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Volume 3, Issue 9(1), September 2014 International Journal of Multidisciplinary

Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr. Victor Babu Koppula Faculty Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam -530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. A.B.S.V.Rangarao Department of Social Work Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof.S.Prasanna Sree Department of English Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. P.Sivunnaidu Department of History Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam

Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Department Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of the UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Swami Maheshwarananda Founder and President Shree Vishwa Deep Gurukul Swami Maheshwarananda Ashram Education & Research Center Rajasthan, India Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Head Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram

Dr. Momin Mohamed Naser Department of Geography Institute of Arab Research and Studies Cairo University, Egypt I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. G.Veerraju Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.G.Subhakar Department of Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University –Visakhapatnam N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.Ch.Prema Kumar Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator AP State Resource Center Visakhapatnam

Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Dr.K.Chaitanya Postdoctoral Research Fellow Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam Dr R Dhanuja PSG College of Arts & Science Coimbatore Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta Calcutta Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Dr. H.N. Vidya Government Arts College Hassan, Karnataka Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Prof. Chanakya Kumar University of Pune PUNE

© Editor-in-Chief, IJMER

Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in

IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.

C O N T E N T S

Volume 3 Issue 9(1) September 2014

S. No Page

No 1. Issues & Challenges for Functional Consultant in ERP

Implementation L.Madhu Kumar,M.kameswararao

and P.Viswanadham

1

2. CU2+ Selective Turn on Fluorescent Chemosensor Based on Anthracene Ethanol IMINO Conjugate and its Microscopic Studies

K. Rameshbabu,K. Venu Gopal and A. Jayaraju and J. Sreeramulu

12

3. An Application of Generalized Interval Valued Fuzzy Neutrosophic Soft Sets in Decision Making

I.R.Sumathi and I.Arockiarani

21

4. Managing Resistance to Change: With Reference to BPR of Mekelle University

Adisu Fanta

41

5. Effect of Pesticides on Soil Microbes Ashaq Hussain Dar and Mudasir Gani Wani

55

6. Rushdie’s Shame: The Dynamics of Politics Bhupinder Singh,Manmohan Singh

and Jap Preet Kaur Bhangu

65

7. Jiddukrishnamurti's : Philosophy of Education Chaman Lal Banga

79

8. Let’s Have an Ear for Problems of Elementary Teachers Mamta Garg

93

9. A Correlational Study of The Variables of Learning Acquisition Through Mnemonics Techniques, Cognitive Styles and Self Concept

Avanish Kumar

104

10. Employment Determination in Basic and Alloy Industry of Punjab

Manjit Sharma

119

11. Job Satisfaction of Higher Secondary Teachers: A Comparison of Central Government and State Government Schools in Kerala, India

Bineesh John

127

12. Attitude of Secondary Grade Teachers towards Computer Assisted Instruction in Prakasam District of Andhra Pradesh

Nalamotu Venkateswarlu

139

13. The Apex Bank’s Contribution on Socio-Economic Development in Rural Areas in West Bengal

S K. Raju Ali and Aminul Islam

150

14. Resource Use Efficiency in BT. Cotton Cultivation – Data Envelopment Analysis Approach

K. Nirmal Ravi Kumar and A. Siva Sankar

167

15. Production Management Practices of The SSI Units in North Coastal District of Andhra Pradesh, A Study Report

Kosaraju Ravi Kumar and G.Chandra Mouli

184

16. Experimental Study of Cracking and Slip Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened by GFRP

Ayad S. Adi, B. S. Karkare and Mohammad Makki Abbass

198

17. Comprehensive Security Versus the Traditional Notion of Security

Nisar Ahmad Meer

210

18. Challenges of Semesterisation as Perceived by Teachers of Under Graduate Courses in Calcutta University and Some Suggestions for Smooth Implementation

Partha Sarathi Mallik

215

19. The Effect of Hartmann Number Ha on Two Ionized Fluids Through A Horizontal Channel Between Two Parallel Walls

S.V.V.Rama Devi

224

20. Status of Wetland Birds of Madduvalsa Reservoir, Madduvalasa Village, Vangara Mandal, Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh, India

S.Mukunda Rao

231

21. China’s Policy on Kashmir Salfie Muzaffar Parray

244

22. Effect of SAQ Training on Selected Motor Abilities of Sai East Football Players Between 15-18 Years

Santosh Toppo and Basant Tirkey

264

23. Broken Family Structure and Its Impact on Children Suzain Rashid

270

24. Sanskrit Sahityom Bhoomi Aur Paryavaran Rakesh Patel

276

25. Kasikandamu- Kalavatyupakyanamu Parsilana P.Srinivasarao

285

26. An overview on Quality Teaching for Global Challenges M. Soma Raju

290

Editorial ……..

Provoking fresh thinking is certainly becoming the prime purpose of International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER). The new world era we have entered with enormous contradictions is demanding a unique understanding to face challenges. IJMER’s contents are overwhelmingly contributor, distinctive and are creating the right balance for its readers with its varied knowledge.

We are happy to inform you that IJMER got the high Impact Factor 2.735, Index Copernicus Value 5.16 and IJMER is listed and indexed in 34 popular indexed organizations in the world. This academic achievement of IJMER is only author’s contribution in the past issues. I hope this journey of IJMER more benefit to future academic world.

In the present issue, we have taken up details of multidisciplinary issues discussed in academic circles. There are well written articles covering a wide range of issues that are thought provoking as well as significant in the contemporary research world.

My thanks to the Members of the Editorial Board, to the readers, and in particular I sincerely recognize the efforts of the subscribers of articles. The journal thus receives its recognition from the rich contribution of assorted research papers presented by the experienced scholars and the implied commitment is generating the vision envisaged and that is spreading knowledge. I am happy to note that the readers are benefited.

My personal thanks to one and all.

(Dr.Victor Babu Koppula)

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.735; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 3, ISSUE 9(1), SEPTEMBER 2014

ISSUES & CHALLENGES FOR FUNCTIONAL CONSULTANT

IN ERP IMPLEMENTATION

L.MadhuKumar Research Scholar

Department of Commerce and Management Studies

Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Dr.M.Kameswararao Sr. Functional Consultant

&Project Lead Tech Mahindra Visakhapatnam

Prof.P.Viswanadham

Professor Dept. of Commerce and Management Studies

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Introduction to ERP:

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is the latest high-end solution that Information Technology has lent to business applications. ERP solutions streamline and integrate operation processes and information flows in an organization to synergize the resources of an organization namely men, material, money and machine through information. An ERP system is a fully integrated business management system covering functional areas of an enterprise like Logistics, Production, Finance, Accounting and Human Resources.

It can also be defined as “an amalgamation of a company's

information systems designed to bind more closely a variety of companyfunctions including human resources, inventories and financials while simultaneously linking the company to customers and vendors

Need for ERP:

The recent changes that are being witnessed in the Global Economy, where the entrepreneurs are architecting the growth of their business by leaps and bounds, have demanded for and necessitated an

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effective control on the business functions across various industries and a perfect accounting system that conforms to Global and International standards like for example GAPP, SOX to name a few. This is possible only through an efficient and effective ERP software. The reasons for going with an ERP are summarized below:

Integration Financial Reporting Operational Efficiency Effective Decision Making. Reducing the cost Minimizing the time frame Security

Evolution of ERP:

ERP originated as an extension of MRP (material requirements planning; later manufacturing resource planning) and CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing). It was introduced by a research and analysis firm named Gartner in 1990. ERP systems now attempt to

cover all core functions of an enterprise, regardless of the organization's business or charter. These systems can now be found in non-manufacturing businesses, non-profit organizations and governments.

To be considered an ERP system, a software package must provide the function of at least two systems. For example, a software package that provides both payroll and accounting functions could technically be considered an ERP software package.

MRP vs. ERP:

Manufacturing Management Systems have evolved in stages over the past 30 years from a simple means of calculating material requirements to the automation of an enterprise. Around 1980, frequent changes in sales forecasts, entailing continual readjustments in production, as well as inflexible fixed system parameters, led MRP to

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evolve into a new concept of Material Resource Planning (MRP-3) and finally the generic concept of Enterprise Resource Planning.

Overview of ERP Solutions:

Each and every business has its own unique operative style which again results in transactions that are peculiar to that business or industry. Businesses across the Globe cannot be expected to conform or limit their operations to what is offered by ERP software. On the contrary, an ERP software is expected to provide solutions by way of automation to various issues or challenges that a particular business may bring up. The solutions provided by an ERP is of three types which are as follows:

Standard Solutions:

These are also known as Standard Functionalities. Every ERP will have standard functionalities which are designed keeping in view the basic business requirements or transactions. Creation of a Purchase

Order, Sales Invoice, and Purchase Invoice, Maintenance of Fixed Asset Register etc., are some of the best examples of Standardized functionalities.

Workaround Solutions:

Depending on the complexity of the business issues we have other solutions called “Workaround Solutions”. It can be defined as making use of the existing standard functionalities in a best way to resolve some critical issues. For example, a big retail business is offering Free Gift Vouchers to its customers and the business requirement is to track the number and value of vouchers issued, redeemed (utilized) and unutilized, and also the accounting treatment of the same. A solution for this issue is possible by using existing standard functionalities. If the workaround process could not provide

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the solution for the business issue, then the same will be resolved by resorting to Customization.

Customized Solutions:

When there is any special requirement by the users or in case of critical business issues for which solutions are not possible through Standardization and Workaround, then it is necessary to provide customized solutions to the business. Customization involves creation of new forms to input data and writing of new code to achieve the specific requirement of the users and new tables that are designed to hold the data that are input in the forms; thereby creating new functionalities which are not available in the existing ERP package. Consider a situation of a business which operates and is spread across the globe. It has some internal transactions (buying and selling/service)

among its affiliates in the group. The business requirement is that the payments and settlements (Due to and Due From) should happen at frequent intervals in a common currency without any extensive manual interventions. This is a scenario where customization is necessary to offer a solution for this business requirement. There can be several such business requirements peculiar to each and every business across the Globe which necessitate customizations.

Overview of ERP Software:

There are many ERP systems that are available in the global market. But the following are the most popular and widely used ERP software: Oracle e-business suite; SAP R-3, JD Edwards (now part of Oracle), PeopleSoft (now part of Oracle), and Microsoft Dynamics to name a few.

Implementation of ERP:

Installation of ERP software is a critical activity which involves a systematic process. The duration of implementation by and large

4



depends on several considerations like business size, complexity of transactions, number of modules, the extent of customization etc. The business which is going in for an ERP software must work in tandem with the consultants by providing to them information on existing business practices and what the new requirements are that need to be achieved using the software. This will help in getting the required results after the implementation. It must be noted that sometimes the implementation demands for a lot of time during which the existing business operations and accounting systems should not be get affected. The ultimate impact of ERP implementation would be on the accounting system of the organization. A typical implementation will

have the following stages:

Stage-1: Business Analysis Stage-2: Solution Designing Stage-3: Build-DEMO/PROTOTYPE Stage-4: Testing Stage-5: Go-live Stage-6: Post Production Support.

ERP systems are modular, so they don't all need to be implemented all at once. It can be divided into various stages, or phase-ins. A small project (e.g., a company of less than 100 staff) may be planned and delivered within 3-9 months; however, a large, multi-site or multi-country implementation may take years. The length of the implementations is closely tied to the amount of customization desired.

Overview on the Role of Consultants:

The ERP implementation team may consist of the following type of

consultants:

Functional Consultants:

A functional consultant is one who takes care of all the front-end issues and usually interacts with the client directly in getting the required inputs and acts as an intermediary between client and the

5



technical consultant. He must have a fair knowledge on the ERP product and also the business processes apart from good communication skills.

Technical Consultants:

A Technical Consultant is one who owns the back-end issues and gets all the required inputs through the functional consultant. He must have fair knowledge on all Database related topics like SQL, PL/SQL etc. He must also be aware of the process of designing of tables where the data can be stored and forms that appear from the front-end, apart from having good communication skills.

Techno-functional Consultants:

A techno-functional consultant is one who can take up the role of both functional consultant and technical consultant. In simple words, he will have the combined features of the above two types of consultants.

Role of Functional Consultant in ERP Implementation:

As explained earlier, a Functional Consultant is one who directly

interacts with the client particularly with functional heads, and plays a key role in each and every stage in the implementation cycle. The role and the responsibilities have been outlined as follows:

Stage1: Business Analysis:

This stage is also known as “As-Is Study”. This is the preliminary stage where the FC will try to extract the information relating to the existing business processes and methods that are being used. The FC will collect the relevant information from the client in the form of documents and personal interactions with the core members on various aspects including the current business methods, accounting system, reporting system etc. Getting proper support form the client in

6



the form of availability of users, getting proper information from the users etc. are the major issues that the FC would normally face at this stage. The outcome of this stage largely depends on the skills and the ability to understand the business processes of the FC. The entire information that has been collected should be properly documented and there is also a need to acquire necessary approvals from the key users. The duration of this stage depends on the project size. If the proposed project is a high level implementation, then the normal duration would be around 3-6 months otherwise the same would be 2-3 months.

Stage2: Solution Design:

This phase is well known as “To-Be Study”. The future business process and methods in the proposed ERP will be explained to the end users of the business during this phase. Once the business analysis is

completed successfully and acquired the necessary approvals from the client project manager or project leader, then the FC will move to the next phase called “Solution Design”. Here the FC is expected to undertake the “Gap Analysis” which can be defined as the difference between the existing or current business operations and the operations that are expected to take place in the proposed ERP. The solutions can be of two types’ viz., readymade (Standardized) and tailor made (Workaround and Customization). Customization is the last alternative if mapping is not possible through standardization and workaround. The major issue at this stage is that of designing a custom solution for the critical business applications in which both technical and functional consultants will play equal roles. The FC will mainly concentrate on designing the customs components and will discuss the same with the Technical Consultant about the feasibility of customization. The consultant will also explain about the features and functionality of the

proposed ERP system through some presentations. The proposed solutions for the business applications must be properly documented and approvals are to be obtained from the proper authority.

7



Stage3: Build Demo/Prototype:

After the solution design or to-be phase is over, the solutions that have been designed in the to-be phase need to be demonstrated in this phase. For this purpose, the FC will choose one demo ERP instance where he/she will do the necessary configurations and set ups. The FC is expected to demonstrate certain selected typical or important transactions or activities in the demo instance. The users may come out with some queries or doubts about the functionality of the ERP applications. They may again ask for a better solution if they are not happy with the proposed one. Here the FC should try to explain the accounting impact as well to the heads of the accounting department. The relevant documents have to be prepared and a sign off is necessary which are witness to the fact that they are happy with these proposed

solutions.

Stage4: Testing:

It is at this stage the end users are asked to test the various business scenarios in the proposed ERP system to record the result. The FC will prepare the test script template and send the same to the users. The users are supposed to record their test result against the respective business scenarios. The test scrips will become the base for necessary approvals. These documents will be preserved safely and will be used again in future whenever it is necessary. A step by step process is described in the template and the users have to follow the same process to get the required output. This stage is also known as “User Acceptance Testing (UAT). The FC has to extend the necessary support to the users in doing their testing.

Stage5: Go-Live:

Once the UAT is finished successfully, the FC’s real task begins. He has to configure the original instance (known as Production instance) with all the required set ups as per the documents prepared

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in Solution Design stage. It is at this stage the FC will migrate the historical data to the production instance and should ensure that the migrated data will not result in any duplication of entries in the new accounting system in the new ERP system.

Data migration is one of the most important challenging activities for a functional consultant and perhaps it is the last step before the go-live of the implementation and plays a crucial role in determining the success of an ERP implementation. Since many decisions must be made before migration, a significant amount of planning must occur. Therefore, this data migration receives a paramount attention due to time constraints. The following are steps of

a data migration strategy that can help in the success of an ERP implementation:

1. Identifying the data to be migrated 2. Determining the timing of data migration 3. Generating the data templates 4. Freezing the tools for data migration 5. Deciding on migration related setups 6. Deciding on data archiving

Stage 6: Production Support:

The Consulting Service Provider must also render post production support services to the client after the successful go-live of the ERP implementation. This is intended to help users in getting habituated to using the ERP system. The duration of the production support depends upon several factors viz., the size of the implementation, the type of implementation etc. The type of

implementation includes end to end (full cycle) implementation, upgrading the version, financial enhancements, roll out etc. The normal duration for a medium size implementation would be around one year. If it is a high level end to end implementation the same could be for more years also.

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Conclusion:

ERP implementation is considerably more difficult in organizations structured into nearly independent business units, each responsible for their own profit and loss, because they will each have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies and decision centers. Solutions include requirements coordination negotiated by local change management professionals or, if this is not possible, federated implementation using loosely integrated instances (e.g. linked via Master Data Management) specifically configured and/or customized to meet local needs.

A major challenge before the Functional consultant is that of understanding the business process in a right way, executing the skills

to generate the solutions with less customization, designing the relevant functional documents and interaction with the client. The required qualities that are attributable to a Functional Consultant in ERP implementation are fair communication skills, domain knowledge (accounting/HR/marketing/distributions) and finally knowledge on the ERP product.

A disadvantage usually attributed to ERP is that business processes may redesign to fit the standardized ERP modules which again may lead to a loss of competitive advantage. While documented cases exist where this has indeed materialized, other cases show that following thorough process preparation ERP systems can actually increase sustainable competitive advantage.

References:

1. Monk, Ellen and Wagner, Brett."Concepts in Enterprise Resource Planning" 3rd.ed.Course Technology Cengage Learning.Boston, Massachusetts.2009

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2. Brown, C., and I. Vessey, "Managing the Next Wave of

Enterprise Systems: Leveraging Lessons from ERP," MIS Quarterly Executive, 2(1), 2003.

3. Turban et al. (2008). Information Technology for Management, Transforming Organizations in the Digital Economy. Massachusetts: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 320.

4. Dehning,B. and T.Stratopoulos, 'Determinants of a Sustainable

Competitive Advantage Due to an IT-enabled Strategy,' Journal of Strategic Information Systems, Vol. 12, 2003

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CU2+ SELECTIVE TURN ON FLUORESCENT CHEMOSENSOR

BASED ON ANTHRACENE ETHANOL IMINO CONJUGATE AND ITS MICROSCOPIC STUDIES

K. Rameshbabu Department of Chemistry

Sri Krishnadevaraya University Anantapuramu,Andhra Pradesh

India

K. VenuGopal Department of Chemistry

Sri Krishnadevaraya University Anantapuramu,Andhra Pradesh

India

A. Jayarajuand J. Sreeramulu

Department of Chemistry Sri Krishnadevaraya University

Anantapuramu,Andhra Pradesh, India

1. Introduction

Cu has its prominence like Zn and Fe and third abundant element in human bodies among the essential heavy metal ions. It has primary

importance in synthesis of hemoglobin and acts as an essential element in most metallo enzymes with oxidize activity.1-5 Abnormalities in Copper levels can cause oxidative stress and disorders associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Menke’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease, Wilson’s disease.6,7. Due to biological significance of Cu, several efforts have made to develop accurate detection techniques for Copper especially in low concentration in aqueous solution8-11. In this study, a highly sensitive and selective fluorescent chemosensor based on anthracene iminoconjugates12 for Copper is examined. The studies with copper based receptors continue to intrigue chemists. Fluorescent chemosensors is elucidated on the basis of host guest concept in the solution13-16. Metal stimulated aggregation17system which shows significant time dependent fluorescence and absorption changes. The aggregation was seen in the form of circular ring sized polymers from the images obtained from advanced microscopy techniques. Synthesized

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a series of anthracene derivatives and studied their fluorescence response towards different transition metal18 ions.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

General Information and Materials: Emission and absorption

spectra were measured on fluorescence and absorption spectrometers respectively. All the solvents used were of HPLC grade. All the metal perchlorate salts, viz., NaClO4.H2O, KClO4, Ca(ClO4)2.4H2O,

Mg(ClO4)2.6H2O, Mn(ClO4)2.6H2O, Fe(ClO4)2.xH2O, Co(ClO4)2.6H2O, Ni(ClO4)2.6H2O, Cu(ClO4)2.6H2O, Hg(ClO4)2.4H2O, Zn(ClO4)2.6H2O, Cd(ClO4)2.H2O and Pb(ClO4)2.H2O were procured from commercial sources.

Fluorescence and absorption titrations: Fluorescence emission

spectra were measured by exciting the samples at 430 nm and the emission spectra were recorded in 440 - 600 nm range. The bulk solutions of C and metal salts were prepared in methanol. Bulk

solution concentration of C and the metal ion concentrations were

maintained at 6 10-5 M. All the measurements were made in 1 cm

quartz cell and maintained an effective cuvette concentration of Cas 5

µM in all the titrations. During the titration, the concentration of metal ions was varied accordingly in order to result in requisite mole ratios of these to C by taking a fixed volume of and/ or varying volumes

of the solution of the metal ions. The total volume of the solution used for the fluorescence measurements was maintained constant at 3 ml in all the cases by simply adding the requisite volume of methanol as the make-up solvent.

Absorption titrations: Bulk solutions were prepared by similar

procedure as given in fluorescence studies, but the C and metal

perchlorate salts were made at 6 X 10-4 M concentration. Titrations were performed by varying equivalents of [Mn+] from 0.2 to 6 and fixing

the concentration of C at 10 M.

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3. Results and Discussion

3.1.Synthesis of Schiff base ligands: Synthesized Schiff base ligands

by a one-step condensation reaction. A solution of anthracene aldehyde in ethanol was added slowly to a solution of corresponding amines. The reaction mixture was heated to reflux for 6 h with constant stirring. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and the precipitate was filtered filtered. The precipitate was washed with ethanol and dried under vacuum to obtain Schiff base ligands in good

yields (Scheme 1). All the synthesized Schiff base ligands (C1-C2) were characterized by NMR spectroscopy, Mass spectrometry and IR.

N N OH

C1 C2

Molecular structure of C1 and C2.

OH N R

R-NH2C2H5OH

Reflux, 6h

R= NH2 and H2N OH

Scheme-1

3.2. Fluorometric detection of Cu2+ using schiff base ligands

Solution preparation: The fluorescence titrations were carried out in

absolute ethanol solvent. A stock solution of 10-3 M was prepared both for the ligand and for the metal ions. The ligandsconcentration was

14



held constant (50 µL) and metal ion concentration was increased to vary the metal to ligand ratio (0 to 20 equivalent). The fluorescence responses of the same set of sample solutions were recorded at different time instants and marked as: T0, recorded just after metal addition; T1, after one hour and so on till saturation.

Figure 01: (a) Spectra from fluorescence titration of C (λex= 380nm, 5

µM) with Cu2+; (b) Plot of (Io/I) vs. [Cu2+] / [C] mole ratio. Plot of

relative fluorescence intensity (I/I0) against mole ratio. Histogram showing the number of folds of fluorescence enhancement (Io/I) in the titration of C with different time intervals

The fluorescence properties of ligands C1and C2were studied upon

addition of 20.0 equivalents. of Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Hg2+, Pb2+, and Cu2+ in methanol solution. The ligand C2showed weak fluorescence emission at 410 nm

upon excitation at 380 nm. Interestingly, fluorescence was enhanced in the presence of Cu2+ (Fig. 01). There was no significant change the

400 450 500 550 6000

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emission behaviour of C2with other metal ions. Next we studied the

fluorescence response of ligand. From the bar graph it is clear that increment in case of C1 (red) C2 (black) which indicates involvement of one –OH group in C2.

3.3. Absorbance study of Schiff base ligands with Cu2+

Solution preparation: Absorption titrations were carried out at stock

solution concentration of 5x10-3M. The concentration was used to get more intensity in 300 to 500nm reason. Time dependent absorptions studies were carried out similar to fluorescence titrations.

The result obtained from absorption clearly indicates significant

spectral changes in 350 to 400nm band with respect to time.

C1ligand against Cu2+ absorption titration

Figure 02: Absorption spectra of C1 against Cu2+ recorded at different time intervals T0, T1, T3, T6, T12 and T24 at concentration (5x10-3M) to explore 300 to 500nm region.

The absorption spectrum of C2in ethanol shows a maximum at 330, 350

and 380 nm and the emission spectrum shows an intense peak around 410 nm. Upon the addition of 2 equivalents of Cu(ClO4)2 in ethanol

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C1-T 12

300 350 400 450 5000.00

0.25

0.50


Abs

orba

nce

C1-T24

W avelength (nm)

16



solution of C2. Upon an increase in the concentration of Cu2+ in the

medium, the absorbance of C2 at 410 nm continues to increase, with

concomitant formation of new bands at around 440 and 380 nm (Figure 02). The presence of isosbestic point at 390 nm indicates the presence of multiple equilibria in the complexation event.

C2ligand against Cu2+ absorption titration

Figure 03: Absorption spectra of C2 against Cu2+ recorded at T0, T1, T3 and T24 at high concentration (5x10-3M) to explore 300 to 500nm region.

4. Microscopy studies

AFM Studies of C2 in presence of Cu2+

Microscopy of C and its Cu2+comple: The compound C adopts spherical

shape particles which are well spread all over the mica surface as studied by AFM (Figure 4) at different time intervals T0, T1, T3, T6, T12 and T24 at concentration (5x10-3M). However, in the presence of

17



Cu2+, at T0 to T 24 hours these particles aggregate to result in larger ones due to the involvement of Cu2+ which is capable of bringing C

together through coordination followed by stack rings statures of such complexes. Majority of these particles bear sizes in the range 100 to 150 nm (Figure 4).

Figure 04: AFM images obtained with C2 in presence of Cu2+.

As shown above are image obtained from atomic force microscopy which clearly indicates formation of nano sized circular polymer.

5. Conclusions:

A new and simple molecular receptor system C linked to anthracene

through imine moiety has been synthesized and characterized. C

shows selective sensing of Cu2+ ion by exhibiting a 352 fold

enhancement in fluorescence intensity among the thirteen ions, viz., Na+, Mg2+, K+, Ca2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Hg2+ and

18



Pb2+, studied in methanol. Moreover, none of these ions was found to compete with Cu2+ for binding to C. The complexation of C by Cu2+ has

been shown by microscopy and absorption spectroscopy through exhibiting isobestic behavior.

6. Acknowledgement

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by Department of science and Technology and council of scientific and industrial research. They are also indebted to IICT, Hyderabad, for providing the facilities of elemental analysis. They are also thankful to

Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapuramu for providing facilities to carry out research work.

References 1. M. C. Lindler and M. H. Azam, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 1996, 63,

797S. 2. B. Sarkar, Chem. Rev., 1999, 99, 2535. 3. H. Tapiero, D. M. Townsend and K. D Tew, Biomed.Pharmacol.,

2003, 57, 386–398. 4. E. Gaggelli, H. Kozlowski, D. Valensin and G. Valensin, Chem.

Rev., 2006, 106, 1995- 2044

5. B. Sarkar, Chem. Rev., 1999, 99, 2535; (b) K. J. Barnham, C. L. Masters and A. I. Bush,Nat. Rev. Drug Discovery, 2004, 3, 205.

6. C. L. Masters and A. I. Bush, Nat. Rev. Drug Discovery, 2004, 3, 205.

7. K. J. Barnham, C. L. Mastersband, A. I Bush, Nat. Rev. Drug Discovery, 2004, 3, 205

8. Guo, Z. Q. Chen, W. Q.; Duan, X. M. Org. Lett. 2010, 12, 2202; 9. Gunnlaugsson, J. Leonard, J. p. Murray, N. S. Org Lett. 2004,

6, 1557

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10. Chen, W. T. G. Guo, Chem. Commun. 2009, 1736. 11. Y. Yuming, Z. Qiang, F. Wei and L. Fuyou, Chem. Rev., 2013,

113, 192–270. 12. K. Rameshbabu, K. Venu Gopal, A. Jayaraju, G. Nageswara

Reddy and J. Sreeramulu;J. Chem. Pharm. Res., 2014, 6(4):715-

719. 13. S. K. Kim, S. H. Lee, J.Y. Lee, R. A. Bartsch, and J. S. Kim, J.

Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 16499-165506. 14. S. K. Kim, S. H. Kim, H. J. Kim, S. H. Lee, S. W. Lee, J. Ko, R.

A. Bartsch and J. S.Kim, Inorg.Chem. 2005, 44, 7866-7875. 15. S. J. Lee, J. H. Jung, J. Seo, I. Yoon, K. M. Park, L. F. Lindoy

and S. S. Lee, Org. Lett., 2006, 8, 1641-1643.

16. S. H. Lee, H. J. Kim, Y. o. Lee, J. Vicens and J. S.Kim, TetrahedranLett., 2006, 47, 4373- 4376.

17. Liang Huang,Ju Cheng,KefengXie,c Pinxian Xi, Fengping Hou, Zhengpeng Li, Guoqiang Xie, YanjunShi, nHongyan Liu, DechengBaib and

Zhengzhi Zeng; Dalton Trans., 2011, 40, 10815–10817.

