crops, by considering cassava as an important crop.
(III) Identifications of technologies to utilize cassava based
products to meet captive energy demands of the industry
and to support such activities without compromising the
status & role of Cassava as a staple food/feed.
EMERGING DIVERSIFICATION OPTIONS
It is obvious and pertinent that utilization of agro-industrial by-
products (that are not directly or indirectly consumed by man and animal) for
35
other activities, either as industrial raw material or as fuels to support energy
requirements of the same industrial activity or otherwise. In fact due to ever
expanding opportunities to source raw material for various economic
profitable applications, the agro industrial sector is always facing stiff
competition. In identifying the raw material on long-term basis. The concept
of whole plant utilization of rice, encouraged rice bran, straw and husk for
cardboards (parting with traditional uses) and the like; sugarcane bagasse
pendulating between cost preferences of co-generation and for
manufacturing of paper and boards. Cotton stalks, pulse residues, hulls of
oilseeds and the like too have more options to check-in as long as costs are
satisfactory and the application being secondary. There is no wrong in
search for proper tariff assurances in the light of fluctuating agro based
industry, but a proper policy to direct and divert known qualities of agro
based biomass for captive power applications, can bail-out tiny industries
from being sick due to lack of modernization and other various reasons. In
fact, a policy to extend incentives linked for these agro industries to explore
and deploy at least 20% from renewable energy sources will go a long way
in sustainable agro based practices and ensured local development with
more and more SSI unit supporting each other mutually assured co-
existence with increased entrepreneurship and employment opportunities.
A non conventional outlook for cassava is also emerging as an
alternative due to dwindling conventional outlets and changing preferences
based on costs and convenience on comparison with similar products. It
seems that cassava, as a fuel crop will take more lead in coming decades
36
and simultaneous assurance for food security to the extent required to
overcome spells of famine and drought. With an average mean growth rate
of 8 to 9 gram m2/dayyielding fresh tuber at ± 37 tones per hectare indicates
the photosynthetic efficiency of the crop and its genetic characteristic as a
tuber crop under Euphorbiaceae family. The cash requirements to grow
cassava including, fertilizers and pesticides and harvesting alone stands at
a maximum of 25% on farm; to the value of the yield per hectare at
processing industries indicates the stored energy efficiency of the crop at
75%. The ratio of tuber to crop tops always range between 70:30 and 60:40
depending on various agro-climatic and crop protection practices as inputs.
All these characteristics indicates that the of exploitation of cassava for food
also needs to be experimented and extended to produce energy
requirements of the crop dependent activities to integrate the whole activity
to sustain without external interference; so that the industry can produce
value added high quality end products to compete internal and external
markets attracting remunerative prices. Unless major initiatives are pushed
through to demonstrate to average farmer and industrialist, the gross
wisdom of the whole exercise will never reach the bottom. In fact,
demonstration of such new ideas should find a lower level platform rather
than a big industrial group for the reason, big, rich and powerful not always
prefer to share their experience, fame; business secret of the success and
ideas with small and vulnerable.
EMERGING ENERGY OPTIONS
37
Around the world, some countries took more initiative to explore
cassava for fuel production. Some R & D activities, had recorded that
approximately 5000-5500 liter of alcohol can be produce from ± 30 tons per
hectare fresh tubes. In this process externally sourcing energy in the form of
wood for alcohol production was found to be less competitive compared to
cassava dried stalks as a fuel. However, cassava based processing
industries also fully aware of the biochemical potential of waste by-products
and end effluents. Effluents also contain appreciable potential to produce
biogas through anaerobic fermentation. Similarly, addition of other by-product
namely thippi, which is strictly parenchymatous in nature, also added to
further the gas production. In India, till late 1980s, the industrial effluents are
discharged without proper treatment causing ground and surface water
contamination. The mandatory laws of pollution control boards stimulated the
cassava industry in India to install Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP’s). By and
large 95% of the industries achieved ETP status, though the actual expected
purpose is not fully met with. Late 1990s has seen a resurgence of activity in
converting these ETP’s to produce biogas without further modifying the
designs to maximize the output. Some industries have visible and
quantitative benefits if the size of the ETP and quantity of effluents are higher
based on the industrial activity. This biogas was put forth for both thermal and
power applications. However, it is just pity that there is no definite data
available or collected by either the industry concerned or likeminded
institutions on the contribution of these ETP’s strengthening the health of
industry, environmental quality and levels of energy recovery.
38
ETP’S: As long as ETP’s are passive components of cassava industry and
the wisdom of ignoring the vast biochemical potential of effluents indicates the
degree of ignorance of the technocrats not able to reach the best. Also
indicates loosing of excellent opportunities to convert ETP’s as Energy
Transforming Plants-leading to an active interaction of these plants of the
industry to lead and fuel the business as a whole.