18. SooJin Lee, Shim Sung Lee, MyoungSooLah,b Jae-Min Hongc and Jong Hwa Jung, Chem. Commun., 2006, 4539–4541.

20



AN APPLICATION OF GENERALIZED INTERVAL VALUED FUZZY NEUTROSOPHIC SOFT SETS IN DECISION MAKING

I.R.Sumathi

Department of Mathematics Nirmala College for Women

Coimbatore Tamilnadu, India

I.Arockiarani Department of Mathematics Nirmala College for Women

Coimbatore Tamilnadu, India

1. INTRODUCTION

Many practical problems in economics, engineering, environment, social science, medical science etc. cannot be dealt with

by classical methods, because classical methods have inherent difficulties. The reason for these difficulties may be due to the inadequacy of the theories of parameterization tools. Molodtsov [14] initiated the concept of soft set theory as a new mathematical tool for dealing with uncertainties. Maji et al. [8,9] presented the concept of fuzzy soft sets and intuitionistic fuzzy soft set. The theory of fuzzy sets, first developed by Zadeh in [21], is perhaps the most appropriate framework for dealing with uncertainties. The concept of intuitionistic fuzzy sets which is a generalization of fuzzy sets was introduced by Atanassov in [3].

The concept of Neutrosophic set which is a mathematical tool for handling problems involving imprecise, indeterminacy and inconsistent data was introduced by F. Smarandache [15, 16].In neutrosophic set, indeterminacy is quantified explicitly and truth-

membership, indeterminacy-membership and falsity-membership are independent. This assumption is very important in many applications such as information fusion in which we try to combine the data from different sensors. Pabitra Kumar Maji [12] had combined the Neutrosophic set with soft sets and introduced a new mathematical

21



model ‘Neutrosophic soft set’. Yang et al.[18] presented the concept of interval valued fuzzy soft sets by combining the interval valued fuzzy set and soft set models. Jiang.Y et al.[6] introduced interval valued intuitionistic fuzzy soft set which is an interval valued fuzzy extension of the intuitionistic fuzzy soft set theory. In this paper we define

generalized interval valued fuzzy neutrosophic soft set and investigate some of its properties. Also we give the solution for decision making problem using generalized interval valued fuzzy neutrosophic soft set.

2. PRELIMINARIES

Definition 2.1[1]: A fuzzy neutrosophic set A on the universe of

discourse X is defined as

A=⟨ , ( ), ( ), ( )⟩, ∈ where , , : → [0, 1] and

3)()()(0 xFxIxT AAA .

Definition 2.2[2]: An interval valued fuzzy neutrosophic set (IVFNS

in short) on a universe X is an object of the form

)(),(),(, xAFxAIxATxA where

TA(x) = X Int ([0,1]) , IA(x) = X Int ([0,1]) and FA(x) = X Int

([0,1]) {Int([0,1]) stands for the set of all closed subinterval of [0,1]

satisfies the condition xX, supTA(x) + supIA(x) + supFA(x) 3.

Definition 2.3[2]: Let U be an initial universe and E be a set of

parameters. IVFNS(U) denotes the set of all interval valued fuzzy

neutrosophic sets of U. Let AE. A pair (F,A) is an interval valued

fuzzy neutrosophic soft set over U, where F is a mapping given by

F: A IVFNS(U).

Note : Interval valued fuzzy neutrosophic soft set/sets is denoted by IVFNSS/IVFNSSs.

22



Definition 2.4[2]: The complement of an INFNSS (F,A) is denoted by

(F,A)c and is defined as (F,A)c = (Fc , A) where Fc: A IVFNSS(U) is

a mapping given by

)]()(

1),()(

1[

)()(

1)()(

)()(

,)()(

),()(

,)(

xeF

IxeF

I

xeF

I

c

xeF

I

AeandUxallfor

xeF

T

c

xeF

IxeF

FxecF

Definition 2.5[2]: The union of two IVFNSS (F,A) and (G,B) over a

universe U is an IVFNSS (H,C) where C = AB eC.

UxBAeifxTxT

xTxTUxABeifxTUxBAeifxT

xT

eGeF

eGeF

eG

eF

eH

,))](),(sup(

)),(),([sup(

,)(

,)(

)(

)()(

)()(

)(

)(

)(

UxBAeifxIxIxIxI

UxABeifxIUxBAeifxI

xI

eGeFeGeF

eG

eF

eH

,))](),(sup()),(),([sup(

,)(,)(

)(

)()()()(

)(

)(

)(

UxBAeifxFxFxFxF

UxABeifxFUxBAeifxF

xF

eGeFeGeF

eG

eF

eH

,))](),(inf()),(),([inf(

,)(,)(

)(

)()()()(

)(

)(

)(

23



Definition 2.6[2]: The intersection of two IVFNSS (F,A) and (G,B)

over a universe U is an IVFNSS (H,C) where C = AB eC.

UxBAeifxTxTxTxT

UxABeifxTUxBAeifxT

xT

eGeFeGeF

eG

eF

eH

,))](),(inf()),(),([inf(

,)(,)(

)(

)()()()(

)(

)(

)(

UxBAeifxIxIxIxI

UxABeifxIUxBAeifxI

xI

eGeFeGeF

eG

eF

eH

,))](),(inf()),(),([inf(

,)(

,)(

)(

)()()()(

)(

)(

)(

UxBAeifxFxFxFxF

UxABeifxFUxBAeifxF

xF

eGeFeGeF

eG

eF

eH

,))](),(sup()),(),([sup(

,)(

,)(

)(

)()()()(

)(

)(

)(

3. GENERALISED INTERVAL VALUED FUZZY NEUTROSOPHIC SOFT SETS

DEFINITION: 3.1

Let U be an initial universe and E be the set of parameters , A E,

∶ → ( ) and let be an interval valued fuzzy set of A , ∶ →[0,1] .Define a function ∶ → ( ) × ([0,1]) as

(e)= (( ( )( ), ( )( )), ( )( ))

, ( )) where

( )(ℎ) = [ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)] is an interval value and is called the

degree of membership of an element h to ( ), ( )(ℎ) = [ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)] is an interval value and is called

the degree of indeterminacy of an element h to ( ) , ( )(ℎ) =[ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)] is an interval value and is called the degree of

24



non-membership of an element h to ( ) and ( ) is called degree of

possibility of such belongingness. Then is called type1 generalized interval valued fuzzy neutrosophic soft set over the soft universe (U,E).

Here for each parameter, e, ( ) indicates not only the degree of

membership, indeterminacy and non-membership of elements of U in ( ),but also the degree of preference of such belongingness which is

represented by ( ).

DEFINITION 3.2: Let U be an initial universe and E be the set of

parameters , A E, ∶ → ( ) and let be an interval valued fuzzy

set of A , ∶ → ([0,1]) where ([0,1]) denotes the set of all closed

subintervals of [0,1]. Define a function ∶ → ( ) ×

([0,1]) as (e)= (( ( )( ), ( )( )), ( )( ))

, ( )) where ( )(ℎ) =

[ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)] , ( )(ℎ) = [ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)] , ( )(ℎ) =[ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)] are interval values and are called the degree of

membership, indeterminacy and non-membership respectively of an

element h to ( ) and ( ) = [ ( ), ( )] is an interval value and is

called degree of possibility of such belongingness. Then is called

type2 generalized interval valued fuzzy neutrosophic soft set over the soft universe (U,E).

It is clear that if ( ) = ( ) holds for each aA, then type2

generalized interval

valued fuzzy neutrosophic soft set will degenerate to the type1 generalized interval valued fuzzy neutrosophic soft set. In this paper, the type 2 generalized interval valued fuzzy neutrosophic soft set is denoted by GIVFNS-set in short.

25



EXAMPLE: 3.3

Let U= {h1,h2,h3} be the set of mobile telephones and

A={e1, e2,e3}E a set of parameters. The ei(i=1,2,3) stand for the

parameters “expensive”, “beautiful”, and “multifunctional”

respectively. Let ∶ → ( ) × ([0,1]) be a function given as follows:

( )

=

⎝

⎜⎛

⎩⎨

⎧ℎ

([0.4,0.6], [0.5,0.6], [0.2,0.4]) ,ℎ

([0.6,0.7], [0.7,0.8], [0.2,0.3]) ,

ℎ([0.5,0.6], [0.7,0.8], [0.3,0.4]) , ⎭

⎬

⎫,

[0.2,0.35]

⎠

⎟⎞

( )

=

⎝

⎜⎛

⎩⎨

⎧ℎ

([0.5,0.6], [0.2,0.3], [0.8,0.9]) ,ℎ

([0.7,0.8], [0.0,0.1], [0.2,0.3]) ,

ℎ([0.6,0.7], [0.1,0.2], [0.1,0.3]) , ⎭

⎬

⎫,

[0.15,0.25]

⎠

⎟⎞

( )

=

⎝

⎜⎛

⎩⎨

⎧ℎ

([0.3,0.6], [0.3,0.5], [0.8,0.9]) ,ℎ

([0.4,0.5], [0.2,0.4], [0.7,0.9]) ,

ℎ([0.5,0.6], [0.2,0.3], [0.3,0.4]) , ⎭

⎬

⎫,

[0.385,0.5]

⎠

⎟⎞

Then is a GIVFNS set.

DEFINITION: 3.4

Let and be GIVFNS set over (U,E) . Then is called a GIVFNS

subset of if ,

(i) A B , where A and B are subsets of E .

26



(ii) ( ) is an interval valued fuzzy neutrosophic subset of ( ) for

any e A, that is

( )(ℎ) ≤ ( )(ℎ) and ( )(ℎ) ≤ ( )(ℎ),

( )(ℎ) ≤ ( )(ℎ) and ( )(ℎ) ≤ ( )(ℎ),

( )(ℎ) ≥ ( )(ℎ) and ( )(ℎ) ≥ ( )(ℎ) for any h U

and e A.

(iii) is an interval valued subset of that is ( )(ℎ) ≤ ( )(ℎ)

and ( )(ℎ) ≤ ( )(ℎ) for any e A.

The above relationship is denoted by and is said to be

GIVFNS superset of .

DEFINITION: 3.5

If and are two GIVFNS set over (U, E) . Then and are said

to be equal if is a subset of and is a subset of .

DEFINITION: 3.6

The complement of GIVFNS set is denoted by ( ) which is defined

as

)(,)(),(),(

)(~

)(~)(~)(~e

hThIhFheF c

eFc

eFeF

where ( )(ℎ) =

[1 − ( )(ℎ), 1 − ( )(ℎ)] and ( ) = [1 − ( ), 1 − ( )].

EXAMPLE: 3.7

Let us consider and as follows ,

( )

=ℎ

([0.1,0.3], [0.2,0.4], [0.3,0.5]),

ℎ([0.4,0.6], [0.5,0.7][0.2,0.3])

, [0.2,0.4]

27



( )

=ℎ

([0.3,0.6], [0.4,0.7], [0.2,0.3]),

ℎ([0.5,0.7], [0.6,0.8], [0.1,0.2])

, [0.3,0.5]

( )

=ℎ

([0.2,0.4], [0.3,0.5], [0.3,0.5]),

ℎ([0.7,0.9], [0.8,1.0][0,0.1])

, [0.4,0.5]

( )

=ℎ

([0.5,0.7], [0.6,0.8], [0.1,0.3]),

ℎ([0.6,0.8], [0.7,0.9], [0.1,0.2 )

, [0.4,0.6]

Here is a subset of .

EXAMPLE: 3.8

Suppose is same as in example 3.7, then the complement of which

is denoted as ( ) is as follows

( )

=ℎ

([0.3,0.5], [0.6,0.8], [0.1,0.3]),

ℎ([0.2,0.3], [0.3,0.5], [0.4,0.6])

, [0.6,0.8]

( )

=ℎ

([0.2,0.3], [0.3,0.6], [0.3,0.6]),

ℎ([0.1,0.2], [0.2,0.4], [0.5,0.7])

, [0.5,0.7]

DEFINITION: 3.9

Let ]1,1[1 and ]0,0[0

(i) A GIVFNS set over the universe U is said to be absolute GIVFNS set denoted by

A~

if, ( )(ℎ) = 1, ( )(ℎ) = 1, ( )(ℎ) = 0 ( ) = 1∀ ∈

ℎ ∈ .

28



(ii) A GIVFNS set over the universe U is said to be null GIVFNS

set denoted by A~

if

( )(ℎ) = 0, ( )(ℎ) = 0, ( )(ℎ) = 1 ( ) = 0∀ ∈ ℎ ∈ .

DEFINITION: 3.10

The union of two GIVFNS sets and over (U,E) denoted by

⋃ is a GIVFNS set and defined as (e)= ∪ → ( ) ×([0,1]) such that for all ℎ ∈ ∈ ∪ .

BAeifehFhIhT

h

ABeifehFhIhT

h

BAeifehFhIhT

h

eH

eHeHeH

eGeGeG

eFeFeF

,)(,)(),(),(

,)(,)(),(),(

,)(,)(),(),(

)(~

)(~)(~)(~

)(~)(~)(~

)(~)(~)(~

where

( )(ℎ) = max{ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)} , ( )(ℎ) = max{ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)} ,

( )(ℎ) = min{ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)} and ( ) = max { ( ), ( )}.

DEFINITION: 3.11

The intersection of two GIVFNS sets and over (U,E)

denoted by ∩ is a GIVFNS set and defined as (e)= ∪ →( ) × ([0,1]) such that for all ℎ ∈ ∈ ∪ .

29



BAeifehFhIhT

h

ABeifehFhIhT

h

BAeifehFhIhT

h

eH

eHeHeH

eGeGeG

eFeFeF

,)(,)(),(),(

,)(,)(),(),(

,)(,)(),(),(

)(~

)(~)(~)(~

)(~)(~)(~

)(~)(~)(~

where

( )(ℎ) = min{ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)} , ( )(ℎ) = min{ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)} ,

( )(ℎ) = max{ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)} and ( ) = min { ( ), ( )}.

EXAMPLE: 3.12

Consider the example 3.7,

∪ ( )

=ℎ

([0.2,0.4], [0.3,0.5][0.3,0.5]),

ℎ([0.7,0.9], [0.8,1.0], [0,0.1])

, [0.4,0.5]

∪ ( )

=ℎ

([0.5,0.7], [0.6,0.8], [0.1,0.3]),

ℎ([0.6,0.8], [0.7,0.9], [0.1,0.2])

, [0.4,0.6]

∩ ( )

=ℎ

([0.1,0.3], [0.2,0.4], [0.3,0.5]),

ℎ([0.4,0.6], [0.5,0.7], [0.2,0.3])

, [0.2,0.4]

∩ ( )

=ℎ

([0.3,0.6], [0.4,0.7], [0.2,0.3]),

ℎ([0.5,0.7], [0.6,0.8], [0.1,0.2])

, [0.3,0.5]

PROPOSITION: 3.13

30



Let be a GIVFNS set over (U, E) ,then the following holds:

(i) ∪ = .

(ii) ∩ = .

(iii) ∪ ~ =~

(iv) ∩ ~ = .

Proof: It is easily obtained from definition.

THEOREM: 3.14

Let , and be GIVFNS sets over (U,E), then the following are

true,

(i) ∪ = ∪ .

(ii) ∩ = ∩ .

(iii) ∪( ∪ ) = ( ∪ ) ∪ .

(iv) ∩ ( ∩ ) = ( ∩ ) ∩ .

Proof: The proof is straight forward from the definition.

DEFINITION: 3.15

The “AND” of two GIVFNS set and over (U,E) denoted by Let

~ is defined as : A B ( ) × ([0,1]) such that for all hU

and (a,b)AB,

),(,)(),(),(

),(~

),(~),(~),(~ba

hFhIhThbaH

baHbaHbaH

where

)(),(~ hT baH = min( )()(~ hT aF , )()(~ hT bG ) = [min( )()(~ hT

aF , )()(~ hT bG

), min(

)()(~ hT

aF , )()(~ hT bG

)],

31



)(),(~ hI baH = min( )()(~ hI aF , )()(~ hI bG ) = [min( )()(~ hI

aF , )()(~ hI bG

), min(

)()(~ hI

aF , )()(~ hI bG

)],

)(),(~ hF baH = max( )()(~ hF aF , )()(~ hF bG ) = [max( )()(~ hF

aF , )()(~ hF bG

), max(

)()(~ hF

aF , )()(~ hF bG

)]

),( ba = min( )(a , )(b ) = [min( )(a , )(b ), min( )(a , )(b )].

DEFINITION: 3.16

The “OR” of two GIVFNS set and over (U,E) denoted by Let

~ is defined as : A B ( ) × ([0,1]) such that for all hU

and (a,b)AB,

),(,)(),(),(

),(~

),(~),(~),(~ba

hFhIhThbaH

baHbaHbaH

where

)(),(~ hT baH = max( )()(~ hT aF , )()(~ hT bG ) = [max( )()(~ hT

aF , )()(~ hT bG

), max(

)()(~ hT

aF , )()(~ hT bG

)],

)(),(~ hI baH = max( )()(~ hI aF , )()(~ hI bG ) = [max( )()(~ hI

aF , )()(~ hI bG

), max(

)()(~ hI

aF , )()(~ hI bG

)],

)(),(~ hF baH = min( )()(~ hF aF , )()(~ hF bG ) = [min( )()(~ hF

aF , )()(~ hF bG

), min(

)()(~ hF

aF , )()(~ hF bG

)]

),( ba = max( )(a , )(b ) = [max( )(a , )(b ), max( )(a , )(b)].

32



THEOREM 3.17:

Let , and be three GIVFNS sets over (U,E). Then the following

holds

(i) ~ ( ~ )= ( ~ )~

(ii) ~ ( ~ )= ( ~ ) ~

THEOREM 3.18:

Let and be two GIVFNS sets over (U,E). Then the following

holds

(i) ( ~ )c= ~ ( )c

(ii) ( ~ )c= ~ ( )c

Proof:

(i) Suppose that ( ~ ) = , then C = AB and for all (a,b)C,

hU,

)(),(~ hT baH = max( )()(~ hT aF , )()(~ hT bG ) = [max( )()(~ hT

aF , )()(~ hT bG

), max(

)()(~ hT

aF , )()(~ hT bG

)],

)(),(~ hI baH = max( )()(~ hI aF , )()(~ hI bG ) = [max( )()(~ hI

aF , )()(~ hI bG

), max(

)()(~ hI

aF , )()(~ hI bG

)],

)(),(~ hF baH = min( )()(~ hF aF , )()(~ hF bG ) = [min( )()(~ hF

aF , )()(~ hF bG

), min(

)()(~ hF

aF , )()(~ hF bG

)]

),( ba = max( )(a , )(b ) = [max( )(a , )(b ), max( )(a , )(b)].

33



Moreover we have ( ~ )c =( )c , C = AB and for all (a,b)C, hU,

)(),(~ hT

bacH=[min( )(

)(~ hFaF

, )()(~ hF bG ), min( )(

)(~ hFaF

, )()(~ hF bG )]

)(),(~ hI

bacH= [1 – max( )(

)(~ hIaF

, )()(~ hI bG ),1 – max( )(

)(~ hIaF

, )()(~ hI bG )],

)(),(~ hF

bacH= [max( )(

)(~ hTaF

, )()(~ hT bG ), max( )(

)(~ hTaF

, )()(~ hT bG )],

),( bac = [1 – max( )(a , )(b ),1 – max( )(a , )(b )].

------(1)

Let ~ ( )c = J~ , D = AB and for all (a,b)D, hU,

)(,)(),(),(

)(~

)(~)(~)(~a

hThIhFhaF c

aFc

aFaF

c

)()(~ hT

acF=[ )(

)(~ hFaF

, )()(~ hF

aF ], )(

)(~ hIacF

=[1 – )()(~ hI

aF ,1 – )(

)(~ hIaF

]

)()(~ hF

acF=[ )(

)(~ hTaF

, )()(~ hT

aF ] and ( ) = [1 − ( ), 1− ( )].

)(,)(),(),(

)(~

)(~)(~)(~b

hThIhFhbG c

bGc

bGbG

c

)()(~ hT

bcG=[ )(

)(~ hFbG

, )()(~ hF bG ], )(

)(~ hIbcG

=[1 – )()(~ hI

bG ,1 – )(

)(~ hIbG

]

)()(~ hF

bcG=[ )(

)(~ hTbG

, )()(~ hT bG ] and ( ) = [1 − ( ), 1− ( )].

~ ( )c =

34



)(),(~ hT baJ =[min( )()(~ hF

aF , )()(~ hF bG

), min( )()(~ hF

aF , )()(~ hF bG

)]

)(),(~ hI baJ = min(1 – )()(~ hI

aF ,1 – )()(~ hI bG

),min(1 – )()(~ hI

aF ,1 – )()(~ hI bG

)]

= [1 – max( )()(~ hI

aF , )()(~ hI bG

),1 – max( )()(~ hI

aF , )()(~ hI bG

)],

------(2)

)(),(~ hF baJ = [max( )()(~ hT

aF , )()(~ hT bG

), max( )()(~ hT

aF , )()(~ hT bG

)],

),( ba = min (1 – )(a ,1 – )(b ),min(1 – )(a ,1 – )(b )]

= [1 – max( )(a , )(b ),1 – max( )(a , )(b )]

Therefore and J~ are the same GIVFNS sets. Thus ( ~ )c=

~ ( )c

Similarly we can prove (ii).

4. AN APPLICATION OF GENERALIZED FUZZY NEUTROSSOPHIC SOFT SET

In this section we apply GIVFNS set in decision making problem. We first give the following definition.

Definition 4.1:

Let be a GIVFNS set , hi, hj U and ek A Then we define a characteristic function as follows.

otherwise

jhke

FFih

keF

Fjhke

FIih

keF

Ijhke

FTih

keF

Tif

jhihfke

,]0,0[

)(~)(~),(~)(~),(~)(~],1,1[),(

That is ( )(ℎ ) ≥ ( ) ℎ and ( )(ℎ ) ≥ ( ) ℎ ,

35



( )(ℎ ) ≥ ( ) ℎ and ( )(ℎ ) ≥ ( ) ℎ ,

( )(ℎ ) ≤ ( ) ℎ and ( )(ℎ ) ≤ ( ) ℎ ,

Definition 4.2:

Let be a GIVFNS set. The generalized comparison table

about , is a square table in which the number of rows and number of columns are equal. Both rows and columns are labeled by the object names of the universes such as h1, h2 ,…hn, and the entries are Cij, given as follows:

)().,(1

kji

m

keij ehhfC

k

, i.j = 1,2, …n

where ),( jhihfke = )],(),,([ jhihfjhihf keke and

)](),([)( kkk eee

for i,j = 1,2,…n, k = 1, 2,…m and ))()((1

k

m

kkii eeC

where n

and m are the number of objects and parameters present in GIVFNS

set respectively.

Definition 4.3:

In the generalized comparison table, the row sum and the column sum of an object hi are denoted by ri and ci respectively, and the score function of hi is denoted as Si which is defined as Si = ri – ci .

Algorithm:

(i) Obtain the objects set U and the parameter set A E.

(ii) Consider the GIVFNS set in tabular form.(Table1)

(iii) Convert the indeterministic value into deterministic value by using the formula

36



( )(ℎ) = [ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)] ,

( )(ℎ) = [1 − ( )(ℎ), 1 − ( )(ℎ)] , ( )(ℎ) =[ ( )(ℎ), ( )(ℎ)] and ( ) = [ ( ), ( )] for the

GIVFNS set for the tabular form which is obtained in step (ii) (Table 2)

(iv) Construct the generalized comparison table for the entries obtained in step (iii) using the definition 4.2. (Table 3)

(v) Compute the score of each hi using row sum and column sum.(Table 4)

(vi) The optimal decision is to select hk if the score hk is

maximum.

(vii) If k has more than one value then any one of hk may be chosen.

To illustrate the idea of the above algorithm , consider the following example.

There is a company which wants to invest a sum of money to an industry. There are four alternatives which can be considered by the panel.

1. Car Company (A1) 2. Food company (A2) 3. Computer company(A3 4. Arms Company (A4).

The evaluation on the alternative is based on three criteria (i) Risk(C1) (ii). Environmental impact (C2) and (iii) growth (C3). The information can be obtained by the GIVFNS set as shown in the table 1

37



TABLE 1

C1 C2 C3

A1 ([0.4,0.5],[0.2,0.3],[0.3,0.4]) ([0.4,0.6],[0.1,0.3],[0.2,0.4]) ([0.7,0.9],[0.2,0.3],[0.4,0.5])

A2 ([0.6,0.7],[0.1,0.2],[0.2,0.3]) ([0.6,0.7],[0.1,0.2],[0.2,0.3]) ([0.3,0.6],[0.3,0.5],[0.8,0.9])

A3 ([0.3,0.6],[0.2,0.3],[0.3,0.4]) ([0.5,0.6],[0.2,0.3],[0.3,0.4]) ([0.4,0.5],[0.2,0.4],[0.7,0.9])

A4 ([0.7,0.8],[0.0,0.1],[0.1,0.2]) ([0.6,0.7],[0.1,0.2],[0.1,0.3]) ([0.6,0.7],[0.3,0.4],[0.8,0.9])

[0.361,0.371] [0.192,0.202] [0.432,0.442]

TABLE 2

C1 C2 C3

A1 ([0.4,0.5],[0.7,0.8],[0.3,0.4]) ([0.4,0.6],[0.7,0.9],[0.2,0.4]) ([0.7,0.9],[0.7,0.8],[0.4,0.5])

A2 ([0.6,0.7],[0.8,0.9],[0.2,0.3]) ([0.6,0.7],[0.8,0.9],[0.2,0.3]) ([0.3,0.6],[0.5,0.7],[0.8,0.9])

A3 ([0.3,0.6],[0.7,0.8],[0.3,0.4]) ([0.5,0.6],[0.7,0.8],[0.3,0.4]) ([0.4,0.5],[0.6,0.8],[0.7,0.9])

A4 ([0.7,0.8],[0.9,1.0],[0.1,0.2]) ([0.6,0.7],[0.8,0.9],[0.1,0.3]) ([0.6,0.7],[0.6,0.7],[0.8,0.9])

[0.361,0.371] [0.192,0.202] [0.432,0.442]

TABLE 3

A1 A2 A3 A4

A1 2 0.874 0.874 0.874 A2 1.126 2 1.126 0 A3 0 0 2 0 A4 1.126 2 1.126 2

TABLE 4

Row sum (ri) Column sum(ci) ri – ci

A1 4.622 4.252 0.37 A2 4.252 4.874 -0.622 A3 2 5.126 -3.126 A4 6.252 2.874 3.378

From Table 4 , it is clear that the maximum score is A4 = 3.378. Hence the optimal alternative is A4.

38



References:

1. I.Arockiarani, I.R.Sumathi,J.Martina Jency, “Fuzzy Neutrosophic Soft Topological Spaces”IJMA-4(10), 2013, 225-238.

2. I.Arockiarani & I.R.Sumathi, “Some results on interval valued fuzzy neutrosophic soft sets”IJIRS, Vol 3 Issue 5 386-405

3. K.T . Atanassov (1984), Intuitionistic fuzzy sets , Fuzzy Sets and Systems 20,87-96.

4. K.T . Atanassov (1989), Interval valued intuitionistic fuzzy sets , Fuzzy Sets Systems 31(3), 343-349.

5. K.T . Atanassov (1994), Operators over interval valued intuitionistic fuzzy sets , , Fuzzy Sets Systems 64, 159-174.

6. Y.Jiang, Y. Tang, Q.Chen, H.Liu,J.Tang,(2010) Interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy soft sets and their properties, Computers And Mathematics With Applications, 60,906-918.

7. Jinyan Wang,Minghao Yin and Wenxiang Gu (2012) ‘Notes on : Interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy soft sets and their properties’, Computers And Mathematics With Applications,64, 2954-2960.

8. P.K.Maji , R. Biswas ans A.R.Roy, “Fuzzy soft sets”, Journal of Fuzzy Mathematics,Vol 9, no.3, pp – 589-602, 2001

9. P.K.Maji, R. Biswas ans A.R.Roy, “Intuitionistic Fuzzy soft sets”, The journal of fuzzy Mathematics, Vol 9, (3)(2001), 677 – 692.

10. Maji . P.K , Biswas.R and Roy A.R,(2002), ‘An Application Of Soft Sets In Decision Making Problems ’, Computers And Mathematics With Applications, 45,1077-1083

11. Maji . P.K , Biswas.R and Roy A.R,(2003), ‘Soft Set Theory’, Computers And Mathematics With Applications, 45(4-5), 555-562.

12. Pabitra Kumar Maji, Neutrosophic soft set, Annals of Fuzzy Mathematics and Informatics, Volume 5, No.1,(2013).,157-168.

13. Manoranjan Bhowmik and Madhumangal Pal, (2012) Some Results on Generalized Interval- Valued Intuitionistic Fuzzy Sets, International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,14(2), 193-203.

14. Molodtsov.D,(1999), ‘Soft set theory – First results’, Computers And Mathematics With Applications,37(4-5),19-31.

39



15. F.Smarandache, Neutrosophy and Neutrosophic Logic, First International Conference on Neutrosophy, Neutrosophic Logic, Set, Probability and Statistics University of New Mexico, Gallup, NM 87301, USA (2002).

16. F.Smarandache, Neutrosophic set, a generialization of the intuituionistics fuzzy sets, Inter. J. Pure Appl.Math., 24 (2005), 287 – 297.

17. Xiaoqiang Zhou , Qingguo Li and Lankun Guo , (2012), On Generalised Interval-Valued Fuzzy Soft Sets, Journal of Applied Mathematics, 1-18.

18. X.B.Yang, T.N.Lin, J.Y.Yang, Y.Li, D, Yu, “Combination of interval valued fuzzy sets and soft set”,Computer and Mathematics with applications 58 (3)(2009) 521-527.

19. Young Chel Kwun , Jin Han Park , Ja Hong Koo and Yong Kyun Lee, (2012) , An application of Generalized Interval – Valued Intuitionistic Fuzzy Soft Sets in a Decision Making Problem. Springer, 193-198.

20. Yuncheng Jiang, Yong Tang, Qimai Chen, Hai Liu, Jianchao Tang, (2010), Interval Valued Intuitionistic Fuzzy Soft Sets and Their Properties, Computers And Mathematics With Applications,60, 906-918.

21. L.A Zadeh , (1965), Fuzzy Sets , Information And Control , 8, 338-353.

40



MANAGING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE: WITH REFERENCE TO BPR OF MEKELLE UIVERSITY

Adisu Fanta Student

Department of M.B.A Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

Background of the Study

Change refers to making things different. Innovation is a more specialized kind of change. Innovation is a new idea applied to initiating or improving a process and product or service. So all innovations involve change, but not all changes indicate new ideas or leads to significant improvement. (Robins, 1995:732)

Now, there is change in the contemporary world, both in developing and developed countries. The velocity of change is so rapid, so quick, if you don’t accept the change and move with it, you are going to be left behind. (Shafter 1996, cited in (Glinow 2000:548)

According to( Robins 1995 : 741) , if the environments were perfectly static , if employees and their abilities always up to date and incapable

of deteriorating and if tomorrow was always exactly the same as today, organizational change would have little or no relevance to managers. But the real world is so dynamic and turbulent, requiring organizations including higher institutions and their members to undergo innovative as well as radical change if they want to perform at competitive level. He said.

Hence, all modern organizations directly as well as indirectly exposed to and influenced by the change in the surroundings. They are also forced to take proactive as well as reactive measures to cope up with the change in stakeholder’s interest, customers need, technological advancement, development need of organization, competitors’ position

41



and so on. Business process reengineering (BPR) is one of the common tools in 21st century to enhance change in redesigning or rethinking the service delivery process in the best possible way to minimize cost and to satisfy customer’s needs both in for profit and non-profit organizations.

For instance, Mekelle University is one of the outstanding higher institutions in Ethiopia which implemented BPR and the study would be addressing its implementation of BPR and managing the resistance to change.

Background of the organization

Mekelle University was established in 1999 in Mekelle city. Since its establishment, the University has been tremendously growing and providing practical oriented education to all students through regular extension, in service and distance education programs. Research and consultancy and community services are also the priorities of the university. The university has gained both national and international reputation for its educational philosophy and excellence in its various areas of specialization.( http://www.mu.edu.et/indee)

Mission:- Mekelle University aspires to be one of the leading higher

institutions of teaching and learning in Ethiopia and to continually improve the reliability and quality of education , research and consultancy services to meet the needs of the society and the country .

Vision:- Mekelle university will be acknowledged as an outstanding

university on academic excellence with a community of scholars and a centre for learning where individuals can develop their intellectual

capability throughout lives in an environment that promotes academic achievements and research excellence.

The University trains in 39 bachelors and 21 master’s degree programs. It has 21, 629 students at this particular year (statistics of MU: 2002). And it accommodates 1400 academic staffs and 1600 supportive staffs. It gives regular, extension, summer and distance learning programs. It

42



has eight colleges: Social science and language, business and economics, law and governance, engineering, dry land agriculture and natural resources, natural and computational sciences, health sciences and veterinary sciences. Additionally it owns one big referral hospital

and two institutions: institute of pedagogical science and institute of pale environmental and cultural heritage. It is located in Tigray region, Mekelle city, which is 780 KMs far from Addis Ababa, capital city of Ethiopia.

Rationale of the study

In the study of Keritner and knick (1994:647) work force reduction has become a common occurrence in organizations throughout the 1980, and largely 1990s. For example, 10.8 million people in the United States were involuntarily unemployed in the year 1981 to 1988. Moreover, the survey of American Management Association (AMA) member’s shows that one-third of their work force was reduced in 1989. And more than 20 % unexpected cutback was happened in 1990. As it was shown in the study, this was the result of poor management and ability to handle the large scale change and its resistance.

Moreover, in 2001, extensive government organizations reformation was undertaken along with the launch of a national capacity building

which gave new impetus to the civil service reform in various developing countries( Paulos Chane, 2000)

More recently, the Ethiopian government introduced business process reengineering program (BPR) in all public sectors and civil service organization throughout the country. Now there are changes in bureaucratic structures, technology, people work setting and product in some of the sectors including educational sector and civil service.

However, the change has not been implemented as much as desired by change agents in both public sectors and civil service organizations. This is likely to be the result of individual and organizational level

43



resistance to change as one of factors that influence change, Robbins (1998). Even in the change for better, the resistance to change is inevitable, (Kinick & Kretiner 1998:626). Also, according to Griffin (1993) and Daft (1997) Workers resist change because of their habit,

fear of unknown, expected loss of interest and due to other personal benefits. At the organizational level, the tendency of status quo, established relation and structural rigidity becomes an obstacle. Therefore, in this article managing the resistance to change and strategies used to reduce resistance in the case of BPR implementation of MU will be articulated.

Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study were to address the main factors those which invoke employees’ resistance to change while the institution implements BPR and the extent to which strategies have been used to curb the resistance.

Significance of the study

Indeed, the study would be providing ample benefits, not only to the user organization but also to the customers, community and other researchers who have interest in conducting study in related areas. The management of user organization would be enabled to identify different sources and reasons of employee resistance to change and the appropriate strategies would be forwarded to tackle the resistance.

But also, other similar organizations or institutions within as well as outside of the country will be provided with useful insight to managing change when they intend to do reengineering of their business processes. Additionally, the research findings will throw light on the further related research areas.

44



Scope and limitation of the study

Mekelle University is deliberately selected for this study because though it seems to be far and demanding large amount of money to carry out research in this institution, it is the largest and the first higher education institution to study and implement BPR

For the study to be all around and comprehensive in exposing the

challenges in change management and in providing end-all and be-all strategies, it should have been conducted in more than one institution so that it could also be possible for comparison of its effectiveness in performance. Nevertheless, due to the hindering factors such as time and meagre financial resources, the study paid due attention and exerted all its efforts on the change management of the selected higher institution, Mekelle University.

In this article, various factors of the resistance to change and the appropriate strategies in alleviating or relinquishing that resistance would be depicted as per the change management of the institution which is understudy is concerned.

The research methodology

The research method implemented for the study was descriptive in its nature as it would be describing challenges faced and strategies selected so far in the implementation of the institution BPR. Concerning to the population of the study, it was stratified into two: Employees both

academic and supportive staffs and students of the institution.

According to (Gray 1981), out of the total population in the study area, the minimum number of sample believed to be acceptable for the study depends upon the type of the research work involved. For descriptive study survey research, a sample of 10 percent of the population is considered, for smaller population 20 % may be required, he said.

45



Therefore in this study, out of the total 1872 employees of the institution (statistics of MU: 2009), excluding employees from college of engineering because of its unique plan, 11% of the population was considered as a study sample, hence the total sample size would be 206

(11% of 1872). To collect the first hand data questionnaires were randomly distributed to the selected 206 employees and in fact, 78 % (160) questionnaires were collected for data analysis. Also, interview was conducted with Section managers and quality assurance officers and BPR officers. In addition to these data collection tools, the researcher also used annual reports and planning and budgetary documents of institution, reference books and internet website.

After the data collection, the data were analyzed and processed using descriptive statistics. The researcher implemented both field editing when questionnaire is being filled and in house editing to keep up reliability and validity of the data. To determine a framework for conducting analysis, the data were classified and organized according to their nature and were analyzed qualitatively as well as quantitatively by tabular presentation and description of the data.

Review of related Literature

Definition of change

Due to its diverse and pervasive nature, Change has been defined and understood in various ways as it was proposed by different

management scholars, authors and change agents.

According to (Griffin 2000:352) change is any substantive modification to some parts of an organization. It may be related with work schedules, departmentalization, and span of management, machinery, organizational design, people themselves and so on.

Also, as it was defined by (A. Noe’ etal’ 1996:192) , organizational change refers to modification or transformation of an organizational

46



structure, process or goals. On the other side, (Gray 2007:617) defined change as transforming the nature of our understanding, relationship and abilities over the course of life. In simple terms, (Daft 1997:382) defined change as the adoption of new idea or idea by an organization.

In general, organizational change can be defined as the process of modifying, transforming and taking organization small steps toward desired change objectives of an organization.

Types of change

Griffin (2000:354) classified change into two: proactive (planned) versus reactive change. Whereas, (Knick, 1996:618) stratified change into three based on the complexity, cost and uncertainty of the change:

I , Adaptive change: reintroducing the change in one unit to various

units within the same organization

II, Innovative changes: introducing new things to an organization.

III, Radically innovative change: a totally new changes with

highly complex, uncertain and costly resources which also high managerial confidence. It tends to provoke high resistance from employees. Within an organization areas of change might be broad and wide. Most commonly, there are four dimensions of organizational change (Daft 1997:396), (Robins 1996:723) and (Griffin 1993:317) and the fifth one is added by Robins(1996):- I, Technology ii, structure change iii, New product changes IV, people change v, changing the physical settings.

Resistance to change

It is an emotional or behavioural response to real or imagined threats to an established work routine ( Kinick & kretener, 1996:624). One of the most well document findings from the studies of individual and organizational behaviour is that organizations and their members

47



resist change (Robbins, 1996:724) For analytical purpose and based on the source, Robbins (1998) classified resistance as individual and organizational (group) level resistance.

Individual level resistance

Managers and employees who are not involved in an innovation often seem to prefer the status quo, (Daft, 1997:390). Many authors such as

(Griffin 1993), (Robbins 1996) and including Daft himself forwarded agreed on the following factors as the reasons for employee resistance: habit, economic security, fear of unknown, selective information processing and perception difference.

Organizational level resistance to Change

Organizations, by their very nature, are conservative; they actually resist change. Even government agencies want to continue doing what they have been doing for years. Educational institutions are themselves extremely resistant to change. Most surprisingly, most school have been using essentially the same teaching technologies today as they were so old 40 years ago, (Robbins 1996:725). He proposed six major reasons/sources of group level resistance: structural Inertia, limited focus of change, group inertia, threat to established power relationship, threats to established resources allocation.

Overcoming Resistance to Change.

Not all resistance to change are bad; Resistance may encourage management to examine its proposals. If justifiable, resistance causes management to screen its proposed changes more carefully; it may

result in more thoughtful management decisions (Slocum 1992:724). Resistance to change will never cease completely (Kinick & Kretiner , 1998:626) . There are four different criteria to choose an appropriate method to overcome resistance:

Amounts and types of resistance anticipated

48



Power of resisters Location of needed information and commitment Short-term and long-term effect Strategies to overcome resistance to change

Different methods have been used to overcome the resistance that raise from different angels in different reasons. Kinick & Kreitner,( 1998), Robbins ,( 1996) and Slocum (1992) are all of them agreed and proposed the following six major strategies to overcome the resistance to change:

Education and Communication:- when there is lack of information or inaccurate information and analysis.

Participation and involvement;-when the initiators does not have all the information they need to design the change and others have considerable to power to resist.

Facilitation and support: - when employees fear and anxiety are anticipated to higher, employee counselling, new skills training and coaching are needed to provide.

Manipulation and cooptation:- manipulation refers to converting influence attempts, twisting and distorting facts to make them appear more attractive with holding undesirable information and creating false rumours . Whereas, Cooptation refers to seeking to buy off the leaders of a resistance group by giving the key role in change decision making, Robbins (1996). It is a political manoeuvre for overcoming resistance, Herllreigem and Sloum (1992).

Explicit and Implicit Coercion: - last of list of tactics is coercion, that is application of direct threats on resisters. According to Robbins (1998), it may be in the form of transfer, lopss of promotion, negative performance evaluation and poor letter of recommendation. However , it is a more risky strategy because survivors may have less trust in corporate leaders and engage on political tactics to protect their interest,( Mc Shane & Von Glinioa, 2000:479).

Business Process Reengineering (BPR)

49



It is a a continuous business process improvement which requires rethinking, redesigning, retooling and reinventing new approaches to ensure high quality and speed and optimum cost, (Kahasu , 2000). It needs to complete rethinking and transforming of key business process,

leading to strong coordination and greater flexibility, (Daft 1997:354) and (Hammer and Champy , 1993) . It works to end narrow focus on jobs, the end of supervisory management of traditional career paths and much more focus on competitive conditions and desires customer-oriented process, (Mobye, et al’ 1998:257). There are eight major steps to be followed in the implementation of the BPR program, Kahasu, (2008):-

Develop a vision and strategy to direct the change effort Establish a sense of urgency Create a guiding coalition put together a group of people Communicate the change vision Empower broad based action Generate a short –term wins, reward people who make wins possible Consolidate gains and produce more to the culture Institutionalize new approach to new culture Data Analysis, conclusion and recommendation

Hereby in this section, the analysis and interpretation of the data collected would be displayed and then according to the findings of the study the necessary conclusion was subsequently drawn. Out of the sample, 206 questionnaires distributed, 78% (160) was successfully collected and presented after the necessary editing and classification was done. The data collected was analyzed and presented through tabulation using simple numerical values and percentage.

Resistance to change is inevitable even if a change is for good; it will never cease completely (Kinick & Kretiner, 1998:626). However, the effect of the resistance on the change depends on the type of factors of resistance. As it shown on the Table 1.1, below, all the factors mentioned have their own respective bad effect on the MU BPR change.

50



Among the other factors, perceptual difference between managers and employees is to become the prevalent on which almost half 45% (72) respondents claimed high effect and the other one-third (33%) confesses relatively less effect. Next, about 82 %( 131) of the respondents witness

the, by and large, effect of fear of unknown and ambiguity in change plan as one of the main factors. Thirdly, need of job security and loss of power and gain are shown as almost equally important factors as a total of 66% and 64% of respondents, respectively, testified that these factors exert, more or less, effect on change.

Table 1.1, Employee resistance and its effect on change

No. Basic factors of employee resistance to change

The effect on the change No effect Less

effect High effect

Total

No. % No. % No. % No. %

1 Loss of gain and power 58 36 69 43 33 21 160 100 2 Need of job security 54 34 56 35 50 31 160 100 3 Fear of unknown

&ambiguity 29 18 69 43 62 39 160 100

4 Perceptual Difference between employees and managers

36 22 52 33 72 45 160 100

Cumulative effect 177 110 246 154 217 136 640 400

Source: Self survey, 2010

According to Griffin (1993), people resist change because their perceptions of the situation differ from managers. That is what has been observed in the institution and it happens to be because of the

following reasons: employees’ selective information processing, lack of full information, employees’ level of understanding, and employees’ background. This in turn results in fear of unknown and ambiguity in which employees feel that they are unable to carry on the duty. Therefore, when there is lack of information and misunderstanding, open communication can be the best strategy to overcome resistance as it is suggested by Slocum (1992) , (Kinick and Kreitner , 1998 ) and

51



(Robbins 1996). Communication can take place in the form of one-on-one discussion, memos, meeting, group presentations, or reports.

As to Slocum, the stronger the proponents’ position, the greater opportunity to implement change, and the greater the power of the

resisters, the more the proponents must involve, this is through communication. Nevertheless the fact, the institution had not adequately considered communication and education as of 63% of respondents claim moderate or less consideration of this strategy. As the result of this, participation and involvement of employees is not daring to be high in the institution, also it is clearly shown in the study that 82 % of the respondents witnessed on moderate or less consideration of this strategy.

On the other side, even though it is time consuming and expensive strategy, facilitation and support can offer considerable efforts to reduce resistance when employees fear and tensions are high, (Kinick and Kreitner 1998), (Robbins 1998) & (Slocum 1992). Among the total respondents only 17% testified that the institution highly considered facilitation and support as a strategy to curb the resistance. This

inadequate attention of the institution on facilitation and support strategy has been one of the factors that intensify employee’s risk of job security and loss power and gain and then led to employee resistance.

Unfortunately, as it is shown in the study result only 11 % of the respondents confessed that the institution had highly considered of Negotiation and agreement as a strategy to manage conflict and disagreement in BPR implementation. It is the most effective tactic when the where resisters are powerful and it enables to lessen the level of resistance. The institution needs to inculcate this strategy as most of the respondents replied that there is high effect of resistance to change due to perceptual difference and fear unknown and ambiguity in

52



addition to having open communication and educating or providing employees training.

Conclusion

As it was clearly shown in the analysis that all the factors considered in the study such as perceptual difference between employees and managers , fear of unknown and ambiguity in plan of action, risk of job

security and loss of power and position have been contributing in resistance to change in MU BPR implementation. But, misunderstanding or perceptual difference between employees and managers and change agents has been taking the lion share, which is followed by fear of unknown and ambiguity, in invoking employees’ resistance. Also, the study indicates that it was the result of communication gap and inadequate training or education to cope up with change in addition to less consideration of the strategy like facilitation and support. Then it led to less participation and involvement of employess. It has been evidently true that according to Robbins, communication enhances participation; participation enhances involvement and this in turn enhances commitment; without communication there is no involvement and commitment.

Therefore, the institution needs to improve its communication channels

and training programs in addition to encompassing facilitation and support strategy so that it would be possible to reduce the resistance to change and motivate employees to embrace change.

References

1. Boon, L.E., and Kurtiz , D.L.( 1992) , Management, 4th ed; U.S.A ; Boston, McGraw Hill

2. Daft , R.L.,(1997), Management , 4th ed, U.S.A; Boston, Dryden press 3. Getawche (2006) Civil service Reform in Ethiopia : success in two

ministries , Jima University, Ethiopia Gray L.(91981). Educational Research Competencies for Analysis and Application, 2nd, New York Charles, Emerill

4. Gray, P. (2007) , Organizational Behaviour, 4th ed. INDIA: Delhi, Wilson

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5. Griffin R.W .(2000) Management, 5th ed U.S.A : Boston Addison Weshon 6. Griffin, R.W (1993), Management, 4th , U.S.A: Washington, Houghton

Weshon 7. Hammer, Mchall (1996) The reengineering Revolution, New York , NY ;

Harpe Colins Publishing 8. Hellrigel , D. AND Slocum , I.W ( 1992) Management, 6th ed; .U.S.A ,

Addison Milfin 9. John M.et al (2005 ), Organizational Behaviour and Management 7th ed.

McGraw Hill. Inc 10. Kahasu M., (2008) Knowledge Management Teaching Material . (n. Ed);

Mekelle University 11. Kreiner and Kinick (1998), Organizational Behaviour, 4th ed. U.S.A:

California, McGraw Hill 12. Liz Clarke ( 2002 ) The essence of Change , Prince Hall of India private

limited New Delhi 13. Mekelle University (2000) , Business Process Reengineering Manual,

Mekelle, Ethiopia 14. Mekelle University http:// www.mu.eduet/index , Accessed on March 20,

2010 15. Mcshane, S.L., and Glinow, M.U. (2000) Organizational Behaviour, 7th,

U.S.A: Brazil, Msgraw Hill 16. Ministry of capacity building (2003), Report on civil service program, Addis

Ababa , Ethiopia 17. Ministry of Capcity Building (2007) Reengineering the organization, Addis

Ababa, Ethioppa 18. Noe R.A., Gerhert , B., Hollenback J.R., And Wright , M.P.(1996) Human

Resource Management, 2nd ed. U.S.A; Boston, McGraw Hill 19. Paulos chane ( 2002) , Civil Service Reform in Ethiopia : problems and

prospects. Regional and local development studies working paper, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia

20. Robins, S.P. (1996) Organizational Behaviour, 7th ed U.S.A; New York, prentice Hall

21. Story J., Solomon, G., and Moby, C.,(1998) Human Resource Management 2nd ed. Gr. Britain; Pesdston, Corn well

22. Williams and Sisk (1985), Management, 2nd ed. Italy; Englewood Cliffs

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EFFECT OF PESTICIDES ON SOIL MICROBES

Ashaq Hussain Dar Lecturer

Govt. Degree College (Boys) Baramulla

Jammu Kashmir (India)

Mudasir Gani Wani Lecturer

Govt. Degree College (Boys) Baramulla

Jammu Kashmir (India)

Introduction:-

Pesticides are defined under the Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA) as “any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest (insects, rodents, nematodes, fungus, weeds etc)” (Mishra et al 2001).The indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers for harvesting

higher yield has not only increased the cost of production but has seriously deteriorated the environment. Moreover, non-judicious use of chemical fertilizers adversely affects the soil by decreasing the beneficial soil micro flora. This has greatly caused interference with the

normal nutrient transformations and natural geo-chemical cycles. Further the recent energy crises, depletion of the non-renewable energy sources like sulphur, natural gas and decrease in the subsidy on fertilizers have further aggravated the problem.

In recent time there has been a steady increase in the number and amount of residues of pesticides in our food and soil. While pesticides serve useful purposes, concern has been expressed regarding their

possible effects on environment. And Edward (1973) gave following four effects of pesticides on living organisms in the soil.

i).They may be directly toxic to the animal in soil.

ii).They may affect the soil organism genetically to produce population resistant to the pesticides.

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iii).They may have sub-lethal effects that result in alternations in behavior or changes in metabolic or reproductive activity.

iv).They may be taken into bodies of soil flora or fauna and possess on to the other organisms.

Based on these effects ,Metcalf (1980) ,Dhooriab and Mann (2001) observed that, the problem of pests in the agricultural practice

cannot be solved through the continued and exclusive application of broad spectrum pesticides.Implimentation of Integrated Pest Management programmes that institute ecologically sound and multi

component suppression on the pest population is the oblivious solution.

Soil microbial biomass is the driving force of most of terrestrial ecosystems because it is this biomass that largely controls the rates of turnover and mineralization of organic substrates. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the activity and potential activity of soil microbes as well as interactions among them. Most of the soil is naturally poor, but are concentrated in certain “Hot spot” such as rhizosphere, guts of some animals and in the vicinity of readily available organic and inorganic substrate .Soil contains five major groups of micro-organisms;

Bacteria Actinomycets Fungi Algae Protozoa

Most of the representatives of these microorganisms are useful as they are involved in various activities helping in the release of some macro and micro nutrients. The microbial populations are an essential part of the soil rhizosphere and affect the soil by their various activities such as water and nutrient uptake, exudation and biological transformations. Organic acids, sugars, amino acids, lipids, proteins,

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enzymes are some of the primary substances found within the micro zone. Among them ,the organic acids have received considerable attention owing to their role in providing substrates for microbial metabolism and for serving as intermediates for bio-geochemical reactions in soil.

The rhizosphere provides a region of increased microbial activity in which certain group of bacteria, fungi, actinomycets and yeasts are

more like to proliferate than in the bulk soil. The soil and rhizosphere microorganisms interact positively with crop plants and play a major role in crop production. The population of micro-organisms in the soil and rhizosphere can be manipulated by inoculation of seed with specific micro- organisms. This can lead to the increased production of the crops.

The plant growth promoting rhizosphere micro-organisms(PGPR),isolated from the rhizosphere of plants are beneficial and free living microbial species and are known to improve plant health and increases the yield (Kloepper et al ,1980).These

rhizosphere micro-organisms include certain beneficial indigenous soil bacteria and fungi that act directly by providing plant growth enhancing products. The concept of PGPR is now well established (Bashan, 1998)

Rhizosphere of crops is reported to possess a high microbial activity because roots release substances which favour bacterial proliferation. The PGPRs represent a large subgroup of micro-organisms colonizing rhizosphere and promoting plant development through the production

of metabolites. These PGPRs have been used as seed/seedling inoculants in various legumes and cereals etc. With improved plant growth and yield.

The growth of all organisms depends on the availability of mineral nutrients. Nitrogen is the most important one which is required in

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large quantities as essential components of proteins, nucleic acids and other cellular constituents.

Nitrogen is used by the pants and other organisms for their growth either in the ammonical or nitrate form. Micro- organisms play a central and significant role in almost all aspects of nitrogen availability

and thus for life support on the earth. Some bacteria can convert N2 into ammonia by the process termed as nitrogen fixation. These bacteria are either free living or form symbiotic association with plants or other organisms. Many bacteria are reported to degrade organic matter and release immobilized nitrogen for reuse by other organisms. Some PGPR are reported to possess the activity of converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia which is in turn used by the plants.

Application of microbial occulants in the control of plant disease caused by root pathogens has now become a common practice. While working with rhizobacteria isolated from the rhizoplane of various crops, reported that isolates of pseudomonas and Bacillus produced god amounts of HCN.The HCN production was enhanced with the addition of glycine to the growth medium. Quantitative assessment of

HCN showed that Pseudomonas liberated large amounts of HCN than Bacillus.

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are considered to promote plant growth directly or indirectly .amongst a wide variety of characteristics’ responsible for influencing plant growth. Production of plant growth regulators (auxins, giberlins, etheylene etc) is one of the most important and beneficial attributes of PGPR. Indol acetic acid (IAA) is physiologically one of the most active auxins. IAA is a common product of L-tryptophan metabolism by several micro-organisms, including PGPR (Lynch,1985).Numerous micro-organisms, inhibiting rhizospheres of various plants are likely to synthesize and

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release auxins as secondary metabolites because of rich supply of substrates exuded from roots compared with non-rhizospheric soils.

Several soil bacteria, particularly those belonging to the genus Pseudomonas and Bacillus possess the ability to transform insoluble phosphates of soil into soluble form by secreting organic acids such

as formic, acetic, propionic, lactic, glycolic, fumaric and succinic acids. These acids lower the PH and bring about the dissolution of bound forms of phosphates .Some of the hydroxyl acids may chelate with calcium and iron resulting in effective Solubilization of phosphates (Garresten,1948,Sen and Paul 1957).The use of phosphate solubilising bacteria as inoculants simultaneously increases phosphate uptake and crop yield.

Materials and methods:-

The present study was conducted on eleven (11) pesticides and experiments were undertaken in the lab of Govt.Degree College (Boys) Baramulla Jammu Kashmir (India). The soil was taken from the field at Gousia Noor Bagh Sopore District Baramulla (JK) where no pesticide or agrochemical was used before preference was give to the area for site selection because most of the agricultural land was available for agricultural activities.

Soil samples taken from the site were taken to the lab for analysis

where it was allowed for solar drying till the moisture in the soil gets completely vanished. To find the effect of pesticides on the soil samples we have 11 different types of pesticides which are commonly used in our valley. Pesticides were added to the soil samples completely and then these samples were transferred in open polythene.The soil sample in which Chlorpyrhose was used was labeled as sample number 1, Carbendazim was labeled as sample number 2, Flusilazole was labeled as sample number 3, Hexaconazole was labeled as sample number 4,Mancozeb was labeled as sample number 5,Mtheyl parathion was

59



labeled as sample number 6,Merimain was labeled as sample number 7 Myclobutanil was labeled as sample number 8, Propineb was labeled as sample number9, Phorate granules was labeled as sample number10, Tebuconazole was labeled as sample number 11.

In order to determine the microbial compute in the soil sample,

different mediums were made viz,

1. Potato dextrose agar: Composition of Potato dextrose agar is Potato: 200 Dextrose: 20gm Distilled water: 100ml Agar: 15gm

2. Nutrient agar: Composition of nutrient Agar is Peptone: 5gm Beef Extract: 3gm NaCl: 3gm Distilled water: 1000ml Agar: 15gm

Result:

In-vitro experiments were conducted to study the effect of most frequently used pesticides in Kashmir valley on microbes. Each treatment was replaced thrice indicated as R1,R2 and R3.

Effect of pesticides on the population of fungi in Soil;

S.No Treatment No of fungal Colonies(x104 g-1 soil) R1 R2 R3 Total Mean

1 Chlorpyrhose 15 14 13 42 14.00 2 Carbendazim 0 1 0 01 0.33 3 Flusilazole 1 0 2 03 1.00 4 Hexaconazole 0 1 1 02 0.66 5 Mancozeb 1 1 2 04 1.33

6 Methyl parathion 10 12 14 36 12.00 7 Merimain 2 3 2 07 2.33 8 Myclobutanil 0 1 0 01 0.33 9 Propineb 2 3 1 06 2.00

10 Phorate granules 9 8 10 27 9.00

11 Tebuconazole 2 3 4 09 3.00 Total 42 47 49 138

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The fungal colonies are maximum in the soil sampled treated with pesticide Chlorpyrhose. While as minimum bacterial colonies are found in the soil sample treated with the pesticide Carbendazim.