Biochemical Potential of Wastewater:- The effluents have very high
energy contents in the discharged. The table ___ below explains the
reduction of COD & BOD in an existing plant in operation in Salem district.
The extent of the said reduction indicates the energy potential. Addition of
thippi further increases the over all potential for energy recovery. In fact, the
present ETP’s which are not designed for energy recovery are functioning at
an average 50% efficiency. In the event of fresh cassava put to use for
energy generation, the potential availability of energy must be as high as to
satisfy the total energy requirements of the industry. In fact, cooperative
movement to put a common energy recovery plant will help in generating
power for captive consumption and in off season to export to the electricity
board grid. This helps industry to earn in off season also. Otherwise,
individual industries can also put up plants to do the same job. The difference
between biochemical potential and thermo-chemical potential some times
makes the experts to under quote the energy potential of fresh tubers. In fact,
fresh tubers produce energy and their theoretical & practical limits through
39
bio-methanation route needs to be examined separately, but not by
comparing the dried tubers and their thermo-chemical potentials through
gasification or combustion. May be specializing in subjects narrows down the
wisdom of understanding the practical issues (?).
Table
THE BIO CHEMICAL POTENTIAL OF EFFLUENT WATER Sl. No Parameters Untreated Treated
1 PH 4.75 8.252 Total suspended solids mg/l 1060 203 Total dissolved solids mg/l 4195 14204 Chloride (as Cl) mg/l 365 3655 Sulphates (as SO4) mg/l 540 2046 Oil and grease mg/l 8 Nil7 BOD mg/l 7680 1.428 COD mg/l 10,560 249 Ammonical nitrogen mg/l 1.6 0.56
10 Total kjeldhal nitrogen 37.55 2.2411 Sulphide (as S) 4 Nil
Table Biochemical potential of Thippi
Sl.No. Constituents % 1 Water 11-12 2 Protein
0.85
3 Fats 0.30 4 Carbohydrates
56.20
5 Fibre
10.60
6 Sugar
1.20
At present, these ETP’s are working as batch fed digesters without
proper intervals followed to understand the levels of performance. As of now,
there is no actual dependable date of statistical significance to pin point the
40
gas production parameters. Based on the characteristics of the wastewaters,
the expected gas production was appreciated, but no concrete data to
establish at what levels of total solids, PH, the maximum gas can be derived.
It is very important that a proper R & D is to be undertaken in the field itself
before PH levels come down to establish the behavior of waste water till the
end of the whole exercise is over. Funding such project once again to do
honest job is badly required though some references and experience is
documented. This notes has no scope to discuss the possible pathways of
biogas production, microbial consortia, other parameter, since the emphasis is
to establish undisputable argument that cassava deserves to be coveted as a
cash and fuel crop.
The gas generated and accumulated is being used by the industry for
thermal and electrical applications. However to what extent this contribution
satisfies the energy needs of this seasonal industry is not established. Apart
from this, it is estimated for every 10 tons of sago produced, at least 2.0 T of
biomass and 350 – 400 liters of diesel is being spent. In the case of roasting
sago, the power levels are stand at consuming half a ton of biomass and 150
– 200 liters of diesel for every 10 tons. Though this industry was never
subjected to honest assessment for power utility in terms of cost of production
of sago, it is observed that for every kg of sago produced at accost of Rs.2/- is
being spent on power alone with an average of 0.75 units of power. This
indicates that, unless the industry and policy makers allow energy self
reliance, this industry continue to exploit fossil fuels and biomass to produce
products whose market values have no major changes. Even the efficiency
41
levels of these fuels put to use requires immediate attention. For cooking
application, biomass in the form of coconut husk, shells and roots of
casuarina and eucalyptus and other woody portions are extensively used and
the efficiencies are not properly verified. In addition to this, the plant and
machinery is as old as the industry itself and for such energy systems, higher
power tariff is being paid. It is estimated that on average per season, as high
as 1.0 lakh tons of biomass is being used apart from the energy cost of plant
and machinery. This clearly indicates that, unless the industry becomes self-
sustainable along with modernization, the future seems to be sticky as of now.
Once cassava itself is consider as a fuel, the whole scenario will change
positively bringing small and marginal farmer to grow the crop more efficiently.
To what extent the crop requires to be diverted for power generation without
compromising with the food security requires a policy decision. Once cassava
is available for energy needs ---
The Immediate Options
A. Cassava industry must derive its energy requirements from its
internally available resources like – peals, Thippi & ETP’s to produce
biogas.