Graphical display of effect of pesticides on the population of fungi in Soil

Effect of pesticides on the population of Bacteria in Soil;

S.No Treatment No of bacterial Colonies(x104 g-1 soil) R1 R2 R3 Total Mean

1 Chlorpyrhose 16 14 12 42 14.00 2 Carbendazim 21 19 20 60 20.00 3 Flusilazole 21 22 18 61 20.33 4 Hexaconazole 10 08 09 27 09.00 5 Mancozeb 11 12 10 33 11.00 6 Methyl parathion 17 16 13 46 15.33 7 Merimain 22 23 21 66 22.00 8 Myclobutanil 14 13 11 38 12.66 9 Propineb 16 16 15 47 15.66 10 Phorate granules 15 13 12 40 13.33 11 Tebuconazole 17 13 15 45 15.00 Total 180 167 156 451

05

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The bacterial colonies are maximum in the soil sampled treated with pesticide Merimain. While as minimum bacterial colonies are found in the soil sample treated with the pesticide Hexaconazole.

Graphical display of effect of pesticides on the population of bacteria in Soil

Discussion:

The application of wide range of agro chemical especially pesticides mainly targeted at enhancing the yield by controlling various diseases and pests has not only interfered with the non-target beneficial soil micro flora and their activities, but has also affected the quality of the product. Microbial inoculants have become quite popular as

alternatives to the chemical fertilizers as well mainly due the maximum benefits from less quantity. Although microbial inoculants or bio-fertilizers have been successfully used in various agriculture crops, yet there are scanty reports on the commercial use of biofertilizers.

010203040506070

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During the present investigation in- vitro experiment was conducted to find the effect of different climatic condition s of Kashmir valley against different plant diseases. Eleven soil samples were prepared with the objective to find the impact of pesticides on the soil microbes. It was observed that the pesticides used had a deleterious effect on the

microbes of the treated soil samples. The population of bacteria and fungi were maximum Chlorpyrhose respectively and minimum in case of Hexaconazole, Carbendazim respectively. This clearly shows that the population in case of pesticide used Merimain, of beneficial micro-organisms decreases with the application of various pesticides which in turn reduces the fertility of soil and so our soil becomes poor in fertility.

It is clear that the vital functions of micro-organisms help in promoting the growth of the plants gets inhibited which causes disasters because of following reasons;

1. The soil by itself becomes dead and physiologically and complexly depends on pesticides for growth.

2. Biomagnification and bioaccumulation of pesticides in the environment which at higher tropic levels becomes carcinogenic and mutagenic.

3. Pesticides have the effect on aqueous bodies’ thus disturbing aquatic ecosystem. It has the effect on wild life and thus has a destructive effect of treatment ecosystem.

4. Pesticides are pollutants and so bring all physical, chemical and biological changes in the whole environment.

Conclusion:-

India is agriculture countries about 70% of the people are involved in doing different agricultural activities. So directly or indirectly dealing with the pesticides. Most of the people dealing with agricultural pesticides are uneducated and are unaware of environmental effects

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due to these pesticides. The correct amount of dosage which should be used is not even in their imagination. Thus leads the earth on the path of destruction and disasters. With increase in science and technology these agrochemicals become easily available to the farmers which use them in unmanaged way thus is a great threat to entire population

on earth.

This disaster is progressing towards a heavy, uncontrolled and destruction which have to be controlled by every human being participation.

Pollution, Pollution everywhere, Man is safe nowhere. We have to find out the solution somewhere. Together we can and we have to do it.

References:-

1. Bashan, Y. (1998): Inoculants of plant growth – promoting bacteria for use in agriculture.Biotechnol adv 16:729-770.

2. Dhooria, M.S. and Mann, G.S.(2001): role of pesticides in Inducing Mite-Outbreaks. Soil pollution and soil Organisms(ed).P.C. Mishra,Ashish publishing house, Punjabi Bagh, New Delhi pp45-62

3. Edwards, C.A. (1973): Persistent pesticides in the environment .CRC Press Cleveland, Ohio: 170.

4. Kloeppe,r J.W. (1980): Effects of rhizosphere colonization of

plant growth –promoting rhizobacteria on potato plant development and yield.Phytopathology70:1078-10

5. Metcalf, R.L. (1980): Changing Role of Insecticide in Crop Production .Ann.Rev.Ent. 25:219-256.

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RUSHDIE’S SHAME: THE DYNAMICS OF POLITICS

Bhupinder Singh Research Scholar

SLIET,Longowal, Sangrur

Manmohan Singh Guru Kashi Regional Center

Punjabi University Bathinda,Punjab

JapPreet Kaur Bhangu

SLIET, Longowal Sangrur , Punjab

Salman Ahmed Rushdie, the celebrated diasporic writer of Indian origin was born in a Muslim family in 1947, the year India became free from the clutches of the colonial rule. One of the most significant

novelists of international repute, Rushdie has made immense impact on the contemporary writing. As a diasporic writer he critiques the postcolonial political and social arrangements in his works. He occupies a prominent position among the writers who write about the ‘third world countries.’ His prominence as a writer is immense, but some critics argue that he attained fame because of the subsequent events following the publication of the controversial The Satanic Verses (1988). Rushdie made the headlines as the issue of Fatwa became the point of discussion in political and religious circles.

The aim of the present paper is to explore how Rushdie portrays the politics of colonial and postcolonial era. The paper focuses on his Shame

(1983), where he satirizes the political and social system of Pakistan. Rushdie travels back in time to present some of the intensely shameful consequences of the trauma associated with partition of India in 1947. It is a portrayal of rulers of Pakistan and the sufferings of the masses at the hands of the rulers. Rushdie also highlights the politics of the prominent political leaders Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. The book provides important insights regarding the political moves and counter-moves of the political leaders

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of Pakistan. Rushdie through his novel Shame parodies the politics of Pakistan. The acts and conduct of top real-life political personalities are

satirized through the fictional characters. Rushdie’s choice of parody as technique may be viewed in the light of Linda Hutcheon’s statement that “With parody- as with any form of reproduction- the notion of the original as rare, single and valuable(in aesthetic or commercial terms) is called into question”(89). Hutcheon further writes that it does not mean that art has lost its meaning and purpose but that parody “works to foreground the politics of representation” (Hutcheon 90).

Parody as such becomes a powerful tool of resistance against that which prevails as knowledge. Hutcheon terms the novel Shame as an apt example of ‘Historiographic Metafiction.’ According to her, historiographic metafiction is “self-conscious about the paradox of the totalizing yet inevitably partial act of narrative representation. It

overtly ‘de- doxifies’ received notions about the process of representing the actual in narrative-be it fictional or historical. It traces the processing of events into facts, exploiting and then undermining the conventions of both novelistic realism and historiographic reference” (Hutcheon 75). Shame is one such postmodern text.

The postmodern text does as Hutcheon aptly remarks, “make overt the fact- making and meaning-granting processes” (74). Hutcheon quotes Rushdie to elaborate on the issue:

The country in this story is not Pakistan, or not quite. There are two countries, real and fictional, occupying the same space. My story, my fictional country exist, like myself, at a slight angle to reality. I have found this off-centring to be necessary; but its value is of course, open

to debate. My view is that I am not writing only about Pakistan. (Rushdie Shame 29)

In Rusdie’s narrative thus, as Hutcheon notes, the fictional and historical co-exist. Ultimately it is the choice of the writer to decide

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which events to record and present as history. Rushdie utilizes multiple narratives as he tells a story based on other stories in a loose and episodic manner. The novel depicts the political and historical events of the post-colonial Pakistan even as these may be taken as happenings in

any political country. Events are more important than the characters in the novel. Except for Omar and Sufia Zinobia who are imaginary characters, all other characters are modelled on real characters of Pakistan’s political and social life. The technique used in the novel is that of magic realism. The events start from realism and end with fantasy which is beyond logic and common sense. While writing in this style Rushdie, makes the actual events felt in an intense manner.

Shame depicts how politics is a continuous struggle among the individuals and the political parties for power. There are moves and counter-moves by the people actively engaged in it. The political players put their mind, body and soul at stake to remain powerful. The text depicts how the clash of interests among the political personalities leads

to jealousy, hatred and rivalries which further leads to violence. In the neo-colonial period, politics has become highly complex. It is no more considered as meant for straightforward people. The words ‘politician’ and ‘shrewdness’ have become synonymous with each other. There is no dearth of the shrewd and mean politicians worldwide engaged in the vicious circle of acquiring power, who resort to the third grade means and devices for realizing their political aspirations. The text under study shows the use of family, friendship and relationships in politics. Politicians are always busy in designing new means for their political survival. The leaders are so self-centred that they do not even bother about their filial ties. The politicians see every relation in the Foucauldian sense, a power-relation.

Rushdie also demonstrates how the political leaders and parties make a mockery of democracy by their manipulative political practices. The

rigging of elections has become a common practice especially in

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countries like India and Pakistan. The men who occupy the coveted seats of power misuse the judiciary, police and the army just to remain in power. Rushdie draws from his personal links with the country to portray the intricacies of political tussle between Bhutto and Zia Ul

Haq. In his book entitled, In Theory. Classes, Nations, Literatures Aijaz Ahmad writes:

What Rushdie seems to know—from the inside, because of his own class origin—is the history of the corruptions and criminalities of Pakistani rulers; about these he says remarkably trenchant things, and his desire to disjoin himself from that history…( Ahmed, In Theory 138-9)

Rushdie thus effectively employs his location as an insider as well as outsider to remarkable use in his writings.

Rushdie presents Maulana Dawood as an agent of the colonizers. National consciousness is missing in Dawood He is an emotionless

creature solely motivated by desire for power. His act reflects the politics of the Princes and Maharajas who were given the territories to promote the British rule. Rushdie describes how Maulana Dawood “who rode around town on a motor-scooter donated by the Angrez sahibs” and threatened the “citizens with damnation” (42). Maulana’s conduct shows how the religious personalities become the tools of the colonizers. They act as the advisors of the rulers and instigate them to indulge in undemocratic and illegal practices. Rushdie describes how “under Dawood’s instigation Raza Hyder indulges in repression of all forms. He alters the “television schedules” (247). He even dismantles the legal system. He appears to show that “God was in charge” (248) of all his deeds. Raza Hyder, the man in power, gets influenced by the religious man Maulana Dawood. The Islamic scriptures have considerable influence on the political practices. Rushdie is critical of

the religious fanaticism which makes the politicians go to the extent of

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eliminating their political rivals. Raza Hyder is instrumental in killing his arch rival, Iskander.

Patience, inter alia, sustains politics. One gains a lot in politics by possessing this trait. A patient politician is successful in his moves

as he adapts himself according to the political situation. He bears the humiliation when he is politically weak and plans the future course of action to avenge the defeat. In politics, impatience results in the loss of political power. Rushdie describes how “Mahmood the Woman lost his Empire because of a single error, which arose out of his fatal personality flaw, namely tolerance” (Rushdie, Shame 62). Rushdie offers a satirical picture of the dual character of the politicians and the officers working under them. The political system of the nation is such that the society does not consider corruption as an illegal act. Rushdie describes thus: “A custom officer depends, for a decent income, on traffic. Goods pass through, he not unreasonably impounds them, their owners see reason, an accommodation is reached, the customs man’s

family gets new clothes” (51).

The text reveals the officers fearlessly indulging in corruption as they act hand in glove with the politicians who provide them with the political patronage. The nexus between the politicians and bureaucracy is a dangerous trend in any society. The eradication of corruption cannot be given practical shape when the men whose duty is to provide clean administration, become a part of the corrupt political system. The personal motives and interests gain precedence over the social and national interests. Even the head of the state or country is not free from the allegations of corruption. Time magazine highlights the corrupt practices of politicians of Pakistan. The president, Ayub Khan is accused of having a Swiss bank account.

Arjumabad Harappa, the daughter of Iskander Harappa develops political taste and is in the process of becoming a dynamic

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political leader. She has an idea of transforming the nation by her modern progressive approach. The rise of the children of politicians in politics emerges as an important issue in the novel. The sons and daughters of politicians get more opportunities to interact with society

as they grow in a political environment and often accompany their parents in election campaigns. They even help their political parents in redressing the grievances of people and as such they become popular public figures. However, an ordinary man having political aspirations has to struggle hard to find a place in a party and the government. Some people struggle throughout their life with no achievement in the political field. A man born in a political family need not wait for long to attain the coveted seat of power. Uma Parmeswaran succinctly observes:

Rushdie’s point about the centrality of family in politics and in culture is well-taken. In India the Nehru dynasty has established that most marvellous modern innovation: monarchy- in-a- democracy. If Benazir

Bhutto could have her way, he says, so would it be in Pakistan. (Parweswaran 86)

Strong political background and ample finances play a significant role in a person’s success in politics. The politics of today has become a family affair even in the countries which claim to be democratic. The children also become pawns in the hands of their political parents who employ them to further their political ambitions.

Rushdie portrays socio-political life full of chaos and confusion. The politicians continue their struggle for attaining power. The total failure of administrative set-up in Pakistan is a result of the malpractices of the leaders. The politicians who claim to be the harbingers of democracy make the election process a farce. In a truly democratic country, the men of the masses get elected in the elections due to their popularity. But in Pakistan the election process is affected

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by force and coercion. Iskander Harappa is able to come to power using manipulative practices. He uses undemocratic ways and means to win the elections. Rushdie describes how a large number of “men and women were swept away by the oceans of bewilderment, unable to

locate ballot- boxes or even ballots and failed to cast their vote. Others, stronger swimmers in those seas, succeeded in expressing their preferences twelve or thirteen times” (178). The rigging of elections by the political players makes democracy a farce. In some constituencies the results are quite contrary to the expectations of Iskander Harrappa. The counting process takes place at night.

It is clear the masses have remained under the subjugation of an alien rule for a long period. Hence they are yet to realise their freedom to decide whom they wish to elect as their representatives from among the men engaged in the power struggle. The use of force and coercion is a common practice not only in Pakistan but in many other formerly-colonized countries.

There is constitutional failure and break-down of the administrative machinery. National spirit is missing among the leaders as well as the

masses of Pakistan. It is rather impossible to think of the transformation of the country into “land of pure” where the leaders as well as the masses indulge in all sorts of unethical and illegal practices. Rushdie describes thus:

Shameful things are done: lies, loose living, disrespect for one’s elders, failure to love one’s national flag, incorrect voting at elections, over-eating, extramarital sex, autobiographical novels, cheating at cards, maltreatment of women- folk, examination failures, smuggling, throwing one’s wicket at the crucial point of a Test match and they are done shamelessly. (122)

‘Shame’ thus becomes an umbrella term for all things which are wrong in the society. As Tariq Rahman points out, “symbol of shame is major

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politically significant symbol. It stands for collective responsibility of human beings for allowing inhuman things to happen” (Taneja 114). In reality the politicians shirk from their duty to provide good governance and clean administration.

Matrimonial proposals are made for political gains. Raja Hyder is willing to marry Naveed Hyder, his daughter to Haroun Harappa, the nephew of a man in power, Iskander Harappa merely to strengthen his political power. The nature of political men can be judged from the fact that Hyder also wants to get rid of Naveed Hyder because she looked like Sindabad Mengal (the man with whom Iskander’s wife had an illicit affair) as she grew up. Naveed Hyder gets attracted to Talvar Ul-Haq, as such; her marriage with Haroun does not materialize. The political men are opportunistic and try to maintain the relationships with the powerful men. Political compulsions keep the men together even though they have animosity in their hearts. Though Iskander’s prestige gets lowered when Naveed Hyder, daughter of Raja Hyder, who was to be engaged to Haroun Harappa develops a love affair with Talvar Ulhaq and later marries him, yet, Raza Hyder tries to have

cordial relations with Iskander. The leaders thus pretend to be close even though they are deadly against each other.

The political leaders succeed in attracting masses by way of their skills of oratory. They touch the hearts of people through their impressive speeches. Though they hardly have any emotions, they are adept at the art to making people emotional. Iskander Harappa is able to touch the hearts of the people by making sentimental speeches:

At a rally attended by two million people, Iskander Harappa unbuttoned his shirt, ‘what have I to hide?’ he shouted. ‘They say I have benefited; but I have lost fully half my beloved country. Then tell me, is this gain? Is this advantage? Is this luck? My people, your hearts are scarred by grief; behold, my heart bears the same wounds as yours’.

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Iskander Harappa tore off his shirt and ripped it in half; he bared his hairless breast to the cheering, weeping crowd. (180)

Ability to deliver forceful and emotional speeches even if without any sincere sentiment thus is an essential asset for a political leader. The

dynamic personality and oratory skills enable one to climb the ladder of power politics.

In politics some political leaders get defeated by their own men as they too have their own ambitions. Iskander Harappa is rendered powerless, then arrested and ultimately hanged by his men Talvar Ulhaq and Raja Hyder. Rushdie shows the politicians do not spare even the wives and daughters of their political opponents. When Raza Hyder is forced out of power by Iskander Harappa, Rani Humayun and Arjumabad face humiliation as they are kept under house arrest.

Rushdie seems to hold valid that power abhors resistance and has affinities with compliance. The politicians are unable to tolerate the voice of dissent from their subordinates. The ministers, bureaucrats, owners of business houses and even personal friends are kept at a distance by the men in power. Even the suggestions or arguments from

religious personalities regarding the functioning of government are unwarranted as the political power gets into the heads of the men in power who think themselves to be ‘omnipotent’. The ‘torture shawl’ of Rani Humayun depicts the oppressive rule of Iskander and the miserable and pitiable condition of prisoners in jails where they are “tied to chairs” (193). Rani Humayuns’ ‘Election shawls’ is a portrayal of irregularities and undemocratic practices prophesied by Iskander for attaining power. Rushdie shows how the democratic norms are flouted by tampering of ballot boxes and rigging of elections already marred by violence. Through the portrayal of ‘election shawls,’ Rushdie satirizes the democratic process of electing the so-called representatives in

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Pakistan thus:

… and the election shawls, one for the day of suffrage that began his reign, one for the day that led to his downfall, shawls swarming with figures, each one a breathtakingly lifelike portrait of a member of the

Front, figures breaking seals, figures breaking seals, stuffing ballot-boxes, smashing heads, figures swaggering into polling booths to watch the peasants vote, stick waving rifle- toting figures, fire- raisers, mobs, and on the shawl of the second election there were three times as many male figures, as on the first, but despite the crowded field of her art not a single face was anonymous… and of course he’d have won anyway…a respectable victory …(193)

Rushdie thus unveils the election process as a farce. The rulers conduct elections to provide legitimacy to their rule which they actually capture by force. Rushdie further describes how Iskander manages to win election by force and coercion. Not yet satisfied, he wanted the opposition squashed “like cockroaches under his boot.”(193)

Rani Humayun’s allegorical shawl, ‘Iskander and the Death of Democracy’ depicts that Iskander is actually killed by the Generals but

he is shown to have been hanged. The Generals who had worked under Iskander become his executioners as they now owe their allegiance to Raza Hyder. He becomes the ruler by overpowering Iskander whose protégé he was before. The rulers who indulge in oppression are eventually themselves caught in the same trap. They get eliminated from the political scene by other political forces or men who consider them as hurdles in their way to attain the seat of power. The clash of interests creates political rivalries, which results in planning ways and means to usurp the political opponents. Andrew Taverson succinctly observes that the shawls embroidered by Rani Humayun

… operate as a kind of woven series of political cartoons depicting the life and violent crimes of Rani’s husband Iskander: his libertinage, his

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obscenities, his violence, his disregard for human rights, his strangulation of Pakistan and his contempt for democracy. (Taverson 140)

The narrative reveals that the politicians often talk about the problems

facing the nation even though they do nothing to eradicate them. Corruption, poverty, population problems are political issues which merely provide content for their political speeches.

Political alliances break to the extent that the close associates turn out to be bitter foes. Friendship has no place in politics. The conversation between Iskander Harappa and Raja Hyder highlights this traits of politicians:

‘Iskander, Raza said without raising his voice, ‘don’t forget your friends.’ ‘A man in my position has no friends,’ Harappa replied. ‘There are temporary alliances based on mutual self interest.’ (209)

The men engaged in the game of politics do not forget their humiliation at the hands of their opponents and are constantly on the lookout for an opportunity to avenge their humiliation.

The narrative bears testimony to the fact that the Pakistani rulers use

military power on the pretext of cleaning up the system but actually to suppress the opponents and exercise complete control over the political system. Raja Hyder uses religion to his own advantage. Hyder is seen on T.V putting his right hand on the holy Quran. He promises fresh elections within ninety days in which all the political parties including the popular front of Iskander Harappa would be allowed to participate. Making false promises is a part and parcel of the game of politics of modern day leaders. They swear in the name of God, they never keep their promises.

Politicians remain silent on the allegations brought against them by their opponents. Iskander in his interview to a foreign journalist, levels

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accusations against Hyder. He “doubts on Raza Hyder’s good faith, moral fibre, sexual potency and legitimacy of birth” but Raza “remained tolerant” (224). Talvar Ulhaq, the most trusted lieutenant of Iskander turns against him by intriguing with Raja Hyder. He charges

Iskander of being instrumental in arranging the murder of his own cousin Mir Harappa. Iskander is led in a trap as part of a strategy of Hyder, who uses Talvar Ulhaq to provide evidence of Iskander’s involvement in the murder. Hyder has his personal scores to settle. He is unable to forget the slap he got on his face by Iskander when he was called for discussion on a budget. The persons of the inner circle like Talvar Ulhaq prove to be dangerous for political leaders when they align with the opposition for furthering their own political interests.

In politics social relations are used at the politically propitious time. There is no place for loyalty and sincerity in the game of politics. Iskander on being charged of intriguing in the murder of Mir Harappa, says:

From darkness into light, from nothingness into somethingness. I made him, I was his father, he is my seed. And now I am less than he. They

accuse Haroun of killing his father because that is what Hyder is doing to me. (230)

Rushdie depicts how the constitution and courts are the tools in the hands of the powerful dictators and how they can alter the decisions according to their whims and caprices. The use of illegal practices to eliminate the political opponents is very common in the so-called democratic countries. Iskander Harappa files an appeal in the Supreme Court against the verdict of the High court. In spite of the split decision given by the Supreme Court, Iskander is sentenced to death. He however is shot by General Shuja, formerly a loyal soldier of Iskander, on the instructions of General Hyder who is currently in power. In politics loyalty and sincerity takes on a political colour.

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After a detailed analysis of the text, one may conclude that Shame is a postcolonial text that highlights the tensions, conflicts and

manipulations inherent in the dynamics of politics. The novel seemingly is a critique of the dictatorial regimes of Pakistan, however it essentially is a commentary on the prevalent political practices in the postcolonial nations. Written by one of the most influential third world writers, the text exposes the corruption and political injustices of the rulers of a country. Though liberated from the colonial yoke, it is clear that the country is yet to be liberated from the corrupt and the biased politicians. In the game of politics, there is no place for individuality, ideology and ethics. The allegiances of the men hankering after power are only temporary. In fact politics has invaded the most personal spaces in people’s lives. The marital alliances have nothing to do with romance or love. These are based on the political compulsions, the aim being to remain powerful in the political arena. Family members including children are exploited and are made instruments for realising

one’s political aspirations. Sincerity, loyalty, affection, etc., have no place in life. The politicians use religion as a means for safeguarding or furthering their political interests. The politicians hardly care about the faith bestowed in them. There is no uniform civil law and administrative agencies such as police or judiciary operate under arbitrary politics. Politics of political intrigues is quite common. The political practices of the leaders have far reaching consequences on the social and economic conditions of the nation. The issue of political vendetta has become an important factor in the dynamics of politics. It leads to political rivalries and also results in enormous loss of life and property which dampens the progress of the nation. The dynamics of politics essentially involves use of violence, force, coercion and control. Rushdie’s text may be taken as a searing critique of the contemporary scenario where ‘dirty’ politics has become the part and parcel of life.

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References

1. Ahmad, Aijaz. In Theory, Classes, Nations, Literatures. London: Verso, 1992. Print.

2. Hutcheon, Linda. The Politics of Postmodernism. Routledge: London 2003 Print.

3. Mittapali, Rajeshwar and Jeol Kuortti. Salman Rushdie: New

Critical Insights. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 2003. Print.

4. Parmeswaran, Uma. Salman Rushdie’s Early Fiction. Rawat Publications New Delhi, 2007. Print.

5. Rushdie, Salman. Shame. London: Vintage, 1995. Print.

6. Taverson, Andrew. Salman Rushdie. New Delhi: Viva Books Pvt. Ltd. 2010. Print.

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JIDDU KRISHNAMURTI’S: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Chaman Lal Banga

Assistant Professor Department of Education

ICDEOL, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla Introduction

Jiddu Krishnamurti (12 May 1895 – 17 February 1986) was a speaker and writer on philosophical and spiritual subjects. In his early

life he was groomed to be the new World Teacher but later rejected this mantle and disbanded the organisation behind it. At the age of 15, Krishnamurti accompanied Miss Annie Besant to England in 1911. Like his father he also became a member of the Theosophical Society. In 1912, he wrote a book entitled ‘Education as Service’ in which he described the life of an ideal school where love rules and inspires, where the students grow in to noble adolescents under the fostering care of teachers who feel the greatness of their vocation. Krishnamurti was probably unique among seers in his unequivocal rejection of religious and spiritual authority. Krishnamurti refused to be cast as the guru, demanding instead that each one of us be “a light unto oneself”. He rejected method and practice, pointing out that these implied

psychological time and a false sense of becoming. He spoke of the possibility of a choice less awareness in the present that makes no effort to change or transform.The fundamental message of Krishnamurti is that “Truth is a pathless land and you cannot approach it by any path whatsoever, by any religion, by any sect....Truth, being limitless, unconditioned, unapproachable by any path whatsoever, cannot be organized; nor should any organization be formed to lead or coerce people along a particular path.” Mary Luytens, Krishnamurti: The Years of Awakening, London: John Murray, 1975, Shambhala reprint edition 1997, p. 293. According to J. Krishnamurti

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“The purpose of education is to prepare people for life”. He argues that the purpose of education should not just be to prepare people for a

career, but to prepare people for life. If people are not educated to understand the whole process of life; “the constant battle between groups, races and nations… the subtle, hidden things of the mind-the envies, the ambitions, the passions, the fears, fulfillments and anxieties”. He says that people whose educations have only prepared them for a career have unfulfilling lives, and are afraid of life because they don’t know how to deal with it, so they conform, and become complacent in a corrupt society.

1. J. KRISHNAMURTI’S PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE

J. Krishnamurti uses the term "Philosophy" in its etymological sense of the 'love' of 'truth'. To him, philosophy is not a series of theories about life, man and the world. It is not a bundle of ideas, opinions and conclusions. Philosophy is not the speculative or the intellectual activity of system-building. It is not a logical analysis of language and meaning. On the contrary, philosophy, according to Krishnamurti,, is the love of truth. Love means the instantaneous

perception. It is understanding which is beyond the intellect. Truth means the life which is undetermined by thought. It means the mind which is unconditioned. Philosophy is living life independently of systems, images, ideals als and beliefs. It is living from moment to moment in the total freedom of the mind. It is living in the 'present'. True life is what is happening this instant. It is not what thought or intellect conceives it to be. Krishnamurti is regarded globally as one of the greatest thinkers and religious teachers of all time. He did not expound any philosophy or religion, but rather talked of the things that concern all of us in our everyday lives, of the problems of living in modern society with its violence and corruption, of the individual's search for security and happiness, and the need for mankind to free itself from inner burdens of fear, anger, hurt, and sorrow. Philosophy is

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living inseparably from what is taking place now.His message to mankind was “First understand the purpose of our existence, the purpose of our life, and understand what we were thriving for. Then utilize everything, to strengthen us. Krishnamurti Foundation (1980) .

Man has built in himself images as a fence of security—religious, political, personal. These manifest as symbols, ideas, beliefs. The burden of these images dominates man’s thinking, his relationships, and his daily life. These images are the causes of our problems for they divide man from man. His perception of life is shaped by the concepts already established in his mind. The content of his consciousness is his entire existence. The individuality is the name, the form and superficial culture he acquires from tradition and environment. The uniqueness of man does not lie in the superficial but in complete freedom from the content of his consciousness, which is common to all humanity. So he is not an individual.(1981, The Letter to the Schools). Krishnamurti

distinguishes between reality and truth. Reality is thought which is the movement of the past. It is a psychological-material process. It is necessarily conditioned by a thing or an idea. Thought is always of something, gross or subtle, physical or psychological. It is never independent. Independent thought is a contradiction in teens. Reality is all that is conceived by thought. Reality, as Krishnamurti puts it, "comes from 'res' and that anything that thought operates on, or fabricates or reflects about, is reality". J. Krishnamurti described the relationship between ‘being’ and ‘doing’ frequently. It is not ‘doing is being’ but ‘being is doing’ For Krishnamurti, ‘doing’ derived from ‘being’ rather than ‘being’ derived from ‘doing’ - the reverse of convention. Much more needs to be said about the consequences of reversing the roles of ‘being’ and ‘doing’. Observe the modern

convention of a question like, "Who are you?" (a question about being) which is answered by, "I'm a lawyer, engineer, etc." (a statement about doing) suffice it to say that this reversal or confusion usually leads to a

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highly developed 'doing' (which is easier to accomplish) with impoverished 'being,' and Krishnamurti felt that dysfunction was the usual consequence of such imbalance. Krishnamurti observed that it is necessary to encourage the development of a good mind that is capable

of dealing with many issues of life holistically, instead of trying to run away from them. For this, one should be well aware of one’s own conditioning, motives and purpose of life. Thus knowledge is essential only as a means of cultivating the mind and not an end in itself. Jiddu Krishnamurti lays stress on understanding the meaning of communication. It means understanding verbal utterances of what is being said. But the fact is that the understanding is only at the intellectual level. According to Krishnamurti this concept includes listening and learning. Understanding the difference between the two is of great benefit to the teachers. His point was that they take you away

from life as it is here and now, and they are the roots of countless conflicts between people. Organised religion and rituals were heavily criticised by Krishnamurti, and the same criticism hit the worship of gurus and other individuals who seem to believe that they are sent by God to lead people to enlightenment or salvation. Such views inevitably bring him in opposition to the societies we know and have known so far, but one should not mistake him for being irreligious, rather he revalues the meaning of the word religious. To some people this will be refreshing, to others a cold shower. The issues taken up by Krishnamurti in his many talks and books are focused on the fundamental conditions of life such as death, love, time and consciousness. The mind as it is with most human beings is limited, but also, in a way, illusory. However, there is another state of mind which is without limits and eternal. The so-called normal state of mind is

merely regarded as bad programming and a set of malfunctions. Meditation is also viewed from a different perspective from what we are used to. The issue is not to reach higher states of consciousness.

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Meditation is rather a form of pure awareness, in which one refrains from all techniques and efforts to obtain a goal, in accordance with the words of truth being a pathless land. J. Krishnamurti saw human beings as having different facets (like intellects, emotions, appetites,

bodies, etc.) but the whole of which the facets are aspects is more important. Humans have minds as well as brains (more will be said on this later), and it is the consciousness that minds are capable of that can perceive what is religious – the integrated whole (though this should not be confused with some notion of omniscience or seeing everything), and it is to the full flowering of the mind that Krishnamurti felt education should direct itself.

2. J. KRISHNAMURTI VIEWS ON EDUCATION

Education is not merely a matter of training the mind. Training makes for efficiency, but it does not bring about completeness. A mind that has merely been trained is the continuation of the past, and such a mind can never discover the new. That is why, to find out what is right education, we will have to inquire into the whole significance of living. To bring about right education, we must obviously understand the meaning of life as a whole, and for that we have to be able to think, not consistently, but directly and truly. A consistent thinker is a

thoughtless person, because he conforms to a pattern; he repeats phrases and thinks in a groove. We cannot understand existence abstractly or theoretically. To understand life is to understand ourselves, and that is both the beginning and the end of education. Education is not merely acquiring knowledge, gathering and correlating facts; it is to see the significance of life as a whole. But the whole cannot be approached through the part - which is what governments, organized religions and authoritarian parties are attempting to do.

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a) Aims of Education

Education was always close to Krishnamurti’s heart. He established nearly a dozen co-educational schools in India and abroad to translate his ideas into practice. Ten percent of the seats in these institutions were reserved for non-paying pupils. He used to visit them every year for discussion with the students and teachers. Although the

ordinary curriculum was followed in these schools, his main objective in starting these schools was to provide children adequate opportunities and freedom to grow up without any of the national, racial class and cultural prejudice that build barriers between one human being and another and give rise to violence. For Krishnamurti education is: (i) Educating the whole person. (ii) Educating the person as a whole (not as an assemblage of parts). (iii) Educating the person within a whole. (As part of society, humanity, nature, etc.). For him education is about preparation for the whole life and not preparation for part of life (like work). Education in the true sense is of helping the individual to be mature and free, to flower greatly in love and goodness. That is what we should be interested in, and not in shaping the child according to some idealistic pattern. According to this great teacher the main aim of education is to enable the child to develop mentally in such a way that

he should know himself. Education should help one to feel freedom of mind and fearlessness. Krishnamurti founded several schools around the world, including Brockwood Park School, his only international educational center. When asked, he enumerated the following as his educational aims: A) Global outlook: A vision of the whole as distinct from the part; there should never be a sectarian outlook, but always a holistic outlook free from all prejudice. B) Concern for man and the environment: Humanity is part of nature, and if nature is not cared for, it will boomerang on man. Only the right education, and deep affection between people everywhere, will resolve many problems including the environmental challenges. C) Religious spirit, which includes the

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scientific temper: The religious mind is alone, not lonely. It is in communion with people and nature. Jiddu Krishnamurti’s interest in education was long standing and always passionate. In what is perhaps his first book, “Education As Service” (1912), we see his concern for

education and the introduction of a few themes that remain in his work. We hear the voice of the seventeen year old Krishnamurti writing from his heartfelt experiences when he says in the foreword,

Many of the suggestions made in this little book come from my own memories of early school life;…. I have myself experienced both the right way of teaching and the wrong way, and therefore I want to help others towards the right way. (Krishnamurti 1912)

Krishnamurti, education is 1) educating the whole person (all parts of the person), 2) educating the person as a whole (not as an assemblage of parts), and 3) educating the person within a whole (as part of society, humanity, nature, etc.) from which it is not meaningful to extract that person. From the above it probably goes without saying, though it cannot be said often enough, education is not about preparation for only a part of life (like work) but is about preparation

for the whole of life and the deepest aspects of living. Krishnamurti often stated that the purpose of education is to bring about freedom, love, “the flowering of goodness” and the complete transformation of society. He specifically contrasts this to what he feels are the intentions of most schools which emphasise preparing young people to succeed materially in the society that exists (or a slightly altered one).

Right education is to help you to find out for yourself what you really, with all your heart, love to do. It does not matter what it is, whether it is to cook, or to be a gardener, but is something in which you have put your mind, your heart. (Krishnamurti 1974) (Part 1, Chapter 8)

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3. CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEGRAL EDUCATION

a) Development of capacities to face challenges: If the

individual is to grapple with life’s problems, intricacies, mysteries, and sudden demands, he must be free from theories and particular patterns of thoughts.

b) Development of Love towards Others: Only true love and

right thinking will bring about revolution within oneself. But it cannot be achieved through pursuit of the ideal of love. What can be done is to keep ourselves free from hatred, greed,

exploitation envy and ego.

c) Development of Right Relationship: Education should help

an individual to cultivate right relationship between individuals and society and this is possible only if he understands his own psychological process. Intelligence lies in understanding oneself and going above and beyond oneself.

d) Development of self knowledge : Education should help an

individual discover the true values which come with unbiased investigation and self-expression becomes self assertion with all its aggressive and ambitions conflicts. To Krishnamurti the individual is of first importance; not the system, and as long as the individual does not understand the total process of himself, no system can bring order and peace to the world.

e) Integrated experience: Krishnamurti says “the right kind of

education which encourages the language of technique should help man to experience the integral process of life which is of greater importance. It is this experiencing that will put capacity and technique in their right place”.

f) Freedom from readymade ideas: According to Jiddu

Krishnamurti ideas have no place in education for they prevent

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the comprehension of the present and escaping into the future cannot make one aware of what is to be after an idea indicates sluggishness of mind and a desire to avoid the present. Pursuit of a readymade utopia is denial of the freedom and integration

of the individual. What we need is not an idealistic entity or mechanical minds but integrated human beings who are intelligent and free.

g) Freedom from ideology: Jiddu krishnamurti says

conditioning of the child’s mind to fit a particular ideology, weather political or religious breed’s enmity between man and man. In a competitive society we cannot have brotherhood.

h) Freedom and discipline: It is only in individual freedom that

love and goodness can blossom. Only the right kind of education offers this freedom. One of the dangers of freedom is that this system becomes important than the human beings. Here, discipline becomes a substitute for love. It is because our hearts are empty that we cling to discipline. Freedom can never be achieved through discipline.

i) Development of free and mature human beings: To jiddu

krishnamurti, the right kind of education is free from ideology and conditioning. Education in true sense should help the individual to be free and mature and to blossom in love and goodness. The conditioning of the child’s mind to fit a particular ideology whether political or religious breed’s enmity between

man and man will not help to bring about brotherhood and change in the society. The Indian scenario gives ample examples of lack of brotherhood understanding and resistance.

j) Spiritual Training and not Religious Education: To him

dogmas, mysteries and rituals are not conducive to spiritual life. Religious education in the true sense is to encourage the child to

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understand his own relationship to people, Things and to nature. There is no existence without relationships.

4. ROLE OF A TEACHER ACCORDING TO J. KRISHNAMURTI SCHEME OF EDUCATION

“That silence which is not the silence of the ending of noise is only a small beginning. It is like going through a small hole to an enormous, wide, expansive ocean, to an immeasurable, timeless state. But this you

cannot understand verbally unless you have understood the whole structure of consciousness and the meaning of pleasure, sorrow…” J. Krishnamurti

The role of education in any society has been to transmit its culture: rituals, knowledge and values, to future generations and, in the process, to perpetuate traditions. Both primitive societies and traditional ones evolve methods for educating their young in a variety of ways: piety to their gods, reverence for their great men, imitation of heroic role models, implanting rational principles and rules for good government – these are considered well trodden paths to the good life. The knowledge that educational institutions have sought to transmit is, in some sense, embedded in the larger social fabric.

J. Krishnamurti was probably unique among seers in his unequivocal rejection of religious and spiritual authority. He refused to be cast as the guru, demanding instead that each one of us be “a light

unto oneself”. He rejected method and practice, pointing out that these implied psychological time and a false sense of becoming. He spoke of the possibility of a choiceless awareness in the present that makes no effort to change or transform.

Krishnamurti felt that education has a central role to play in nurturing a living awareness in the student and the teacher.

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J. Krishnamurti regards education as of prime significance in

the communication of that which is central to the transformation of the human mind and the creation of a new culture. `Self-knowledge' is considered to be the most important aim of education. The content of

his consciousness is his entire existence. This content is common to all humanity. The individuality is the name, the form and superficial culture he acquires from tradition and environment. The uniqueness of man does not lie in the superficial but in complete freedom from the content of his consciousness, which is common to all mankind. So he is not an individual. Freedom is not a reaction; freedom is not a choice. It is man's pretence that because he has choice he is free. Freedom is pure observation without direction, without fear of punishment and reward. Freedom is without motive; freedom is not at the end of the evolution of man but lies in the first step of his existence. In observation one begins to discover the lack of freedom. Freedom is found in the choiceless awareness of our daily existence and activity. Thought is time. Thought is born of experience and knowledge which are inseparable from time and the past. Time is the psychological enemy of

man. Our action is based on knowledge and therefore time, so man is always a slave to the past. Thought is ever-limited and so we live in constant conflict and struggle. There is no psychological evolution.

"The core of Krishnamurti's teaching is contained in the statement he made in 1929 when he said: 'Truth is a pathless land'. Man cannot come to it through any organization, through any creed, through any dogma, priest or ritual, not through any philosophic knowledge or psychological technique. He has to find it through the mirror of relationship, through the understanding of the contents of his own mind, through observation and not through intellectual analysis or introspective dissection. Man has built in himself images as a fence of security - religious, political, personal. These manifest as symbols, ideas, beliefs. The burden of these images dominates man's thinking,

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his relationships and his daily life. These images are the causes of our problems for they divide man from man. His perception of life is shaped by the concepts already established in his mind.

According to Krishnamurti, a true teacher not simply a giver of

information, but is the one who shows the way to wisdom and truth. Truth is more important than the teacher himself. The search for truth is religion. Truth is of no country and of any creed. It is not to be found in any temple or church or mosque. Without the search for the truth, the society will decay. To create a new society each one of us has to be a true teacher. This means that we have to be both the pupil and the master. Authority has its place as knowledge is concerned, but there is no spiritual authority under any circumstances... That is, authority destroys freedom, but the authority of a doctor, mathematics teacher and how he teaches, that doesn't destroy freedom. (Krishnamurti 1975)

The schools Krishnamurti founded are very beautiful places, and this is not by accident. Beauty is important, not just because it is pleasing, but because sensitivity to beauty is related to being religious

and indispensable to the healthy growth of a child.

J. Krishnamurti’s view that a teacher has both a brain and a mind puts him at odds with most modern perspectives and most learning theory. The brain is the material centre of the nervous system and the organ of cognition. It is therefore responsible for co-ordination of the senses, memory, rationality, intellectual knowledge, etc. The mind, which is not material, is related to insight (non-visual perception), compassion, and the profound intelligence that Jiddu Krishnamurti held as the real goal of life and therefore of education. Obviously one needs a brain that functions well (like one needs a heart or a liver that functions well) but the real source of acting rightly, of goodness, and of a religious life is the mind.

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SUMMARY

To Krishnamurti a new mind is only possible when the religious spirit and the scientific attitude form part of the same movement of consciousness - a state where the scientific attitude and the religious spirit are not two parallel processes or capacities of the mind. They do not exist in watertight compartments as two separate movements that

have to be fused but are a new movement inherent in intelligence and in the creative mind. Krishnamurti talks of two instruments available to the human being - the instrument of knowledge which enables him to gain mastery over technical skills, and intelligence which is born of observation and self-knowing. Krishnamurti was neither a religious authority nor a social reformer. But his contribution to education is unique. As a cure for the conflict and suffering of the world, he exhorted people to change themselves. As part of it one should understand one’s purpose of life and use every thing to achieve it. Knowing what one ‘loves’ to do is part of education. Krishnamurti says it is not ‘doing is being’, but ‘being is doing’. He advocated total freedom for the child to choose what he wants to become not that others impose upon the child their ideas on them. We must try to see things in totality and not in fragments. The truth should be found not

in fragments but in the totality. According to J. Krishnamurti education is freedom from conditioning. Man should grow above divisions to live in peace. Actual communication takes place when there is communication and the whole mind and heart are involved. What is essential for us is to be an integrated person. To be an integrated person one should understand the total process of one’s consciousness. Undue emphasis on intellect will make the person disintegrated. To understand life is to understand ourselves. About religion he says, true religion cannot be conditional. He believed in free religion. Education should help people to become truly religious. But his

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understanding on religion is different. It is not tied to any dogmas, culture or time.

References

1. Aggarwal, J. C. and Gupta, S., (2006), Great Philosophers and Thinkers on Education, Shipra Publications, Delhi.

2. Aggarwal S., (2007), Philosophical Foundations of Education, Authors Press, Delhi.

3. Krishnamurti, J. (1981).The Letter to the Schools, Krishnamurti Foundation India, Madras, 1981, p.72

4. Krishnamurti, J. (1980). Krishnamurti Foundation Trust Ltd. 5. Krishnamurti, J. (1992). Truth and Actuality, Krishnamurti

Foundation India, Madras, p. 60 6. Krishnamurti, J. (1912) Education as Service. Adyar, Madras:

Theosophical Publishing society. 7. Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1953c) Education & The Significance Of

Life, London: Victor Gollancz ltd. Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1974) On Education, Pondicherry, India: All India Press.

8. Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1975) Dialogue on Education, at Ojai. 9. Krishnamurti, J.(1953c) Education and the Significance of Life,

London: Victor Gollancz Ltd 10. Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1964) This Matter of Culture, London:

Victor Gollancz. 11. Pandey R. S., (1997), East-West Thoughts on Education,

Horizon Publications, Allahabad. 12. The River Joins The Ocean(1999). Reflections about J.

Krishnamurti, by Giddu Narayan, Edwin House Publishing, p 64.

13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddu_Krishnamurti 14. http://cfl.in/philosophy/j-krishnamurti/ 15. http://www.here-

now4u.de/eng/the_philosophy_of_jiddu_krishn.htm 16. http://www.deeshan.com/krishnamurti.htm 17. http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/teachings-jiddu-krishnamurti/ 18. http://infed.org/mobi/jiddu-krishnamurti-and-his-insights-into-

education/

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LET’S HAVE AN EAR FOR PROBLEMS OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS

Dr Mamta Garg

Assistant Professor in Education University School of Open Learning

Panjab University, Chandigarh INTRODUCTION

India has made considerable progress in school education since independence with reference to overall literacy, infrastructure and

universal access and enrolment in schools. Two major developments in the recent years form the background to the present reform in teacher education – the political recognition of Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) as a legitimate demand and the state commitment towards UEE in the form of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 (NCTFE, 2010).

Availability of qualified, trained and highly motivated teachers is an important factor in ensuring meaningful access to education. “Teacher qualification and training coupled with a high morale and positive perception of the academic ability of the learners constitute a powerful set of factors determining the learning levels of the children” (Govinda and Varghese, 1993). It needs no description that the teacher is the pivot of any educational system of the younger students. On him rests the failure or the success of the system. If the teachers are well

educated and if they are intellectually alive and take keen interest in their job, then only, success is ensured. But, if on the other hand, they lack training in education and if they cannot give their heart to their profession, the system is destined to fail. Hence, the teacher is vital component of the school.

In view of this, many countries, including India, spend a large proportion of their education budgets on teachers’ salaries and their

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professional development. Even though many children attend schools, they remain ill-equipped. A survey in 2007 which was conducted across 16,000 villages, found that while many more children were sitting in class, vast number of them could not read, write or perform basic arithmetic, to say nothing of those who are not in school at all. Similarly, in a study conducted by International Student Assessment (PISA) it was found that India ranked 63 out of 64 in the with some of its best schools ranked about average among those surveyed. The

Annual School Education Report (2011) stated that only 48.2% of students in the fifth grade can read at the second grade level. The number of students completing their primary education with inadequate numeracy and literacy skills is startling (Gelda, Narayan, Mudiyam, Raturi and Seshan, 2013).

For this poor performance the blame is given to teachers. Much of the criticism faced by the government schools and institutions directs towards the faculty members and administrators and is true also. Teachers have been accused of missing the classes, of maintaining non-serious attitude in the classes and exhibiting the lack of commitment that would excel the performance of the students. It is these lacunae that make classroom ambience dull and children unreceptive. The teaching and learning process faces challenges in situations such as single teacher and single class schools.

Thus, whole responsibility for low performance of students may not be of teachers only. Vyas (2008) outlined many reasons for the failure of education system in India which includes shortage of teachers, indifferent attitude of parents towards their child’s education and they only see them as additional hands for work, insufficient public financing and accountability, and a lack of motivation among teachers to pay special attention to poor children from lower castes. Even the basic amenities like water and electricity are not being provided.

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Major problems as perceived by beginning teachers in their first years of teaching as reported by Veenman (1984) are classroom discipline, motivating students, dealing with individual differences, assessing students’ work, relationships with parents, organization of class work, insufficient and/or inadequate teaching materials and supplies, and dealing with problems of individual students. Chaudhry (1994) found that there are neither library facilities nor play grounds or playing instruments nor proper audio-visual aids in every school. The

issue of salary was also reported by the teachers as some of them were not getting salary at proper time. Along with this, another problems were, multigrade teaching and lack of cooperation between teachers.

There are 15% of all primary schools in India are single teacher schools and around 12% of primary schools have a single classroom (Mehta, 2010). 80% of primary schools have three teachers or less, though there are five grades in the primary schools. Lack of teachers and high pupil-teacher ratios, causes difficulties in implementing programmes including Read India.

Rawal and Kingdon (2010) reported that most of the schools in Rewa and Dindori clusters have two teachers and five grades. A large number of schools in these clusters are still single teacher schools as many of these are run under the AIE/EGS schemes. Multi-grade teaching is therefore a common necessity. Many teachers, even those

with postgraduate qualifications face difficulties with multi-grade teaching. This problem is accentuated with untrained or poorly trained teachers.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

To explore the problems encountered by teachers in government schools in Punjab.

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METHDOLOGY

The method used to present study is descriptive survey method. A sample of 79 teachers from Government Elementary schools situated in Punjab state was selected for the present study. A questionnaire was constructed by the investigators to collect the data. It contained both open and closed ended type questions. Along with this, interviews were conducted with twenty teachers.

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY:

The sample of the study included 35 male teachers and 44 Female teachers out of which 51.9% teachers were having teaching experience of 5 years and above and 48.1% were novice teachers. Among these, 63.2% were having bachelor’s degree and possessed professional

teaching degree also (either E.T.T.) and remaining 36.8% were having lower qualification i.e. up to senior secondary education with basic professional degree for elementary education or are without this degree.

From the analysis of the data collected with the help of the questionnaire and after interviewing with the teachers, the following problems of the teachers have been emerged.

Infrastructural facilities: With regards to basic infrastructural

facilities such as classrooms, toilets, furniture, electricity, drinking water etc., 87.3% teachers do not have any problem. But they expressed the need of good library, laboratories, computer lab etc without which they face problems in teaching learning process.

Administration: Indifferent attitude of head of their schools towards

the problems of teachers is a major concern for 68.3% teachers. A considerable number of female teachers (72.1%) encounter problem with the authoritarian behavior of their head. Most of the teachers (88%) have the problem with frequent inspections being conducted at

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schools. Along with this, they (69.1%) reported that there was a lack of motivation from the head/authority for higher studies.

Work load: A lot of teachers (51.4%) felt heavy work load as they have

to handle multi-grade classes. Most of the teachers (91.6%) expressed their reservations for extra duties like—Census duty, Election Duty, SSA Surveys, and Polio vaccination etc. A long with this the responsibility of Mid-day Meals is also very tiresome. Almost, all the teachers reported it to be difficult to manage the various tasks of Mid-Day Meal. They had to purchase the utensils etc for mid-day meal. Along with this they have to buy the material for preparation of mid-

day meal. Most of the teachers had a problem with supervision of mid-day meal along with teaching. Not only this, they sometimes have to buy uniforms for the students and they themselves have to make their students try the size of clothes as children up to class two are not able to wear themselves. Then if these clothes did not fit, they have to again change the sizes from the dealers. And, if the uniforms come from the higher authorities, they have to distribute size specific dresses again after trails by the students. Sometimes, many shoes that they receive are of same foot i.e. right or left. It takes a whole week as parents of the students keep coming with complaints of sizes etc. This is a tedious job to deal with all this. These teachers said that all these extra responsibilities added to teacher’s work pressure and consume a lot of time that otherwise should be devoted to teaching

Utilization of grants and maintaining records: Teachers (78%)

expressed their difficult to spend the grants sanctioned under Sarv Shiksha Abhiyaan as most of the time grants are released near to the

closure of financial year and they are forced to consume it before March 31st . For them, it becomes a hard job to spend the money in a week time. Moreover, prescribed items with the prices mentioned in the grant are not available at the same price as mentioned in grant therefore, it becomes difficult to use the grants. Not only this, they

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themselves have to maintain all the financial transaction records. For many teachers (57.1%), maintenance of school records is wastage of time. They felt that for the purpose of utilizing grants and maintaining the records/accounts, the school should have one person only for this. Many teachers (34%) explained that sometimes it is not difficult to prepare reports but forwarding these to authority was very difficult as teachers themselves are supposed to deliver it to its destination. Moreover, if the reports are being demanded in emergency, these are to

be prepared during teaching hours.

Problem of Multi-grade classroom: For teachers (64.6%), classes

are not overcrowded but it is difficult for them to handle 2-3 classes (multi-grade) simultaneously due to shortage of teachers in the schools. Many a times they have to manage five classes (1st to 5th) at a time. Because of this individual differences cannot be managed.

Students’ behavior: Many teachers (47.8%) face problem of poor

attendance, drop out, truancy, violence etc. among students. Teachers reported that many students get enrolled in school but do not attend the school. Then they have to go to their places and convince their parents to send their wards regularly to the school. Many parents who work as laborers refuse to send their children as these children are their helping hands either at work place or home. But the teachers have to push them a lot; many times in spite of their best efforts they cannot persuade them. In such cases, it becomes difficult for them to showcase their position in front of the authorities.

Most of the teachers (78.5%) expressed their difficulties to deal with students who come from very low economic class as these students do

not follow the teaching instructions and they have to spend a lot of energy on such children. Many children do not put efforts in their studies as they know that under RTE, no student can be held back.

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“This becomes a cause for their poor learning and blame goes to teacher” said by 81.3% teachers.

A few female teachers (28%) reported that they could not say anything to the students as the latter become violent towards teachers and sometimes even threaten them. Therefore, to avoid any mishappening, they avoid such students, if they avoid them, it encourages such students and these students start bullying other students. It becomes very difficult for them to handle such students as they are being

supported by influential people of the village.

Curriculum: Most of the teachers (72.4%) are of the view that syllabus

is ill planned and need to be formulated again. They said that as the students in government schools lack conducive environment at their homes and most of the parents are not able to help their wards in studies. Therefore, curriculum should be framed keeping in view the levels of such learners and their exposure and conditions.

Evaluation : For teachers it is difficult to arrange activities under

Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE). They do not have resources to organize activities to assess different aspects of the learners. Moreover, the forms of CCE are too lengthy that most of the time is consumed in filling the information instead of organizing the activities. Because of all this, they have to cook the data.

Parents’ behavior: Lack of participation on the part of guardians in

the study of their wards ia also a big problem for these teachers. Most of them (69%) feel that parents of the students are indifferent to the studies of their wards. They do not give importance to daily attendance and dress of their wards. Many a times when they are called at school for complaining about their wards poor attendance or some other problem created by their children at school, then many parents create a

scène and misbehave with teachers. Teachers are not happy with guardian’s behavior.

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Salary and Status: Most of the teachers are satisfied with the salary

except novice teachers (who are on contract basis) as they are getting very less salary. The teachers under local bodies administration of districts i.e. Zila Parishad don’t get salary at proper time. With regards to status, teachers feel that their job is dignified in the society. But some teachers expressed that their job is not according to their qualification. Such teachers are highly qualified than the actual requirement of the present job. Novice teachers have job insecurity as they are contract teachers.

Besides above mentioned problems, some teachers documented

following problems:

1. Village politics as an obstacle to proper functioning of school and demoralizing for teacher as many schools are under panchayat smiti.

2. Schools are at faraway places, teachers have to travel long distances to reach there. Even some school located in interiors lack public transportation facility.

3. Lack of helpers like peon, clerks, sweepers in the school. 4. Mid Day Meal Cook’s salary is not being deposited on time.

While talking to some teachers, they said that teachers are not to be entirely blamed for substandard education received in government schools. Government teachers are in fact qualified and there is little doubt about their competency. It is only the system that makes them lethargic or takes away the zeal from them. According to them, teachers are compelled to work in making voting cards, conducting election, literacy missions, Census, economic surveys, industrial surveys, helping the health agencies for vaccination of children against deadly diseases like small-pox etc. Now ‘Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan’ authority demands unnecessary paper work, seminars, workshops and other documentation. Every day, they have to maintain a lot of formalities which hinders teaching and learning. A teacher wants to

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teach to the students but he/she has to fulfill so many other formalities before indulging in his actual work. To complete this information teacher lose a lot of time and energy. Government school teachers are ill-treated for the bad result in the end of the year. Government spends a lot of money for these schools like providing books, teaching material and examination centre, but doesn’t use them in non educational work. Moreover, only poor families’ children are coming in the government schools which don’t care about their children’s education.

Thus, one of the obvious problems that government teachers in India are facing right now is additional duties and responsibilities that are given to them. Teachers are involved and engaged in many activities and programmes like election duties, healthcare programmers or vaccination drives, surveys, etc. These duties spoil the academic schedule set by the teachers and school administrators. Moreover, the teachers feel over-burdened with these responsibilities and may not be able to pay individual attention to the weak students and to devote time to new teaching methods.

CONCLUSION

Teachers face administrative and supervision problems, problems related to infrastructural facilities and interpersonal relations are less common, preparation and maintenance of school reports and records is not difficult though forwarding these is difficult, Mid Day Meal tasks are difficult to manage, Teacher Taught Ratio is not exact problem but multi-grade teaching is a problem in govt. primary schools,

curriculum is not overburdened but is ill planned, behavior of parents is not violent towards teachers and of course not satisfactory, they don’t give importance to proper supervision of their wards, students neglect their homework and are sometimes irregular in attending the schools. Most of the teachers are satisfied with their salary except novice teachers because they are contract teachers and are getting very

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lower salaries. All the teachers are satisfied with the social status of their job.

There is dire need to understand the problems encountered by teachers in government schools that adversely affect the working of teachers for seeking promising solutions. The administrators should try to find out the ways to resolve these so that the best of creative talent and potentialities of teacher in classroom may utilize properly that ultimately may increase the work efficiency of teachers.