B. Treatment plants must be designed to meet the total energy
requirements of the industry. Lower grade fresh cassava tubers to
supplement must supplement whatever is falling short. If necessary to
sustain the gaps, can be filled by cassava directly.
C. Based on the location of industries as clusters, common energy
sourcing plants along with wastewater treatment needs to be explored.
42
D. The overall total energy consumption by this industry can be switched
over to generate electric power from Cassava itself as an emerging
new technology option; if not as an industrial Waste.
E. To achieve the said above, a carefully thought cassava policy to
come into force to divert and direct to what extent of Cassava can be
used for power generation. This law must support base minimum prize
of fresh tubers uniformly for both the applications. In fact, diversion of
fresh tuber will never cross not more than 15% of total annual
production. This helps very small and marginal farmers to take-up
cassava cultivation. Even household back yards, kitchen gardens etc.,
will find cassava once such values are added & indicated.
F. Once the industry sustains on its own on energy requirements
improvements to burn biomass for other applications to comedown
drastically by employing suitable systems to operate. Integrating
renewable energy systems wherever is possible makes the whole
operation energy efficient and further improves once modernization
take place.
G. With the options available in the present existing scenario of
cassava utilization considering it as an energy security is also a
wise and apt decision. Hence, Cassava should be treated as- “for
food and energy security”.
The emerging trends in cassava production and productivity levels are
satisfying. The growing industrial activity to produce sago and starch by other
43
non-traditional states in India indicates that these two products face stiff
competition within the country in years to come. This may reflect on the basic
foundation of the cassava industry and business trend to become non
remunerative. The dwindling preference to cassava for food in its own
contributory levels is directly proportional to the urbanization, purchasing
power and preferences of present society and future. Even this trend is well
registered all over the cassava cultivating countries. Further, the feed
industry is anxiously awaiting breakthrough in R & D efforts to maximize
cassava utility in terms of comparative costs, nutritive value and suitability. In
the post WTO (World Trade Organization) scenario, the degree of Indian
industry to compete with international standards, quality products and costs,
seems to be not encouraging based on the existing plant and machinery and
other operational factors. May be one or two industries can rise to the
occasion but definitely not all. This may for a short span of time creates
artificial fall of cost of tuber and extensive availability due to over production.
To keep the industry surviving and to diversify the economic options, “There
is a need to arrive at national consensus and to use cassava for energy
security also. To what extent this diversification is to be allowed and other
should be the part of the policy formulation.” This trend infuses the diluting
enthusiasm of cassava industry and encourages in flow of investments and
within ten years to come, the industry can emerge as the best international
player.
44
Press Coverage of events on 2nd February 2002
"Business Meet on Solar Thermal Applications in Textiles,
Agro and Educational Institutions" held at Erode, Tamil Nadu.
Venue: Club Melaange, Perundurai Road, Erode.
45
Press Coverage of events on 9th February 2002
"Business Meet on Energy Recovery from Tapioca Processing
waste water" held at Salem, Tamil Nadu.
Venue: Hotel Cennys Gateway, Sarada College Main Road, Salem.
46
Recommendations of the Business Meet on Energy Recovery from
Processing waste water" held at Salem, Tamil Nadu on 9-2-2002 Tapioca
1. Industries with less than 8ton/ (800M3) crushing capacity or classified
under cottage industries may be considered for awarding capital
subsidy to install biogas plants to support 25-30 kw of electrical power
for 10hrs/day. For such systems integrating ETP`s with biogas plants
needs to be linked properly keeping view the financial strength of the
industry and utilisation pattern.
2. Systems falling between 800-3000M3 of gas per day to meet the energy
requirements of the industries with proven track record of supporting
the waste water exclusively from the process industries may be
considered for interest subsidy without involving specialized DPR`s
for obvious reasons.
3. Systems above 100 kw electrical power may be classified for
preparation of DPR`s.
For all the systems referred as above 1,2,and 3, the sago
industries had specially requested for local Regional Office must be
involved in granting feasibility report and the like to Sago Serve for further
processing the applications for considering under interest subsidy.
4. Cassava industry must derive its energy requirements from its
internally available resources like – peals, Thippi & ETP’s to produce
biogas.
5. Treatment plants must be designed to meet the total energy
requirements of the industry. Lower grade fresh cassava tubers to
48
supplement must supplement whatever is falling short. If necessary to
sustain the gaps, can be filled by cassava directly.
Contd….2
(2)
6. Based on the location of industries as clusters, common energy
sourcing plants along with wastewater treatment needs to be explored.
7. The overall total energy consumption by this industry can be switched
over to generate electric power from Cassava itself as an emerging new
technology option; if not as an industrial Waste.