References

2. Chaudhary, A. (1994). A study on the problems of primary

school teachers in Panipat. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Education, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra.

3. Gelda, R., Narayan, V., Mudiyam, M., Raturi, K. & Seshan,N. (2013). Need improvement: Despite progress India’s primary education system has a way to go. Retrieved from http://global.wharton.upenn.edu/post/needs-improvement-despite-progress-indias-primary-education-system-has-a-ways-to-go/ on May, 12, 2014.

4. Govinda, R. & Varghese, N.V. (1993). Quality of primary schooling in India-A Case study of Madhya Pradesh, IIEP, UNESCO.

5. Mehta, A. (2010). Elementary education in India. Retrieved from http://www.dise.in/Downloads/Publications/Publications%20201

0-11/AR%202010-11/DISE-analytical-tables-provisional-2010-11.pdf.

6. Rawal, S. & Kingdon, G. (2010). Akin to my teacher: Does caste, religious or gender distance between student and teacher matter? Some evidence from India. Retrieved from

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http://www.isid.ac.in/~pu/conference/dec_10_conf/Papers/ShenilaRawal.pdf.

7. Veenman, S. (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of Educational Research, 54(2), 143-178.

8. Vyas, A. (2008). Conditions of government schools in India. Retrieved from http://theviewspaper.net/condition-of-government-schools-in-india/

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A CORRELATIONAL STUDY OF THE VARIABLES OF LEARNING ACQUISITION THROUGH MNEMONICS

TECHNIQUES, COGNITIVE STYLES AND SELF CONCEPT

Dr. Avanish Kumar Assistant Professor

S.R.M. College of Education Vill. Dandrawal, Tehsil Raipur Rani

Distt Panchkula, Haryana

INTRODUCTION

Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, school or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of neurophysiology, educational psychology, learning theory, and pedagogy. Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness.

LEARNING ACQUISITION

Learning Acquisition is the process of absorbing and storing new information in memory, the success of which is often gauged by how well the information can later be remembered. The process of storing and retrieving information depends heavily on the representation and

organization of the information. Moreover, the utility of Learning can also be influenced by how the information is structured. Learning could be thought of as a process by which behaviour changes as a result of experience (Merriam and Caffarella 1991:124).

Learning Acquisition is seen as going on all the time. It is concrete, immediate and confined to a specific activity; it is not

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concerned with general principles (Rogers 2003: 18) Learning Acquisition is integrally tied to how the mind organizes and represents information. Learning can be enhanced by considering the fundamental properties of human knowledge, as well as by the ultimate function of the desired information.

MNEMONIC TECHNIQUES

Memory is the ability of our brains to retain the things we have learned. We can all identify occasions when we cannot recall things, which we should know. Memory is the process of registering,

consolidating, storing, and recalling information. Poor memory does not mean that our brain lacks something. It may be because of lack of motivation and concentration that we fail to remember persons or names or a things. By practising a few mental exercises (mnemonics) we can enhance our memory power.

Mnemonic Techniques are those techniques that help a person to accurate and quick learning, durable retention, quick recognition and accurate and quick recalling of things or subject matter. Memory is a skill that every student can improve - and benefit from it. In addition; they will enjoy better grades and greater success in their studies when they develop their memory to its full potential. Memory techniques are known as mnemonics. They are creative aids to memory. They work best when they are products of ones own imagination.

Mnemonics are methods for remembering information that is

otherwise quite difficult to recall. Mnemonics are often verbal, are sometimes in verse form, and are often used to remember lists. Mnemonics rely not only on repetition to remember facts, but also on associations between easy-to-remember constructs and lists of data, based on the principle that the human mind much more easily remembers data attached to spatial, personal or otherwise meaningful information than that occurring in meaningless sequences.

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COGNITIVE STYLES

Cognitive styles describe how the individual acquires knowledge (cognition) and processes information (conceptualization). Cognitive styles are related to mental behaviors which individuals apply habitually when they are solving problems. In general, they affect the way in which information is obtained, sorted, and utilized. Cognitive style is usually described as a stable and persistent personality dimension which influences attitudes, values, and social interaction. It is a characteristic of cognitive processing which is particular to a

certain individual or class of individuals.

Witkin et. al. (1977) Cognitive Styles concerned with the form rather than the content of cognitive activity.

- These refer to individual differences as to how we perceive, think, solve problems, learn and relate to others.

- They are persuasive dimensions but cut the boundaries traditionally used in compartmentalising the human psyche and so hold to restore the psyche to its status as holistic entity.

- They are stable over time, it is not that they are unchangeable; some may be rather easily altered. This stability makes stylistic dimensions particularly useful in long range guidance and counselling.

Witkin et. al. (1977) identified the field dependent-independence cognitive Styles and they have been found to be directly responsible for wide variation in the way individual pupils react to learning situation.

People who are field-dependent tend to perceive a pattern as a whole. They find it difficult to focus on any one aspect of a situation or to analyse a pattern into different parts. Field independent persons are more likely to perceive separate parts of a whole, and to be able to analyse a pattern according to its components.

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SELF-CONCEPT

The term self-concept is so used in the field of education and psychology that in its most native sense it can be generally understood as the person's ideas, feelings and attitudes about one's self i.e. how one perceives one's self.

The self-concept includes three components; perceptual, a way in which the person sees himself, idea of the impression he makes on others; conceptual a person's idea of his own distinctive characteristics, abilities and limitations; an attitudinal own feeling of identity in

environment, attitudes regarding present and future and degree of self-esteem.

Another definition presented by Lebenne and Greene (1969) of Self-Concept is the person's total appraisal of his appearance, background and origins, ability and resources, attitudes and feelings, which culminate as a directing force in behaviour.

John (2000) defined that Self-concept is the product of one’s reflectivity; it is concept of the individual of himself as a physical, social and moral and existing being. The self-concept is sum total of the individual’s thoughts and feelings about him or herself as an object.

Self-Concept is not hereditary; rather it develops in a person as a result of his interactions with an environment. It is a life-long process and develops continuously in a social setting. As a child grows and develops, he learns more and more about himself. Others do not teach

it to him, but a child acquires it as a by-product of learning experiences.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The study was undertaken keeping in view the following objectives:

1. To develop the teaching material based on Mnemonic Techniques.

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2. To develop Learning Acquisition Test.

3. To study the intercorrelations among the variables of Cognitive Styles, Self- Concept, Mnemonic Techniques and Learning Acquisition.

HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY

The study was conducted on the basis of following Hypothesis:

1. The intercorrelations among the variables of Cognitive Styles, Self- Concept, Mnemonic Techniques and Learning Acquisition will be positive and significant.

STUDIES ON LEARNING ACQUISITION AND MNEMONIC TECHNIQUES:

Sproson (2009) reported the results of a study of the influence

of mnemonic strategies on normal schoolwork. Two geography assignments were presented; the first required memorization without

guidance while the second supported memorization with mnemonic strategies. The result revealed that second assignment produced better memorization and more enthusiasm, and also a positive correlation was found between mnemonic techniques and student’s achievement.

John (2010) conducted a study over a six-week period, on

students (N=20) with learning disabilities in an inner-city middle school. They were taught the chronological order of the U.S. presidents. Half the time a modified mnemonic keyword-peg word strategy was used and the other half rehearsal and representational pictures. Results revealed that significant intercorrelations for instructional condition were in favour of the mnemonic instructions.

Campione (2012) conducted many experimental research

studies that spanned over a decade and involved over 1,000 students. They presented many data on the effectiveness of mnemonic

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instruction in the classroom demonstrating that children, who were taught using mnemonics, were able to retrieve information more efficiently from memory. This contributed to improved grades and significantly correlated with the achievement of students.

Gfeller (2013) studied the significant relationship between

mnemonic instruction and academic performance for secondary school students. The findings of this review strongly supported the efficacy of mnemonic interventions across study methods, educational settings, student ages, and disabilities in the improvement of academic

performance, typically measured by recall of word meanings or factual information. The results of intercorrelations were also positive and significant and in favour of the mnemonic techniques.

STUDIES ON LEARNING ACQUISITION AND COGNITIVE STYLES:

Verma (2009) studied “the effect of cognitive Styles on

scholastic achievement” and showed that field independent cognitive Styles group obtained significantly higher mean scores in English, Maths, general science, social studies and drawing and in total achievement than their field dependent counterparts, and also predict significant relationship between cognitive styles and overall achievement of students.

Sudesh (2011) studied that interaction of approaches to study

the effect of Cognitive Styles on achievement in biological science. The findings revealed significant relationship, main effect of Cognitive Styles on the achievement in chemistry.

Ahuja (2011) conducted a study of academic achievement in

relation to cognitive styles at secondary stage and found that cognitive styles had a significantlly correlated students’ academic achievement.

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Gupta (2013) examined that intercorrelation of approaches to

study the effect of cognitive styles on achievement in physics, and found that cognitive styles had a positive and significant effect on students’ achievement in physics.

Sharma (2013) studied the relationship of cognitive styles and

learning acquisition of 9th grade students of U.T Chandigarh in English and found that cognitive styles significantlly related with the achievement of students.

STUDIES ON LEARNING ACQUISITION AND SELF CONCEPT:

Lal (2010) found the significant relationship between self-

concept, and academic achievement. The statistical procedure used to analyse the data were correlation and chi-square test for significance. The results of the analysis indicated significant low positive correlation was found between self-concept and academic achievement.

Singh (2012) conducted a study on 110 adults; 55 male and 55

females and found positive and significant correlation between self-concept and arithmetic skills.

Asfaw (2012) conducted a study on the concepts of Economics at secondary school children and the result showed Self- Concept

significantly correlated to their Achievement of students.

Gaur (2013) concluded that Students' intentions to learn in

future were more strongly correlated with self-concept than by achievement.

Jindal (2013) conducted a study on the visually handicapped

adolescents and found that significant relationship existed between self concept and academic achievement.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE:

DESIGN OF THE STUDY:

The study was correlational in nature which required the use of survey method for data collection. The intercorrelations were computed in respect of the variables of Mnemonic Techniques, Cognitive Styles and Self- Concept and Learning Acquisition.

SAMPLE OF THE STUDY:

A sample pool of 500 students was drawn from the students of

class IX of C.B.S.E. affiliated schools of Chandigarh. It consisted of both boys and girls. The sample was random in nature and was drawn from five Senior Secondary Schools of Chandigarh. Randomisation was done through the technique of multistage sampling in respect of the selection of the schools and the sections within each school.

TOOLS USED:

The following tools were used to conduct the present study:

1. Group Embedded Figure Test (GEFT) by Philip I K. Ottman, Evelyn Raskin and Herman, A. Witkin (1971) was used to identify the Cognitive Style of the students.

2. Personality word list (PWL) by Partibha Deo (1971) to test the Self- Concept.

3. Mnemonic Techniques With Illustration and Without Illustration (Developed by the Investigator)

4. Achievement Test for Learning Acquisition (Developed by the Investigator)

DEVELOPMENT OF MNEMONIC TECHNIQUES:

In the preparation of the Mnemonics, all possible efforts were made to incorporate necessary characteristics to be presented in each

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mnemonic technique to make it an effective learning resource. Mnemonic Techniques were classified into two groups.

1. Mnemonic Techniques with Illustration

2. Mnemonic Techniques without Illustration

Both the techniques were prepared on Microsoft Power Point by compiling information, images, diagrams related to the topics taken from the text book published by NCERT for class IX on the subject of

Social – Studies as well as from the web using the internet. Colourful relevant pictures, clip art, animations from web were also inserted at appropriate places linking them with the concepts to be explained by Investigator. The only difference in both the mnemonic groups was that the use of clip art, pictures animations were limited to the first group. The Mnemonic Techniques with Illustration and without Illustration were combined into one format for the purpose of this study.

DEVELOPMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT TEST:

The test was meant for the students of age group 14 - 16 years studying in class IX in different schools of Chandigarh where the medium of instruction was English. Twelve topics of Social Studies of Class IX were selected for the present study. The achievement test consisting of all multiple choice items related to the selected topics was devised by the investigator keeping in mind the objectives and the content of items. For trying out the preliminary draft, the test was given to a

sample of 50 students of class IX. For item analysis Kelley's Method (1939) was adopted to find the Difficulty Value (DV) and Discriminating Power (DP) of preliminary draft. The items having Difficulty Value (DV) ranging from 0.25 to 0.75 and the items ranging from .20 to .90 on the Discriminating Power were retained. As a result of item analysis 23 items were dropped from the achievement test and 15 were modified and finally 137 items were retained out of 160 items

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in the first draft of the achievement test. These 137 items were taken for the second draft. For trying out the second draft, test was given to a sample of 100 students of Class IX. After item analysis in terms of D.V. and D.P. of the second draft 17 items were dropped from the achievement test and 6 were modified and finally 120 items were retained for Final draft. The reliability of the achievement test of was found by the test-retest method and the reliability coefficient of came

out to be 0.73. For validity, content validity of the achievement test was found by relating the content with the objectives.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION:

The results of the correlation among the variables of Cognitive Styles, Self- Concept and Mnemonic Techniques and Learning Acquisition of the total sample are reported in Table – 1

Table- 1

Correlation Matrix Showing the Inter-Correlation (4 X 4) Among the Variables of Cognitive Styles, Self- Concept,

Mnemonic Techniques and Learning Acquisition

Sr. No

Variables Cognitive

Styles Self- Concept

Mnemonic Techniques

Learning Acquisition

1 Cognitive Styles

1.000

2 Self- Concept

.443** 1.000

3 Mnemonic Techniques

.782** .846** 1.000

4 Learning Acquisition

.593** .496** .925** 1.000

(Total sample: N= 500), df – 498 ** Significant at .01 level (0.115)

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Mnemonic Techniques

and Learning Acquisition, 0.925

Self concept and Learning Acquisition,

0.496

Self Concept and Mnemonic Techniques,

0.846

Cognitive Styles and Learning Acquisition,

0.593

Cognitive Styles and Mnemonic Techniques,

0.782

Cognitive Style and Self Concept, 0.443

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Cognitive Styleand Self Concept

Cognitive Stylesand Mnemonic

Techniques

Cognitive Stylesand LearningAcquisition

Self Concept andMnemonic

Techniques

Self concept andLearning

Acquisition

MnemonicTechniques and

LearningAcquisition

Freq

uenc

y D

istr

ibut

ion

r

Figure: - 1

Line Graph Showing Intercorrelations among the Variables of Cognitive Styles, Self- Concept, Mnemonic Techniques and

Learning Acquisition

The results of Table- 1 are interpreted as follows:

i) Relationship between the Cognitive Styles and Self-Concept:

The Table - 1 depicts that Cognitive Styles is positively and

significantly correlated (r = .443) with Self-Concept at .01 level. Thus, the relationship exhibits that the higher the level of Cognitive Styles, the higher is the level of Self-Concept of students. So, Cognitive Styles is a good predictor of Self-Concept of students.

ii) Relationship between the Cognitive Styles and Mnemonic Techniques:

The coefficient of correlation vide Table -1 shows that there exists a positive and significant relationship (r = .782) between Cognitive Styles and Mnemonic Techniques at .01 level of confidence. Thus, the relationship exhibits that the higher the level of Cognitive

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Styles, the better is the result of Mnemonic Techniques among students. So, Cognitive Styles is a good predictor of Mnemonic Techniques.

iii) Relationship between the Cognitive Styles and Learning Acquisition:

The result presented in Table -1 shows that there is a positive and significant correlation between Cognitive Styles and Learning Acquisition. The obtained value of "r" is .593, which is significant at .01 level of confidence. Thus, it is clear that Cognitive Styles of students is positively and significantly correlated with Learning Acquisition. Therefore, Cognitive Styles is a good predictor of Learning Acquisition

of students.

iv) Relationship between the Self Concept and Mnemonic Techniques:

Table -1 shows that there exists a positive and significant relationship (r = .846) between Self Concept and Mnemonic Techniques at .01 level of confidence. Thus, the relationship exhibits that the higher the level of Self Concept, the better is the results of Mnemonic Techniques among students. So, Self Concept is also a good predictor of Mnemonic Techniques.

v) Relationship between the Self concept and Learning Acquisition:

The coefficient of correlation vide Table -1 shows that there exists a positive and significant relationship (r = .496) between Self Concept and Learning Acquisition which is significant at .01 level of confidence. This indicates of the fact that the Self Concept of students is a good predictor of Learning Acquisition of students.

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vi) Relationship between the Mnemonic Techniques and Learning Acquisition:

The Table -1 depicts that Mnemonic Techniques are positively and significantly correlated (r = .925) with Learning Acquisition at .01 level. Thus, the relationship exhibits that the higher the level of Mnemonic Techniques, the better is the performance of students in Learning. So, Mnemonic Techniques are a good predictor of Learning Acquisition of students.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS:

The hypothesis of the study states, “The intercorrelations among the variables of Cognitive Styles, Self- Concept, Mnemonic Techniques and Learning Acquisition will be positive and significant.” The results of the Intercorrelation coefficients vide Table No- 1 indicate that there

exists a positive and significant correlation between:

i) Cognitive Styles and Self-Concept

ii) Cognitive Styles and Mnemonic Techniques

iii) Cognitive Styles and Learning Acquisition

iv) Self Concept and Mnemonic Techniques

v) Self concept and Learning Acquisition

vi) Mnemonic Techniques and Learning Acquisition

So, the hypothesis of the study is accepted. These results of the present study are in consonance with the conclusions of Verma (2009), Sudesh (2011), Ahuja (2011), Gupta (2013) and Sharma (2013) which showed positive correlation between Cognitive Styles and Learning Acquisition. Similarly the studies conducted by Lal (2010), Singh (2012), Asfaw (2012), Gaur (2013) and Jindal (2013) showed positive correlation between Self Concept and Learning Acquisition. Also, the

studies of Sproson (2009), John (2010), Campione (2012) and Gfeller

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(2013) showed positive and significant correlation between Mnemonic Techniques and Learning Acquisition.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS:

With the rapid advancement in the field of both educational and instructional technology in recent years, Mnemonics based teaching along with the usual classroom instruction has opened new possibilities for meeting the new educational needs of the contemporary society. The teachers’ wi1l also be benefited by the results of the study since there is a high positive and significant relationship among the variables

of Cognitive Styles, Self-Concept and Learning Acquisition. The' implications of these results will encourage the teacher to turn the Learning Acquisition of the students in the context of their Cognitive Styles and Self-Concept in various school subjects.

References:

1. Ahuja, M. (2011). Study of Academic Achievement in relation to Cognitive Styles at Secondary Stage. M.Ed. dissertation, Kurukshetra : Kurukshetra University.

2. Asfaw, G. (2012). Anxiety in Relation to Achievement, in the Context of General Academic Self-Concept and Socio-Economic Status among Grade 9th Students. Journal Articles; Reports - Evaluative Education. 3-13, 39, 3, 265-285.

3. Campione, T. K. (2012). Science for Students with Disabilities. Review of Educational Research. 68, 4, 377-411. Retrieved from http. // www.eric.ed.gov./search.

4. Deo, P. (1971). Personality Word List (PWL Revised). Department of Education. Chandigarh: Panjab University.

5. Gaur, D. (2013). Academic Self-Concepts in Adolescence in Relations with Achievement in Schools. (EJ880384). Learning and Instruction. 19, 3, 201-213. Retrieved from http. // www. eric.ed.gov /search.

6. Gfeller, P. (2013). Effects of Mnemonic Interventions for the Students at Secondary Stage. Review on Learning & Practice. 23, 1, 1-10. Retrieved from http. // www. eric.ed.gov/search.

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7. Gupta, P. C. (2013). Relationship between Cognitive Styles and

Problem Solving ability on different levels of Intelligence. Indian Educational Review. XXI, 046, 112-116.

8. Jindal, T. (2013). An Investigation of the Self-Concept of Blind and Partially Seeing Adolescents and of the Relation of their Self-Concept to Academic Achievement in Language and Paragraph Reading. D.A.I. 5

9. Johan, M.A. (2010). Using Mnemonic Strategies to Teach Information about U.S. Presidents; A Classroom-Based Investigation. (EJ79241). Learning Disability Quarterly. 20, 1, 13-21.

10. John, D. (2000). Self-concept. International Review of Education. 58, 209. Retrieved from http://www.cbt.wiu.edu.

11. Lal, G. H. (2010). Relationship between Self Concept and Levels of Academic Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology. 36 ,4 -A

12. Lebenne, W .D. and Greene, B. (1969). Education Implications of Self Concept Theory. California: Goodyear Publishing Company Inc.

13. Merriam, S. & Caffarella, J. (1991, 1998). Learning in Adulthood, A Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 528.

14. Rogers, A. (2003). What is the Difference ? A New Critique of Adult Learning and Teaching, Leicester NIACE. 85, XIV, Retrieved from http.//www. eric.ed.gov/search.

15. Sharma, N. (2013). Effect of Modular and Multimedia Instruction Strategies on the Achievement in English in relation to their Cognitive Styles and Achievement Motivation. Ph.D. Theses, Chandigarh: Panjab University.

16. Singh, A. (2012). The Relationship of Beliefs about Mathematics, Self-Concept and Performance in basic Statistics. D.A.I. 40, 7.

17. Sproson, W. A. (2009). The Involvement of Mnemonic Techniques in the Schoolwork of Secondary School Pupils, (EJ381712). Educational Studies.13, 3, 213-21.

18. Sudesh , A. (2011). Interaction of Approaches to Studying Cognitive Style on Achievement in Biological science. Experiments in Education. XXVI, 3, 28-33.

19. Verma , S. (2009). Cognitive Style relation with different School Subjects. Journal of Psychology .48 16.-163

20. Witkins, H.A., et. al. (1977). Psychological Differentiations Current Status Princenton: New Jersey Educational Testing Service, R.B. 77-17.

21. Witkins, H.A., Ottman , P.K.,Raskin. E. and karp, S.A. (1971). A Manual for the Embedded Figures Tests. California : Consulting Psychologist Press. Inc.

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EMPLOYMENT DETEMINATION IN BASIC AND ALLOY

INDUSTRY OF PUNJAB

Dr. Manjit Sharma Assistant Professor

Department of Economics D. A. V. College, Sector 10, Chandigarh

The metal industry recognizes and supports the basic objective of self-reliance and sustained growth of the economy. The mild buoyancy in boilers, auto ancillary, passenger cars, and commercial vehicles offers scope for optimism for the steel sector. Indian steel companies have market their diversified presence in the global market, effected mainly through the establishment of the state of the art plants, continuous modernization and improved energy efficiency of plants. Additional capacities of nearly six MT have been commissioned for finished (carbon) steel in the current year. With a view to augment the supply of steel, the government reduced the custom duty and provided exemption from custom duty to all coking coal.

Kuznet (1966) opined that the share of manufacturing in national total output had increased significantly in all developed countries and further concluded that the share of metal product had risen substantially and those of food and textile groups had declined. Kaur (1982) examined that industrial employment share of food processing industries declined and that of basic metal increased during 1966-78 in Haryana.

Gill (1981) observed that unregistered manufacturing sector played an important role in the economy of Punjab. Inspite of the fact that relatively large sized factories were gaining prominence in the industrial sector of the state, yet Punjab remained an area of small sized industries both in terms of number of factories and proportion of workers employed. Another feature of industrial sector of Punjab was

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that it was dominated by private sector. The role of public sector was only marginal. The industrial sector of Punjab was dominated by consumer goods industries. Even in these industries agro-based industries accounted for the major share.

Singh (1992) stated that in Punjab economy the average size of working factories continued to be small, which was contrary to all India experience. Although the industrial sector of state was dominated by small sized factories yet a tendency towards the establishment of large

sized units has set in, structural changes seem to be induced by buoyant demand for manufacturing products, mainly due to growing real income of the state and also to export promotion strategy adopted by the state and the incentives provided to private sector. The organizational structure of industrial sector in Punjab appeared to be in transitional stage.

Kumar (2005) revealed that manufacturing sector in Punjab has not experienced much change in its product mix pattern overtime. Punjab’s manufacturing sector was dominated by industrial group of food and beverages, textile and wearing apparels, basic metal, machinery and equipment, motor vehicles and chemicals and overtime this product mix pattern didn’t experience much change.

Sharma (2009) noted that Basic metal and alloy industry is only exception that gained on productivity front in post-reform period.

Deregulation of manufacturing sector from 1991 has resulted in significant gain in productivity caused by the market determined more efficient allocation of resources. These measures aimed at relaxation of restriction on the entry of private firms have introduced competition both domestically and through import of manufactured goods, capital and technology.

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Scope, Data sources and Prices, Period of study and Methodology

The scope of study is confined to basic metal and alloy industry of organised manufacture sector of Punjab at three digit level. Major source of data for the study is Annual Survey of Industries (ASI). Various issues of annual survey of industries, www.circonindia.com and statistical abstract of Punjab are used. For making price corrections in the reported data on value of output, gross value added, wholesale price index of manufacture of corresponding industry has been used. Wholesale price index for transport and machinery has been used to adjust the data on fixed capital. Consumer price index has been used to deflate the emoluments. Every deflator has 1993-94 as a base

year. This study covers the period of 1980-81 to 2002-03; it has also been divided into two phases, pre-reform period (1980-81 to 1990-91) and post-reform period (1991-92 to 2002-03) to capture the impact of change in policy regimes.

The industrial classification has been changed in 1998 and it is impossible to make the discrete series directly. For this purpose a vigorous exercise has been done by going to three-digit level to make the matching series by either clubbing or splitting the existing classification. Present study has been divided into three sections. In the first section, introduction is discussed. In the second section, regression model of employment is explored. In the last section concluding remarks and policy implications are given.

SECTION I

Introduction

India has emerged as one of the key players in the gems and jewellery sector on account of its traditional strength in craftsmanship and its reasonable share in global business. Gems and jewellery is of the

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India’s niche sector, which accounted for 12 per cent of country’s merchandise exports in 2006-07. Besides, it is an important contributor to semi-skilled employment. The steps including introduction of fiscal measures like abolition of import duty on cut and polished diamonds, reduction of import duty on un-worked corals and rough synthetic stones from thirty to ten per cent and various trade facilitation steps have encouraged exports from the sector. The manufacture of basic metal and alloy industry along with transport equipment and parts

have therefore, mainly contributed to the reversal of trend in manufacturing sector in recent past.

Structural Composition of Basic Metal and Alloy Industry (i) NIC- 271 - Manufacture of basic iron and steel (ii) NIC- 272 - Manufacture of basic precious and non-

ferrous metals (iii) NIC –273 - Casting of metals

SECTION II

Determinants of Employment

The exercise here is aimed at identifying a functional form, which describes the employment levels in the industrial group. The choice of variables from such a functional relationship is determined is initially on axiomatic consideration. Under this, the variables, fixed capital and output are considered to indicate the growth of the industry. The underlying implication here is that more investment in plant and machinery will open up opportunities for expansion of employment avenues in the sector, while axiomatically changing level of fixed capital could be independently viewed as a factor having strong potential to influence the employment level. It is also logical to expect that the effect of capital infusion would also be ultimately reflected in

the output level of industry. In view of this, the determination of

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employment function is initially attempted in terms of basic variables (fixed capital and output).

Determinants of Employment: An Analysis of Intra-Basic Metal and Alloy Industry

It is clear from the table 1 that in case of basic metal and alloy industry, fixed capital has played a major role in generating employment opportunities in pre and post-reform period. Contrary to expectation, output and technology failed in generating employment opportunities in both the periods. Rather in post-reform period, output and technology reflected negative and insignificant values.

Fixed capital reflected positive and significant value (1.30) for manufacture of basic iron and steel industry (NIC-271), 0.41 for

manufacture of basic precious and non-ferrous metals industry (NIC-272) and 0.62 for casting of metal industry (NIC-273) in pre-reform period. However, in post-reform period, manufacture of basic iron and steel industry (NIC-271) observed 0.33 and casting of metal industry (NIC-273) recorded 0.005 positive and significant values. These positive and significant values indicate that fixed capital played favourable role in employment generation in above-mentioned industries. Output variable has played insignificant role in generating employment in basic metal and alloy industry and at disaggregate level [except manufacture of basic precious and non-ferrous metals industry (NIC-272) in post-reform period]. But in basic metal and alloy industry, output has played negative and insignificant role in employment generation during post-reform period. It is only manufacture of basic precious and non-ferrous

metals industry (NIC-272) in which output played a major role in employment generation. Manufacture of basic precious and non-ferrous metals industry (NIC-272) has registered negative (-0.07)

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but significant value for technology variable in the post-reform period.

Adjusted R2 gives best fit to the model in basic metal and alloy industry and also at disaggregate levels except manufacture of basic precious and non-ferrous metal industry (NIC-271) in pre-reform period and casting of metal industry (NIC-273) in post-reform period. F ratio is significant statistically for basic metal and alloy industry during both the periods and for casting of metal industry (NIC-273) in pre-

reform period only. High value of Durbin Watson indicates that problem of autocorrelation is taken care of.

TABLE - 1 Regression Model of Employment of Basic metal and alloy Industries at disaggregate level Dependent Variable Log

Employment (a) Basic metal and alloy industry YEAR INTERCE

PT FIXE

D CAPITAL

OUTPUT T Adj. R2

F DW

1980-81 to 1990-91

-2.91* (0.88)

1.06* (0.21)

0.08 (0.13)

0.006 (0.006

) 0.90 (30.96)* 2.06

1991-92 to 2002-03

2.63* (0.56)

0.32* (0.04)

-0.04 (0.07)

0.004 (0.01)

0.89 (29.5)* 1.86

1980-81 to 2002-03

1.58* (0.61)

0.36* (0.07)

-0.09 (0.06)

-0.01* (0.02)

0.84 (38.09)* 0.90

(b) Manufacture of Basic Iron & Steel

1980-81 to 1990-91

-4.28* (1.8)

1.30* (0.36)

0.06 (0.17)

0.003 (0.008

) 0.73 (9.82) 1.73

1991-92 to 2002-03

1.88* (0.78)

0.33* (0.08)

0.05 (0.08)

-0.01 (.007)

0.69 (9.24) 1.76

1980-81 to 2002-03

1.73* (0.67)

0.35 (0.08)

0.07 (0.05)

0.01* (0.02)

0.76 (24.63)* 1.16

(c) Manufacture of precious and non ferrous metals 1980-81 to

1990-91 -1.73 (2.11)

0.41* (2.0)

0.47 (0.45)

-0.02 (0.03)

0.28 (2.27) 2.81

1991-92 to 2002-03

-4.01* (1.38)

0.29 (0.18)

1.01* (0.23)

-0.07 (0.02)

* 0.64 (7.64) 2.36

1980-81 to 2002-03

-2.87* (1.17)

0.28* (0.13)

0.83* (0.22)

-0.04* (0.01)

0.42 (6.35) 1.67

(d) Casting of Metals 1980-81 to -3.14 0.62* 0.07 0.01 0.94 (49.35)* 3.51

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1990-91 (0.40) (0.22) (0.20) (0.01)

1991-92 to2002-03

2.07* (0.86)

0.005* (0.14)

0.21 (0.14)

-0.005 (0.009

) 0.16 (1.69) 2.58

1980-81 to 2002-03

1.50* (0.60)

0.13 (0.11)

0.27* (0.11)

-0.01* (0.03)

0.73 (21.03)* 1.92

Note: Figures within brackets are Standard Error

* 1% level of significance

** 5 % level of significance

SECTION III

Concluding Remarks and Pollicy Implications

In case of basic metal and alloy industry, fixed capital has played a major role in generating employment opportunities in pre and post-reform period. Contrary to expectation, output and technology failed in generating employment opportunities in both the periods. Rather in post-reform period, output and technology reflected negative and insignificant values. It is only manufacture of basic precious and non-ferrous metals industry (NIC-272) in which output played a major role in employment generation. Fixed capital played favourable role in employment generation in manufacture of basic iron and steel industry (NIC-271) and casting of metal industry (NIC-273) during study period.

The situation demands for the restructuring of industrial pattern and process, which can help to resolve the structural problems of the existing model of growth. Large sized units, which must based on local raw material and must have local market, must be set up with

latest technological know-how’s. There should be special economic zone for the industry to meet the export quality level.

References:

1. Economic Survey, (2007-08) , Government of India.

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2. Gill, S.S. (1981), ‘Dynamics of Industrial Development of

Punjab: Industrial Structural and Policy Issues’, PSE Economic Analyst Vol. 2, No. 1, pp.76.

3. Kaur, K. (1982), ‘Industrial Structure of Haryana 1966-78’ Margin, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp.68.

4. Kumar, Rakesh (2005), "Growth Patterns Productivity Behavior and Technological Change In the Manufacturing Sector of Punjab, Productivity, Vol.46, No.1, pp. 44.

5. Kuznet (1966). Modern Economic Growth: Rate Spread and Structure, Yale University Press, New Haven.

6. Sharma, M .(2009), “Structural Changes in Organised Manufacturing Sector of Punjab: A Study of Selected Industry Groups” Ph,D. Thesis in Punjabi University Patiala.

7. Singh, L. (1992), ‘Aspects of Growth and Structural Change in Industrial Sector of Punjab’, Man and Development, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp-85.

126



JOB SATISFACTION OF HIGHER SECONDARY TEACHERS: A COMPARISON OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT AND STATE

GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS IN KERALA, INDIA

Bineesh John

Research Scholar Regional Institute of Education (N.C.E.R.T)

University of Mysore Mysore

Introduction

The Education Commission (1964-66) observed, “The destiny of

India is being shaped in her classrooms”. The commission added that the quality, competence and character of teachers are the main contributors to the quality of education. The National Policy of Education (1986) says that the status of teacher reflects the socio-cultural ethos of a society. Also teachers are held in high status in Indian society. But the quality of education is believed to be deteriorating in the country. There is no dearth for educationally and professionally qualified teachers. Then what goes wrong? Research shows that quality of teachers’ work is a function of interaction of several factors such as values, attitudes, beliefs, motivation and job satisfaction. The present study deals with the factor of job satisfaction of teachers of higher secondary schools in the state of Kerala, India.

Job satisfaction is defined as an affective or emotional response toward various facts of one’s job (Kreitner & Kinicki, 1998 ). Teacher

job satisfaction contributes not only to teachers’ motivation and improvement, but also to students’ learning and development (Perie, Baker, & Whitener, 1997). Teacher job satisfaction is a key factor in teacher’s quality, in terms of the stability of the teaching force (Klecker & Loadman, 1996; Harris, 1992) and the commitment to the teaching

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organization (Klecker & Loadman, 1996; Shin & Reyes, 1991; Kushman, 1992). Gupta and Jain (2003) reported that a variety of factors such as salary, security, physical conditions, promotion, recognition etc. influence job satisfaction.

In Kerala there are mainly three types of higher secondary

schools by management. The schools funded by the central government, the state government and private individuals/trusts/corporate agencies. This study intends to study and compare the job satisfaction of the higher secondary teachers of the first two types of schools.

Objectives

The objectives of the study were:

1. To study if any of the 8 factors of job satisfaction of teachers in central government schools and state government schools differ significantly.

2. To find out the statements in which central government teachers show statistically significant higher scores than the state government teachers.

3. To find out the statements in which state government teachers show statistically significant higher scores than the central government teachers.

4. To find out five statements that the central government teachers and the state government teachers scored the highest.

5. To find out five statements that the central government teachers and the state government teachers scored the lowest.

Hypothesis

1. There is no significant difference between the scores of factors of job satisfaction of teachers in central government schools and state government schools.

Methodology

This is a quantitative survey study. Four districts were randomly selected from the total fourteen districts of Kerala, India.

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One Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, one Kendriya Vidyalaya, one Government Higher Secondary School and one Aided higher Secondary School were selected randomly from each district. All the senior secondary/higher secondary teachers who were teaching in these schools constituted the sample of the study. Thus we have 69 central

government teachers and 63 state government teachers in the sample. Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya and Kendriya Vidyalaya data are pooled together to form the data of central government teachers. Government school and aided school data are pooled together to form the data of state government teachers.

Dixit Job Satisfaction Scale developed by Dr. Meera Dixit was used to collect data about teachers’ job satisfaction. There are 52 statements that cover all the major factors of job satisfaction of teachers in Indian schools. These factors are: 1. Intrinsic aspect, 2. Salary, Service conditions and Promotion, 3. Physical facilities, 4.Institutional plans and policies, 5. Satisfaction with authorities, 6. Social status and family welfare, 7. Rapport with students, and 8. Relationship with co-workers.

Data was analyzed using mean, standard deviation, and

unpaired t- test.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

The mean score of each job satisfaction factor of both central government and state government school teachers, t value and p value are presented in table 1.

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Table 1

Comparison of the scores of job satisfaction factors of central government teachers and state government teachers.

Job Satisfaction

Factors

Central Govt.

School

Teachers

(N=69)

State Govt.

School

Teachers

(N=63)

Mean SD Mean SD T

value

P

value

Significance

of difference

Intrinsic aspect 4.12 0.42 3.90 0.43 2.91 0.0043 Significant

Salary, service

conditions,

promotion

3.29 0.41 3.38 0.43 1.21 0.2278 Not

significant

Physical facilities 4.16 0.40 3.58 0.65 6.19 <0.00

01 Significant

Institutional plans

and policies 3.60 0.64 3.62 0.48 0.22 0.83

Not

significant

Satisfaction with

authorities 3.88 0.81 3.63 1.01 1.57 0.12

Not

significant

Social status and

family welfare 4.08 0.54 4.20 0.45 1.36 0.18

Not

significant

Rapport with

students 4.32 0.42 4.13 0.45 2.48 0.01 Significant

Relationship with

co-workers 4.14 0.52 4.22 0.43 0.96 0.34

Not

significant

Total 3.92 0.37 3.78 0.39 2.02 0.04 Significant

The critical t value at 130 degrees of freedom is 1.98 at 0.05 level of confidence. Accordingly, the central government teachers are significantly more satisfied than the state government teachers in the job satisfaction factors of Physical facilities (t=6.19), Intrinsic aspect

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(t=2.91) and Rapport with students (t=2.48). The state government teachers are significantly more satisfied than the central government teachers in none of the job satisfaction factors. Also the total job satisfaction of central government teachers is significantly higher than that of the state government teachers (t=2.02). So the first null

hypothesis is rejected.

Statements that show Statistically Significant Difference

Comparison of scores of statements in which central government teachers show statistically significant higher scores than the state government teachers is presented in table 2.

Table 2

Comparison of scores of statements in which central government teachers show statistically significant higher scores than the state government

teachers.

Sl. No

Statement

Central

Mean

(N=69)

State Mean (N=63)

T value

P value

1 The classrooms of your institution have adequate space for the students to be seated comfortably.

3.96 2.78 6.57 <0.0001

2 In the library of your institution books are readily available for your use

4.28 3.22 6.33 <0.0001

3 Your classrooms are suitably furnished

4.25 3.48 6.09 <0.0001

4 There is proper arrangement for light and ventilation in your classroom

4.36 3.56 5.24 <0.0001

5 Your institution is a neat and clean place where you would like to work

4.45 3.89 4.02 <0.0001

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6 If there is an opportunity you

would not like to move over to another profession on same emoluments

2.97 2.17 4.01 0.0001

7 Teacher-pupil ratio in your class is in keeping with such norms that you are not overburdened with work

3.17 2.32 3.87 0.0002

8 The laboratories of your institution are well equipped

4.32 3.79 3.72 0.0003

9 You derive pleasure in teaching 4.70 4.44 2.99 0.0033

10 You get proper opportunities to develop proper understanding with the parents of your pupils

4.07 3.68 2.69 0.0082

11 There are opportunities for promotion in your job

4.00 3.49 2.65 0.0091

12 By nature, you feel you are suited for the teaching job

4.71 4.51 2.34 0.02

13 You feel that the head of your institution is quite suitable for the post

4.35 3.92 2.34 0.0206

14 Audio – visual aids are readily available for your use

4.13 3.79 2.12 0.0360

15 Besides teaching-learning programme there is scope for you to participate in games

3.59 3.19 2.11 0.0365

16 Teaching – learning activity goes on smoothly in your class

4.48 4.25 2.05 0.0422

17 You like the way the head of the institution deals with his teachers

3.93 3.52 2.00 0.0475

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Comparison of scores of statements in which state government

teachers show statistically significant higher scores than the state government teachers is presented in table 3.

Table 3 Comparison of scores of statements in which state government teachers show statistically significant higher scores than the state government

teachers.

Sl. No Statement

Central Govt. Mean (N=69)

State Govt. Mean (N=63)

T value

P value

1 Your working hours in the institution suit you

2.81 3.94 6.09 <0.0001

2 On retirement pension/provident fund/insurance benefits are available to you

3.07

3.97 4.68 <0.0001

3 You have opportunity and time for recreation and looking after the welfare of your family

2.93 3.71 4.46 <0.0001

4 You have opportunities for expressing your opinion in organizational matters of your institution

3.57 4.03 3.85 0.0002

5 The majority of the teachers of your institution work with a spirit of co-operation

4.01 4.41 3.06 0.0026

6 You are able to develop rapport with your colleagues and feel happily adjusted

4.14 4.37 2.10 0.0379

7

There is freedom for you to plan your working in your job

3.80 4.11 2.04 0.0433

8 You have opportunities for advancement of your professional qualification

3.32 3.70 2.03 0.0448

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Five Statements that Scored the Highest

Five statements in which the central government teachers and the state government teachers scored the highest are given in Table 4.

Table 4 Five statements in which the central government teachers and

the state government teachers scored the highest. Rank No.

Central government teachers

Mean score

State government teachers

Mean score

1 By nature, you feel you are suited for the

teaching job

4.71 Your profession has been helpful in

providing suitable education to your children or dependents

4.52

2 You derive pleasure in teaching

4.70 By nature, you feel you are suited for the teaching job

4.51

3 Being in this job, you feel that you have a respectful place in the community

4.48 Being in this job, you feel that you have a respectful place in the community

4.49

4 Your profession has been helpful in providing suitable education to your

children or dependents

4.48 You derive pleasure in teaching

4.44

5 Teaching – learning activity goes on smoothly in your class

4.48 The majority of the teachers of your institution work with a spirit of co-operation

4.41

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Out of the top five statements, the first four are common for both central government and state government teachers. Both types of teachers are satisfied with feeling of suitability for teaching job, deriving pleasure in teaching, opportunity for providing suitable education to their children and having a respectful place in the

community. While smooth teaching-learning activity in class found place in the central government teachers list, teachers spirit of co-operation found place in the state government teachers list.

Five Statements that Scored the Lowest

Five statements in which the central government teachers and the state government teachers scored the lowest are given in Table 5.

Table 5 Five statements in which the central government teachers and the state government

teachers scored the lowest. Rank

No.

Central government teachers Mean

score

State government teachers Mean

score

1 In your profession, there are

opportunities to get extra

payment for extra work you do

beside regular teaching

1.88 If there is an opportunity you

would not like to move over to

another profession on same

emoluments

2.17

2 Your working hours in the

institution suit you

2.81 Teacher-pupil ratio in your class

is in keeping with such norms

that you are not overburdened

with work

2.32

3 You have opportunity and time

for recreation and looking after

the welfare of your family

2.93 In your profession, there are

opportunities to get extra

payment for extra work you do

beside regular teaching

2.52

4 If there is an opportunity you

would not like to move over to

another profession on same

emoluments

2.97 The classrooms of your institution

have adequate space for the

students to be seated comfortably.

2.78

5 On retirement

pension/provident

fund/insurance benefits are

available to you

3.07 Besides teaching-learning

programme there is scope for you

to participate in games

3.19

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Out of the bottom five statements, only two are common for both types of teachers. Central government teachers are least satisfied with lack of extra payment for extra work, unsuitability of working hours, lack of time for recreation and looking after the welfare of the family and retirement benefits. State government teachers are least

satisfied with overburden due to high teacher-pupil ratio, lack of extra payment for extra work, inadequacy of classrooms to accommodate pupils and lack of scope for participation in games.

Major Findings of the Study

The major findings of the study are:

1. There is a statistically significant difference in the overall job satisfaction of central government school teachers and state government school teachers.

2. Central government school teachers have higher job satisfaction than the state government school teachers in the job satisfaction factors of Physical facilities, Intrinsic aspect and Rapport with students.

3. Out of the top five statements, the first four are common for both central government and state government teachers. Both types of teachers are satisfied with feeling of suitability for teaching job, deriving pleasure in teaching, opportunity for providing suitable education to their children and having a respectful place in the community.

4. Out of the bottom five statements, only two are common for both types of teachers.

Recommendations

The classrooms of the state government schools need to be more spacious, well furnished and well lit. Well equipped and accessible laboratories, libraries and audio-visual aids and clean surroundings could step up the job satisfaction of teachers in state government schools. Also, opportunities to interact with parents and participate in

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games, opportunity for promotion and better teacher-pupil ratio would help in making the teachers of state government schools more satisfied in their job.

The working hours in the central government schools need to be revised in such a way that the teachers get time for recreation and

looking after their family. Retirement benefits have to be revised. Central government teachers need to be given more chance to get involved in the organizational matters of their schools. These measures would step up the job satisfaction of central government school teachers.

References

1. Bandhana (2011) Job satisfaction and values among Kendriya Vidyalaya teachers. Journal of Education and Practice, 2, 11&12.

2. Government of India, Ministry of Education. Education and National Development, Report of the Education Commission (1964-66). New Delhi

3. Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development. National Policy on Education (1986). New Delhi.

4. Gupta, M. & Gehlawat, M. (2013). Job satisfaction and work motivation of secondary school teachers in relation to some

demographic variables: A comparative study. Educationia Confab, 2,1,10-19.

5. Gupta, M. & Jain, R. (2003). Job satisfaction of nursery school teachers working in Delhi. Indian Psychological Review, 61, 49-56.

137



6. Harris, L. (1992). The metropolitan life survey of the American

teacher 1992 the second year: New teachers' expectations and ideals. New York: Metropolitan Life Insurance Co

7. Klecker, B. & Loadman, W. E. (1996). Exploring the relationship between teacher empowerment and teacher job satisfaction.

ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management (ERIC Digest, No. ED 400 254).

8. Kushman, J. W. (1992). The organizational dynamics of teacher workplace commitment: A study of urban elementary and middle schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 28, 5-42.

9. Ouyang, Meimei & Paprock, Kenneth. Teacher job Satisfaction and retention: A Comparison Study between the U.S. and China. http: //files. eric.ed. gov/fulltext/ED492688.pdf

10. Perie, M; Baker, D. P. & Whiterner, S. (1997). Job satisfaction among America’s teachers: Effects of workplace conditions, background characteristics, and teacher compensation. U.S. Department of education.

11. Shin, Hyun-Seok & Reyes Pedro (1991).Teacher commitment and job satisfaction. Which comes first ?

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED338596.pdf

12. Singh, Rajvir & Kumar, Pradeep (2012). Survey of job satisfaction and stress among teachers of different faculties of Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas of India. International Journal of Research Pedagogy and Technology in Education and Movement Sciences, 1, 2, 65-76.

138



ATTITUDE OF SECONDARY GRADE TEACHERS TOWARDS

COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION IN PRAKASAM DISTRICT OF ANDHARA PRADESH

Dr. Nalamotu Venkateswarlu Principal

P.D.R.V. College of Education Harur, Darmapuri (Dt) ,Tamil Nadu

INTRODUCTION

Learning process is a special process where different levels of learners are accommodated in a learning sphere in an individualized manner. Many attempts were being made by researches to explore the methods to drive the intended knowledge at different learning levels

and the outcomes of such researches showed that there are varied levels of attainment of learning targets among the learners. To meet the learners with their needs and to make the learning productive and meaningful, the role of teachers with modern methods of teaching plays a vital role in this digital era. Consequently, traditional teachers are having replaced by e-teachers, who are the new generation of teachers who will work both in a regular as well as a virtual environment. The introduction of CAI in the classroom environment has made successful changes in the process of education.

COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCION (CAI)

The use of computer in education started in the 1960’s. With the advent of convenient microcomputers in the 1970’s, computer use in the school has become widespread from primary education through university education. Instructional computers either present information or fill a tutorial role, testing the students for comprehension. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) is a program of

instructional material presented by means of computer or computer system

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Computer programs are interactive and can illustrate a concept through attractive animation, sound, and demonstration. They allow students to progress at their own pace and work individually or problem solve in a group. Computers provide immediate feedback, letting students know whether their answer is correct, the program

shows students how to correctly answer the question. Computers offer a different type of activity and a change of pace in learning from teacher-led or group instruction. Computers capture the students’ attention because the programs are interactive and engage the students’ spirit of competitiveness to increase their scores. Also, computer-assisted instruction moves at the students’ pace and usually does not move ahead until they have mastered the skill. Programs provide differentiated lessons to challenge students who are at risk.

INSTRUCTIONAL APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Computers are being increasingly employed for class room instruction as also individualized and distance education. Computer based Learning (CBL) is variously known as Computer Aided Leaning (CAL) in the UK and Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) in the USA. Either of these refers to on-line direct interactive learning experience through the computer. It can be done in one of the different modes of instruction, which are:

Tutorial mode

Drill and Practice Mode

Simulation Mode

Gaming Mode

NEED FOR THE STUDY

It is a well known fact that not a single teacher is capable of giving up to date and complete information in his own subject. ICT provides variety in the presentation of content. Computer Assisted

140



Instruction (CAI), as one of the instructional methods which helps learners in concentration, better understanding and long retention of information which is not possible otherwise. Also, CAI provides more flexibility to learners which are not given in the traditional method and process. To implement the new concept or method in any area, it is

important to know the current status of the receiver and implementer. This study deals with the attitudes of secondary grade teachers towards one of the instructional strategies namely CAI so as to make the required attitudes which will help them to implement the innovative teaching technology for their students in future successfully.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

To study the level of attitude of secondary grade teachers

towards Computer Assisted Instruction.

To study the factors influencing the attitude of secondary grade teachers towards Computer Assisted Instruction.

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

The researcher adopted the survey method for this investigation.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Data was collected from 300 government school teachers who are currently undergoing B.Ed., Programe in distance mode and who are in

Prakasam district. For this study, the investigator used the stratified random sampling technique.

TOOLS EMPLOYED

The investigator developed an attitude scale which was standardized by subject experts. This tool consists of two parts, namely Personal Information Part (Part A) and Attitude of Secondary Grade Teachers towards CAI Part (Part B). Part B consist of 25 items, out of

141



which 18 items are positive and the remaining 7 items are negative. It uses a five point rating scale for the purpose of scoring. Numerical weightage was given to each of the five categories of response viz, Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree and Strongly Disagree.

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE USED

Obtained scores were analyzed by descriptive and inferential analysis to estimate the attitude of secondary grade teachers towards

CAI.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

The data collected were subject to descriptive analysis as well as inferential analysis. From the responses of the sample, the following interpretations made:

Table 1

MEAN DIFFERENCE IN THE ATTITUDE OF SECONDARY GRADE TEACHERS TOWARDS CAI BASED ON THEIR GENDER, SIDENCE,SUBJECT AND KNOWLEDGE OF

COMPUTER.

S

NO

Factors Sub-

Factors

N Mean S.D ‘t’

value

Remark

1

Gender

Male 143 104.77 9.6

11.57

p<0.01 Female 157 92.87 8.22

2 Residential

background

Rural 135 89.83 7.12

18.86

p<0.01 Urban 165 105.67 7.32

3 Subject studied

in degree level

Arts 138 90.3 7.46

17.52

p<0.01 Science 162 105.56 7.58

4 Knowledge of

computer

Yes 170 105.49 7.34 19.25 p<0.01

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From Table 1, it is clear that the t-value for the attitude of secondary grade teachers towards CAI in terms of gender is 11.565 which is significant at 0.01 level with df=298. It shows that the attitude of male and female secondary grade teachers differs significantly. Further, the mean value of the scores for the attitude of male teachers

is 104.77 which is significantly higher than that for female teachers whose mean value is 92.87. it may therefore be said that the attitude of male teachers towards CAI was found to higher than that of female teachers.

From Table 1, it is clear that the t-value for the attitude of secondary grade teachers towards CAI in terms of residential background is 18.859 which is significant at 0.010 level with df=298. It indicates that the attitude of teachers belonging to rural and urban residential background differs significantly. Further, the mean value of the score of the attitude of teachers belonging to urban areas is 105.67 which is significantly higher than that for teachers belonging to a rural background, whose mean value is 89.83. it may be said that the attitude of teachers belonging to an urban background towards CAI was found to be higher than that of the teachers who belonging to a rural

background.

From Table 1, it is evident that the t-value for attitude of secondary grade teachers toward CAI who studied a science subject is 17.517 which is significant at 0.01 level with df=298. It implies that the attitude of arts and science teachers differs significantly. It may therefore be said that the attitude of teachers with a science discipline was found to be higher that of the teachers with an art discipline. Also, it is found that the mean value of marks scored by the teachers with a science discipline is comparatively higher than that of the teachers with an art discipline.

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From Table 1, it is clear that the t-value of the for scores for the attitude of secondary grade teachers with and without computer knowledge is19.251 which is significant at 0.01 level with df=298. It shows that the attitude of teachers with and without computer knowledge differs significantly. Further, it indicates that the mean

scores for the attitude of teachers with computer knowledge is 105.49 which is found to be higher than that of the teachers who are not having computer knowledge, whose mean score is 89.45. It may therefore be said that the attitude of secondary grade teachers towards CAI who are having knowledge of computer was found to be higher than that of the teachers who are not having computer knowledge.

TABLE 2

SUMMARY OF ANOVA FOR THE ATTITUDE OF SECONDARY GRADE TEACHERS TOWARDS CAI

Source of variance

Degree of Freedom

Sum of Square

Mean Square

F-value Remarks

Between Groups

(Age Limit)

Within the Groups

(Age Limit)

2

297

1

11700.3

11263.1

39.395

285.9

p<0.01

From Table 2, it is evident that F-value is 289.903 which is significant at 0.01 with df=2/297. It indicates that the attitude of secondary grade teachers belonging to 25 to 35, 36 to 45 and 46 and

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above age groups differs significantly. To identify the group with a comparatively high attitude, the data was further analyzed with the help of t-test.

TABLE 3

MEAN DIFFERENCE IN THE ATTITUDE OF SECONDARY GRADE TEACHERS TOWARDS CAI BASED ON THEIR AGE

Age Group

Number Degrees of Freedom

Mean Standard Deviation

t-value Remarks

25-30

118

214(1,2)

108.35

96.4

5.75

6.75

14.057

p<0.01

36-45 98 200(1,3) 118.35

87.25

5.75

6.41

24.514

p<0.01

46 and above

84 180(2,3) 96.4

87.25

6.75

6.41

9.325

p<0.01

From Table 3, that t-value for 25 to 35 and 36 to 45 age group teachers attitudes is 14.057 which is significant at 0.01 level with df=214. It shows that mean scores of these two groups differ significantly; the t-value for 36 to 45 and 46 and above group teachers’ attitudes is 24.514 which is significant at 0.01 level with df=200. It implies that the mean scores of these two groups differ significantly; and the t-value for 25 to 35 and 46 and above age group teachers’

145



attitude is 9.325 which is significant at 0.01 level with df=180. It shows that the mean scores of these two groups differ significantly. On comparing the mean scores of attitude of these three groups, 25 to 35 group teachers were found to be having a significantly higher level of attitude that the teachers of the other two groups. On comparing the

teachers of the two groups, the 36 to 45 are group teachers were found to be having a higher level of attitude than the 46 and above age group teachers. It may therefore be said that the level of attitude of teachers who belong to the 25 to 35 age group was found to be the highest.

TABLE 4

SUMMARY OF ANOVA FOR THE ATTITUDE OF SECONDARY GRADE TEACHERS TOWARDS CAI

Source of variance

Degree of Freedom

Sum of Square

Mean Square

F-value

Remarks

Between Groups

(Educational Qualification)

Within the Groups

(Educational Qualification)

2

297

23061.06

11165.46

11530.53

37.594

306.711

p<0.01

From Table 4, it is evident that f-value is 306.711 which is significant at 0.01 with df=2/297. It reflects that the attitude of secondary grade teachers with UG,PG and M.Phill Education Qualification differs significantly. To identify the group with higher

146



attitudes among these three groups, the data were further analyzed with the help of t-test.

TABLE 5

MEAN DIFFERENCE IN THE ATTITUDE OF SECONDARY GRADE TEACHERS TOWARDS CAI BASED ON THEIR

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION

Educational Qualification

Number Degree of

Freedom

Mean Standard Deviation

t-value

Remarks

UG 113 228(1,2) 88.32

101.08

6.49

6.42

14.994

p<0.01

PG 117 181(1,3) 88.32

110.78

6.49

4.91

24.871

p<0.01

M.Phil 70 185(2,3) 101.08

88.32

6.42

4.91

10.876

p<0.01

From Table 5, the t-value for the attitude of the teachers with UG and PG educational qualification is 14.994 which is significant at 0.01 with df=298. It shows that the mean scores of the attitude of the teachers with UG and PG qualification differs significantly, the t-value for the attitude of the teachers with UG and M.Phill qualification is 24.871 which is significant at 0.01 level with df=181. It indicates that the mean scores of the attitude of the teachers with UG and M.Phill qualification differs significantly, the t-value for the attitude of the teachers with PG and M.Phill qualification is 10.876 which is

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significant at 0.01 level with df=185. It shows that the mean scores of the attitude of teachers with PG and M.Phill educational qualification differs significantly. Further, on comparing the mean value of the attitude of these three groups, it was found that the teachers with M.Phill qualification have a high level of attitude towards CAI than the

teachers of other two groups. In the comparison made with the attitude of the teachers with UG and PG qualification, it was found that the attitude of the teachers with PG qualification was found to be of a higher level than that of the teachers with UG qualification. It may therefore be said that the level of attitude of teachers with M.Phill qualification was found to be the highest.