8. Effluent treatment plants are to be considered as energy recovery
plants rather
than meeting statutory laws to satisfy pollution control boards.
Dr. P.Radhakrishna Director.
49
Regional Office, Chennai has conducted Business Meet on
Energy Recovery from Tapioca processing waste water"
held at Salem, Tamil Nadu. The said meet was inaugurated
by Hon`ble Minister of State for Non-conventional Energy
Sources, Thiru M.Kannappan. Dignitaries from political
and administrative circles had attended the meet. Regional
Office is very proud that 95% of all the SSI`s invited had
participated in the meet. The details of the various aspects
of the meet and recommendations are enclosed for reference.
Various issues for considering the energy efficiencies in
Tapioca Industry were discussed at length and the consensus
of the day`s deliberations indicate that renewable energy
systems have a major role to play in reducing both thermal
and electrical energy dependence on fossil fuels. A thought
provoking proposal in the form of a book-let brought by
Regional Office has attracted the attention of the scientists,
industry, common man and media & press.
Dr. P RADHAKRISHNA
Director.
50
Report on
"Business Meet on Energy Recovery from Tapioca Processing waste
water"
held at Salem, Tamil Nadu.
Date & Venue: 9-2-2002 Hotel Cennys Gateway, Sarada College Main Road, Salem.
Recommendations of the Business Meet on Solar Thermal Applications in Agro & Textile Industries and Educational
Institutions" held at Erode, Tamil Nadu on 2-2-2002
1. All the manufactures, dealers requested for extending the Soft
Loan Scheme during the 10th five year plan.
2. To fill up gap between 2000 – 4000 lpd for financial assistance it
is proposed by manufactures the upper limit of the Soft Loan
51
Scheme should be raised to 5000 lpd. This facility takes care
minimum threshold loan lending limit prescribed by IREDA.
3. The enthusiasm and attitude to fiancé Solar Water Heating
Systems by nationalized banks is not uniform. An alternative was
suggested by public, manufactures and dealers as follows. For
example in each state, the scheme will be operated by a
designated nodal nationalized bank. Throughout in the state any
bank or financial institution authorized by Reserve Bank of India
can extend the loan by informing the transaction to the nodal
bank. This nodal bank in turn will disburse the adjustable interest
portion to the respective banks on mutually agreed terms and
conditions.
4. The above said modification of the Soft Loan Scheme will
improve and cut short all field oriented administrative problems
associated with area of operation by individual bank branches.
That means customer can approach any bank with whom he has
financial transaction assuring the bank required confidence cutting
across all kinds of problems. Contd…2
(2)
5. Few customers have also insisted that the storage tanks also
should be covered under BIS mark.
52
6. The nodal bank must be advised to complete the financial target in
given stipulated time frame.
7. The Ministry also must impress Urban Development Ministry
(Government of India) to make Solar Water Heating Systems
mandatory for all public buildings such as guest houses, R & D
laboratories /institutions, hospitality sector like ITDC, state
tourism development corporations.
8. MNES to recommend state electricity boards for concessional
power tariff for users of Solar Water Heating Systems throughout
the country. Unless this is achieved, the visible benefits of the
program can never be felt.
Dr. P RADHAKRISHNA Director
53
Regional Office, Chennai has conducted a Business Meet on Solar
Thermal Applications in Agro & Textile Industries and Educational
Institutions held at Erode, Tamil Nadu. The said meet was
inaugurated by Hon`ble Minister of State for Non-conventional
Energy Sources, Thiru M.Kannappan. Dignitaries from political and
administrative circles had attended the meet. It is to note that 95% of
the Agro & Textile Industries and Educational institutions in five
districts around Erode had participated in the meet. About 225
participants attended the meet and on the same day a number of
industries have announced their intention to install solar water
heating systems amounting to 20,000 lpd. Regional Office had also
conducted a very detailed system-wise performance of all the solar
thermal industries and complied the data. For the statistical
significance the data complied was reclassified into various categories
and the role of soft loan scheme systems was analysed for the past four
years. The details of the performance data was published by
Regional Office as an internal circulation under technical paper No.
15 for the benefit of the industry and the division concerned at Head
quarters. Based on the data available Regional Office also complied
the important points for further improving the existing soft loan
scheme for perusal of the Ministry. To complete this task Regional
Office has physically verified 675 solar water heating systems of
various capacities, and of different industries. The other aspects of
the meet and recommendations are enclosed for reference.
Dr. P RADHAKRISHNA
Director.
54
This Report Contains
A. Recommendations
B. Technical paper No. 15 of Regional Office
C. News paper coverage
D. Visual coverage
E. List of participants.
55