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

From the analysis, this study reveals the following major findings:

The level of the attitude of male teachers towards CAI was

found to be higher than that of the female teachers.

The level of the attitude of teachers who belong to an urban

residential background was found to be higher than that of the teachers with a rural background.

The level of the attitude of teachers who are having computer knowledge was found to be higher than the teachers who are not having computer knowledge.

The level of the attitude of teachers belonging to a young age

group was found to be higher than that of the other categories. It reflects that resources are easy to access and adapt at present.

The level of the attitude of teachers with PG degree and

M.Phill., degree was found to be higher than that of the teachers with a graduate degree. It indicates that higher qualification enhances the attitude of teachers.

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SUGGESTIONS OF THE STUDY

Teachers at different levels are trying to develop self instructional material according to the needs of the subject, and they are trying their level best to use the material in the teaching learning process. Any innovative instructional strategy and its success depend on the knowledge and positive attitude of the teachers. The author suggests that steps should be taken to conduct in-service training and

refresher courses by the respective bodies in the working environment of the teachers to develop a favorable attitude towards CAI as well as to provide hands on experience for teachers in computer. Train them to develop computer based instructional software of their own

References

1. Benson, G.M., Jr. (1996), “Combining Computer Assisted Instruction and a live TV teacher to extend learning opportunities into the home”, A learning Productive Research and Developmental Project of the Research Foundation of the State University of New York and Instructional System Inc. Albany, NY.(ERIC Doc. ED359936)

2. Kumar and Sarita, (2005), “Increasing Role of Technology in Education”, Isha Books, New Delhi.

3. Vanaja, M, (2006), “Educational technology and Computer Education”, Neel Kamal Publications Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi.

4. Rajasekar, S., “e-Resources for teaching and Learning”,.

www.sekars.net

5. Yuen, P.K. (2003), “e-Learning: Tools and Technology”, DRTC.

6. www.sciencedirect.com

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THE APEX BANK’S CONTRIBUTION ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT IN RURAL AREAS IN WEST BENGAL

Dr. SK. Raju Ali Dr. Aminul Islam Asst. Professor in Commerce Asst. Professor in Commerce

Bangabashi College Barasat College University of Calcutta West Bengal State University Calcutta Calcutta

Introduction:

The National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development (NABARD) came

into being in July1982 as an apex level bank. The primary aim of the Apex Bank was to provide an exclusive attention to the credit needs of the rural sector. More specifically, the Apex Bank was created to fill the gaps, which still persisted in the rural credit structure even after the establishment of the Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) in 1975. As an apex level body at the National level for rural development, the Apex Bank was meant to discharge its functions by way of extending refinance assistance as also providing short and medium-term credit to the various District Co-operative Banks (DCBs), the Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), the Commercial Banks (CBs) and the different State Governments for a variety of approved purposes under different schemes of Socio-economic development project and of rural

infrastructure development. In the same way, the Apex Bank plays a positive role in growth and development to the Rural Financial Institutions ( client banks) but at the same time different types of pitfalls were found in the contribution of the Apex Bank to the Socio-economic development in the rural areas in the West Bengal.

Objectives of the Study:

The main purpose of this study is to identify / analyse the progress and problems of the Apex Bank’s contribution to the Socio-

150



economic development in Rural Areas of West Bengal. Precisely, the broad objectives of this work are:

(i) To make a critical appraisal of the contribution played by the Apex Bank in providing leadership to the banks for Socio- economic development in Rural areas in West Bengal.

(ii) To evaluate the backdrop against which the Apex Bank was created in 1982.

(iii) Ventures to evaluate the Apex Bank’s success in ensuring Rural Infrastructure Development in the state.

(iv) To identify the pitfalls in contribution of the Apex Bank and to suggest a framework of the probable new areas of its active involvement in bringing about the desired institutional changes and structural reforms of the Rural Financial Institutions (Client Banks).

(v) Summary and Conclusition.

Methodology:

The methodology adopted in carrying through the present study rests on an extensive data base. For the sake of a close scrutiny of the

related issues, the work is designed as a case- study in West Bengal, which is a representative State in India. Here, West Bengal has been considered due to various types of deficiencies were found in the working of the client banks in West Bengal as well as it is my home State. The leadership problems are the main deficiencies of the client banks. From that time (1982), the Apex Bank plays an important role of leadership to the client banks. To prove my hypothesis, both primary and secondary data are used in the work. Important data relating to the Apex Bank’s working at various levels have been collected from different zonal/regional administrative offices of the Apex Bank. Important feedbacks have been collected by way of interface with the functionaries at various levels of the Apex Bank’s operations and also with other agencies / persons of relevance to the present research. For

151



the purpose of collecting other relevant data from the officials of the Apex Bank, a structured questionnaire has been prepared. It has been discussed with a number of senior officials of the bank and will be further used before finalizing the research report. Simple statistical tools such as average, percentages, ratios, histograms, pie-charts and test like the ‘t’ test have to be used for the analysis and interpretation of data.

Published data are drawn mainly from the State Focus Paper of West

Bengal and the State Credit Plan publications by the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, Regional Office, Kolkata. The ‘Annual Report’ and various other official documents of the NABARD will yield a major portion of the data required for this study. Other sources of data are Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), Report of the All India Rural Credit Survey Committee, the Reserve Bank of India’s Report on Currency and Finance as well as the Agricultural Credit Review Committee Report (A.B. Kushro), Report of the Committee to Review Arrangement for Institutional Credit for Agricultural and Rural Development (CRAFICARD) published by the Reserve Bank and the Agricultural Census Report published by the Government of West Bengal. Furthermore, discussion with the official of the Apex Bank and of the Co-operative bank .

THE MAJOR CONTRIBUTION OF THE APEX BANK:

The Contribution of the Apex Bank comprises four functions:

a) In providing refinance to lending institutions in the rural areas. b) In strengthening the institutional credit system. c) In playing a direct role in the promotion of rural development. d) In evaluating, monitoring and inspecting the client banks. A. Short Review of the Apex Bank’s Operations: Refinance:

The Apex Bank provides assistance by way of refinance or otherwise, at concessional rates of interests to the client banks viz. the

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CBs, the SLDBs, the SCBs and the RRBs.. The Apex Bank’s refinance functions can conveniently be divided, for the purposes of analysis, into two broad categories–medium-term investment finance and short-term production and marketing finance. Since its inception, the medium-term (investment) credit disbursed through the client banks has recorded a steadily rising trend as shown in Table 1.

TABLE - 1

Long –term and Medium-term Refinance Disbursements (Rs in Crores)

Year 1.1.1 Co-operatives 1.1.1.1 RRBs 1.1.1.1.1 CB

s

1.1.1.1.2 Total

West Bengal India West

Bengal

India West

Bengal

India West

Bengal

India

LDBs WBSC

B

1988-89

1992-93

1996-97

2001-02

2003-04

2006-07

2008-09

2010-11

2012-13

11.25

12.11

18.03

26.08

58.70

200.00

240.04

400.12

601.34

-

-

-

0.22

8.36

46.10

50.12

81.701

02.60

809

1102

1332

1731

2800

4512

9121

18025

21234

17.71

26.43

29.12

30.93

41.98

135.62

159.53

207.86

401.54

197

360

462

502

805

1203

1820

1730

2341

37.16

43.54

41.16

42.23

31.89

33.15

63.83.5

3.35

72.45

672

785

815

841

703

905

1205

1645

2312

66.12

82.08

88.31

109.70

124.15

404.95

513.51

743.03

1034

1778

2267

2609

2664

4308

5679.3

12148

21400

32450

Sources: Annual Reports of Apex Bank, 1986-87,1997-98, 2001-2002 and State Focus Paper of West Bengal, 1997-98, 2001-2002, 2005-2006, 2008-09, 2012-13

Table 1 shows that the total disbursement in the State of West Bengal as well as in India had increased steadily from Rs 66.12 crores in 1988-89 to Rs 743.03 crores during 2012-13 in West Bengal, but in India, it increased from Rs1778.00 crores in 1988-89 to Rs 32450 crores in 2012-13.

(ii) However, the disbursement of the RRBs increased from Rs 17.71 crores in 1988- 89 to Rs 401.54 crores in 2012-13. In India

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refinance disbursement of the Apex Bank has increased from Rs 197 crores in 1988-89 to Rs 2351 crores in 2012-13.

Short-term Refinance Disbursement.

The Apex Bank’s refinance for short-term production and marketing is confined to the SCBs and the RRBs for which purpose these banks are sanctioned annual credit limits from out of the General Line of Credit of the RBI. The most important type of refinance is meant for seasonal agricultural operations or what is popularly known as crop loans issued by the Co-operative Credit Societies and the RRBs. Short-term credit refinance had increased steadily over the years. This

is shown in Table 2

TABLE – 2

Short-term Refinance Disbursements (Rs in Crores)

Year West Bengal (Rs in Crores) 1988-89 1992-93 1996-97 2001-02 2003-04 2006-07 2008-09 2010-11 2012-13

11.34 17.88 26.21 66.25 93.67 95.67 56.2

268.81 423.35

Sources: State Credit Plan of W.B. 1997-98, 2001-2002 and Annual Report of NABARD, 1997-98, 2005-06, 2008-09, 2012-13.

Table 2 shows that short-term refinance by the Apex Bank has increased over the years in West Bengal as well as in India. In West Bengal it has increased from Rs 11.34 crores in 1988-89 to Rs 423.35 crores in 2012-13.In India it has increased from Rs 703 crores in 1988-89 to Rs 5679.30 crores in 2012-13.

Direct Lending by the Apex Bank

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Section 30 of the Apex Bank Act, 1981, provides for the Apex Bank extending loans and advances otherwise than by way of refinance to any institution approved by the Central Government on such terms as considered appropriate. Thus direct lending implies that the Apex Bank could finance the rural credit schemes of developmental institutions taken up on their own for lending. Direct lending if resorted to under certain special circumstances in the wider interests of the regional or sectoral development, is not likely to affect the business

of the client banks or detract the Apex Bank from its efforts in strengthening the credit institutions.

Recent Initiatives by the Apex Bank

Consistent with the policies of the Government of India for rural development, the Apex Bank also initiated a number of new policies and modified the existing ones. Some of the major policy initiatives included rationalization of interest rates on the Short-term Seasonal Agricultural Operations ST (SAO). An account of the various policy initiatives taken by the Government of India/the Reserve of Bank/ the National Bank during the year is presented in what follows.

A. Short-term Credit

(i) Short-term Credit to Co-operative Banks

The basic objective of supplementing, through refinance support, the resources of the Co-operative Banks for meeting the production credit requirements of farmers and of using the instrumentality of such refinance for building up a sound, efficient, effective and viable rural credit structure, continued to get focus in the ST (SAO) refinance policy of the Apex Bank for the year 1996-97. Besides, certain special initiatives taken during the previous years for directing the flow of credit and refinance support to the backward regions and weaker

sections of the farming community were reemphasised. These initiatives, inter-alia, included:

155



(a) relaxation in the minimum recovery norms for banks to

facilitate flow of credit to new and non-defaulting members;

(b) provision of a separate line of credit for financing tribals on

liberal terms;

(c) emphasis on increased coverage of small and marginal farmers;

(ii) Short-term Credit for Seasonal Agricultural Operations (SAO)

The Apex Bank provides short-term assistance by way of refinance to the West Bengal State Co-operative Bank Ltd. for purpose of the Seasonal Agricultural Operations (SAO). Total disbursement in the State of West Bengal had increased steadily from Rs 51.71 crores in 1988-89 to Rs 197.31 crores in 2012.2013.

B. Provision of Short-term Refinance (for SAO and other than SAO) to the RRBs

The Apexl Bank reimburses the RRBs for financing eligible short-term loans (both crop loans and other production loans) to the extent of 50%

of the outstandings in order to enable the banks to consolidate the gains accruing from implementation of the Development Action Plans (DAPs) and make special efforts to improve their recovery levels and operational viability. In 1998, the banks were however, advised that in future refinance assisstance from the National Bank would be directly linked, inter alia, to the levels of their recovery performance and availability of surplus resources with them.

Different Steps for Developmental Initiatives

The various steps taken by the Apex Bank can be broadly classified as developmental initiatives and rehabilitation measures.

(i) Training and Development

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Human Resource Development is an integral part of institutional development. Keeping this in view the Apex Bank has focused special attention to the training needs of the rural financing institutions.

(a) Bankers Institute of Rural Development (BIRD):

The National Bank independently set up the Bankers Institute of Rural Development (BIRD) at the National level and two Regional Training Centres focussed attention to the training of a large number of rural bankers in general and the RRB personnel in particular. The exclusive attention for training of the RRB personnel continued till 1992 in the

training establishments of the National Bank. At the same time, the National Bank continued its support both academically and financially for training the personnel of the Land Development Banks (LDBs) in their Junior Level Training Centre (JLTCs). Thus, training as a part of the institutional development has been supported in the BIRD, the RTCs, the CAB of the RBI and the JLTCs of the SLDBs with financial back up and other support from the National Bank.

(b) Regional Training Centres (RTCs):

The BIRD and the two Regional Training Centers (RTCs) which were training exclusively the personnel of the RRBs till1992 have assumed a new role in the context of reorganization of the BIRD as an autonomous society to serve as the national level apex training institute of excellence. The RTCs have been providing support to the BIRD by conducting region specific training programmes, workshops, studies etc. addressed to middle and implementation level of rural bankers.

(c) Agriculture Co-operative Staff Training Institutes (ACSTIs):

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The Apex Bank also encourages the SCBs and the DCCBs to develop their human resources by extending support for conduct of training programmes in the Agricultural Co-operative Staff Training Institutes (ACSTIs) since 1994. The Bank is also supporting the initiatives for formulating perspective HRD/ manpower plan along with the business development plan as a part of the Development Planning exercise both for short-term and long-term co-operative credit institutions.

(d) Financial support for Training Activities :

A special fund, known as the Research and Development (R&D) Fund of the Apex Bank is utilised for supporting the training programmes

conducted for the officers of the participating banks by the CAB of the RBI, Pune. During the year (upto March 31, 1997), a sum of Rs 1.08 crores was released to the CAB as against Rs 0.52 crores released during 1995-96. The R & D Fund is also being utilised for meeting the expenditure on training activities of the BIRD, Lucknow and the Regional Training Colleges at Bangalore and Bolpur from the year 1996-97. An expenditure of Rs 2.55 crores in 20012-13 was met out of the R & D Fund, on their training activities.

(e) Other Important Training Programmes Supported by the Apex Bank:

(i) Rural Development Projects Course

Another programme of four weeks duration, supported by the National Bank focuses on improving the capability of participants to identify, formulate, appraise, implement, monitor and evaluate various types of agricultural and rural development projects.

(ii) Training Programmes for Selected Technical Disciplines

There are also various short duration courses conducted by the Apex Bank in animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry,

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plantation and horticulture schemes etc. conducted primarily for officers of the client banks and the Apex Bank officials.

(iii) Rural Branch Management and Credit Delivery

This programme is aimed at upgrading the skills of rural branch managers and improving the efficiency of their branch operations. The programmes are emphatic on subjects related to credit delivery, recycling of funds, and improvement of branch operations.

Creation of Rural Infrastructure Development (RIDF):

It was observed that public sector investment in agriculture has been on the decline and is causing a lot of concern. Recognizing the need for bridging the gap, the Union Finance Minister, while presenting the budget for the year 1995-96 on March 15, 1995, had

indicated:

“Inadequacy of public investment in agriculture is today a matter of general concern. This is an area which is the responsibility of the States but many States have neglected investment in infrastructure for agriculture. There are many rural infrastructure projects which have been started but are lying incomplete for want of resources. They represent a major loss of potential income and employment to the rural population.”

With the launching of financial sector reforms and introduction of the prudential norms, the commercial banking system is found to be cautious in extending credit to the agriculture sector to attain the target level of 18% of net bank credit.

In order to tackle the twin problems of shortfall in priority sector lending by the commercial banks and declining capital formation

in the agriculture sector, the Union Finance Minister mooted the idea of setting up “Rural Infrastructure Development Fund” (RIDF) in the

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Apex Bank (NABARD) from the 1st April 1995. The fund started with an initial corpus of Rs 2,000 crores.

Funding of the RIDF

The fund was set up with contribution from all scheduled commercial banks excluding the foreign banks operating in India to the extent of the shortfall in achieving the sub-target fixed for agriculture (18% of net bank credit) subject to a maximum of 1.5% of net bank credit.

The Apex Bank (NABARD) places demands for the funds with the contributing banks as and when it is required to disburse loan to

the State Government and the Government owned corporations. The contributions are received in the form of a fixed deposit for a period of 5 years at an interest of 12% p.a. at the initial stage of formation of the RIDF.

Under the fund of the RIDF, loans were sanctioned by the National Bank to the Government of West Bengal at an interest of 12% per annum.

During 1995-96 the total amount disbursed under the RIDF I in West Bengal stood at Rs 81.83 crores which further rose to Rs 135.40 crores and Rs 149.96 crores under the RIDF II & III, respectively. But it declined by Rs 0.45 crores during 1998-99. Similarly, during 1999-00 the total amount disbursed under the RIDF V was Rs 97.79 crores which declined by Rs 51.72 crores as compared to the previous year 1998-99 (RIDF IV) at an interest of 10.5% p.a. (Table 3.1). Same way

total disbursement under RIDF- VI, VII, VIII, X , XI, XII, and XIII were Rs. 423.88 crores , Rs. 276.78 crores , Rs. 224.24 crores, Rs. 44.41 crores, Rs. 73.25 crores, Rs. 25.82 crores, Rs. 35.57 crores, Rs. 37.74 crores respectively (Table-3.2, Table-3.3). So it is clear that total

amount disbursement under RIDF XI, XII, and XII were significantly declined as compare to previous RIDF project.

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Monitoring and Evaluation

The purpose of monitoring is to measure and oversee the progress towards predetermined targets and identify reasons for poor performance, while evaluation takes into account all factors affecting the performance in order that the reasons for the degree of achievement can be determined. In fact, monitoring and evaluation by the Apex Bank together play a vital role in measuring, both the performance of its programmes and effectiveness of its strategies for the development of the credit system.

PITFALLS IN THE APEX BANK’S CONTRIBUTION:

This paper identifies the pitfalls of the Apex Bank’s contribution and suggests a framework of the probable new areas of its active

involvement in bringing about the desired institutional changes and structural reforms of the Co- operative and Commercial Banks.

A. General:

1. There is not only a lack of co-ordination amongst the various activities, but also a large measure of absence of monitoring and evaluation of the impact of the Apex Bank’s refinance activities upon the credit system. The refinance operating cycle is not working effectively. The Regional Offices are not adequately involved in planning schemes to be refinanced for meeting the rural credit needs.

2. There is no effective integration of the farm and the non-farm credit planning, nor of the short and medium-term refinancing.

3. The responsibilities of the Rural Financial Institutions are limited, especially in the areas of formulating investment guidelines and performance monitoring of refinance.

B. Working:

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Various types of limitations are noted in the working of the Apex Bank. The main weaknesses of the Apex Bank’s inspection functions are as under:

4. The Apex Bank has no power to grant or withdraw licences. It only makes recommendations to the Reserve Bank for licences to the banks inspected.

5. The Apex Bank’s inspection reports typically highlight defects (about which the bank’s management is well aware), without

providing any analysis of their causes and recommendations for their solution.

6. The Apex Bank is not using the inspection findings to monitor the banks’ performance except in a general way. The only extensive use of the inspection reports by the Apex Bank is found in assessing banks’ eligibility for short-term credit limits.

7. There are very limited links between inspection and other functions of the Apex Bank. Institutional development and inspections do not make any positive contribution to the institution building process.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Creation of Recovery Climate

Many of the farmers are financially weak. The Governmental agencies are not able to provide adequate marketing facilities or remunerative prices to their product. While the prices of industrial products are fixed by taking into account their cost of production, the prices of agricultural products are fixed arbitrarily or from the consumers’ point of view. The main beneficiaries are the middlemen

and the industrialists who purchased them and also who supplied the inputs and equipments. It is therefore said that in the absence of

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remunerative prices for their products, they are neither in a position to repay the principal nor the interest.

2. Proper Utilization of Research and Development (R&D) Fund

There is need to use the Apex Bank’s Research and Development (R&D) Fund more imaginatively and aggressively to identify, evaluate, develop and promote new and political initiatives in rural development.

3. Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring and Evaluation is one of the clues to the smooth functioning and rapid expansion of the client banks. At any time it is the source for its preparedness to respond swiftly and effectively to the needs of the poor. Intense attention is paid to the performance of individual staff members; inefficiencies are nipped in the bud and merit is quickly rewarded. Extensive records are being continuously updated.

Monitoring and evaluation is valued for its present and potential contribution to future management and organizational development beyond the function of keeping an eye on the operations.

4. Co-ordination in between Different Banks

There is an urgent need for co-ordination between the different banks and agencies providing credit to agriculturists. This co-ordination should be at three levels; (i) the co-ordination between

financial institutions themselves; (ii) the co-ordination between the

financial institutions and the non-institutional sources of rural credit; and (iii) the co-ordination among the financial institutions, the non-

institutional sources and the Governmental departments dealing with the matters relating to the rural sector.

5. Simple Rate of Interest

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There should be simple rate of interest charged on all kinds of loans by the institutional and the non-institutional agencies. All kinds of short-term loans should be provided for a year. The farmers should be educated about the calculation of rate of interest and the loan facilities provided by the financial institutions.

Conclusions

From the present study it may be concluded that the Apex Bank has a dual role to play as an apex level institution and as a refinancing institution for Socio-economic development in rural areas in West Bengal. It has inherited its apex role from the Reserve Bank of India. In

other words, it is performing all the functions performed by the Reserve Bank of India with regard to Development of Co-operative Banks and Commercial Banks. Various promotional efforts have been made by the Apex Bank for development of Rural areas in West Bengal. But various types of pitfalls were found in the contribution of the Apex Bank and the present paper suggests a framework of the probable new areas of its active involvement in bringing about the desired institutional changes and structural reforms of the Socio- Economic development in rural areas of the West Bengal.

References

1. Bandyopadhyay, Arun Kumar., Economics of Agricultural Credit, Agricole Publishers Academy, New Delhi, 1984.

2. Chakrabarti Swapan Kumar.,et al (ed)- Banking in the 1990s, Himalayan Publishing House,1990.

3. Chadhu, G.K., The State and Rural Economic Transformation: A Case Study of Punjab 1950-85,Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1986.

4. Desai, S.S.M., Rural Banking in India, Himalaya Publishing House, Bombay, 1979.

5. Elavia, B.H., The Study of Co-operative Land Development Banking in Gujarat, Baroda, 1979.

6. Gunasekaran, S., Small Farmers and Institutional Credit, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi, 1985.

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7. Ghosh D.N., Banking Policy in India- An Evaluation, Bombay:

Allied Publishers Private Limited, 1979. 8. Hough, E.M., The Co-operative Movement in India. 5th ed.,

Revised and enlarged by K. Madhava Das, London, Oxford University Press, 1966.

9. Kumar, Kewali., Institutional Financing of Indian Agriculture, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1987.

10. Krishnaswami , O.R., “An Over View of Principle of Co-operative Review”,VOL.VII, No.1, October, 1969.

11. Krishnaswami, O.R. & Palaninathar, S., “ A Study of the Working of Simplified Loan Procedure of the LDBs in Tamil Nadu-A Case Study”, Indian Co-operative Review, VOL.VIII, No.1, October 1, 1977.

12. Mahajan,Vijay, Basxi., A New Generation Rural Financial Institution, in R. Rajagopalan,(ed) 1996.

13. Mishra, M.N., Rural Banking for Rural Poor,Yojna, 29 (24), January, Publication Division, Government of India, New Delhi, 1986

14. Murray, William G.,Evaluation of India’s Rural Credit Problem, The Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, VOL.Xl, No.4, Oct- Dec,1979.

15. Mathur, B.S., Land Development Banking in India, Delhi National Publishing House, 1974.

16. Dr. Muhammad, Yunus., Rural / Agricultural Credit Operations in Bangladesh, Presented at the Annual Conference of the Bangladesh Economic Association held in Dacca on April 30-May 3, 1981.

17. Narasimham, M.,Report of the Committee on Financial Systems, Ministry of Finance , Government of India, New Delhi, November, 1991.

18. Nakkiran, S., Co-operative in India, Coimbatore: Rainbow Publications, 1980.

19. Naidu, I.J., “Institutional Credit Facilities”, Kurukshetra, VOL. XXVI, No-1, October 1, 1977.

20. Pandhey, Kishore C., Commercial Banks and Rural Development, Asian Publication Services, New Delhi, 1980.

21. Pananditar, Pai, V.A. and Mehta. (eds.), Rural Banking, National Institute of Bank Management, Bombay, 1973.

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22. Patnaik, Utsa., The Agrarian Question and the Development of

Capitalism in India, Oxford University Press, Delhi,1986. 23. India Rural Debt and Investment Survey, RBI, Bombay, 1961-62,

1971-72 and 1981-82. 24. Report of the Agricultural Credit Review Committee, (Chairman-

A.M. Khusro), RBI, Bombay, August, 1989. 25. Report of the Committee to Review Arrangement for Institutional

Credit for Agriculture and Rural Development (CRAFICARD), Bombay, 1981.

26. Annual Reports of NABARD (From 1982 to 2006). 27. State Credit Plan of West Bengal, NABARD, Kolkata, 1996-97,

1997-98, 2005-06& 2012-13 28. State Focus Paper of West Bengal, NABARD, Kolkata, 1996-97,

1997-98, 2005-06& 2012-13 29. Economic Review, Government of West Bengal, 1989-90, 1997-98,

2005-06& 2012-13

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RESOURCE USE EFFICIECY IN BT. COTTON CULTIVATION – DATA ENVELOPMENT ANALYSIS APPROACH

K. Nirmal Ravi Kumar

Professor & Head Dept. of Agricultural Economics

Agricultural College, Angrau

Dr. A. Siva Sankar

Post-Doctoral Fellow (ICSSR) Dept. of Econometrics

Sri Venkateswara University Tirupati

INTRODUCTION

India accounts for approximately 25 per cent of the world's total cotton area and 16 per cent of global cotton production. Most of the cotton in India is grown under rainfed conditions, and about a third is grown under irrigation. However, yields of cotton in India are low, with an average yield of 300 kg/ha compared to the world average of 580 kg/ha. Cotton is a very important cash crop for Indian farmers and contributes around 30 per cent to the gross domestic product of Indian agriculture. However, as with many cotton growing areas of the world, a major limiting factor is damage due to insect pests, especially the

bollworm complex (American bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera; Spotted bollworm, Earias vittella; Pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossipiella). Sucking pests such as aphids (Aphis gossypii), jassids (Amrasca bigutulla), and whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci) are also a problem in terms of direct damage to the plant and the transmission of viruses. In March 2002, the Indian Government permitted commercial cultivation of

genetically modified Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton. The Bt gene produces a protein that is toxic to bollworms. Bt cotton is one of the first genetically modified (GM) crop technologies with wide distribution in developing countries. In India and China, in particular, the area under Bt cotton has increased sharply over the last couple of years, reaching 25 million acres in 2007 (James, 2007). Most of the Bt cotton

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growers in these countries are small-scale farmers; several recent studies have shown that, they benefit considerably from adopting the technology in terms of reductions in pesticide use and higher effective yields (Bennett, Kambhampati). Bt cotton is so remunerative as a commercial crop that farmers, even in agro-climatic zones not suitable for cotton cultivation, grow cotton. The predominant Bt cotton growing States in India include: Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh is the biggest cultivator of Bt cotton in the country with the area of cultivation reaching nearly 51 lakh hectares in 2012, as against 44 lakh hectares in 2011. In Andhra Pradesh, Guntur district had special reputation in the cultivation of Bt cotton and hence, this was purposively chosen for the study. The three most important claims regarding the cultivation of Bt cotton include: cultivation of Bt cotton

will reduce pesticide use considerably, cultivation costs will come down significantly and profits for farmers will increase. However, on all three counts, Bt Cotton failed in Andhra Pradesh in general and in Guntur district in particular for the second consecutive time. Further, due to heavy borrowing, over-investment in inputs and frequent crop failure, the cotton growers in Guntur district in particular suffered severe and unbearable hardships. Many cases of suicide were recorded among cotton growers in the district. This actually promulgated the researchers, to analyze the resource use efficiency in Bt cotton production. However, not much of literature was available pertaining to the resource use efficiency in Bt cotton cultivation. From this background, it emanates the need for an in depth microscopic study on analyzing the resource use efficiency in Bt cotton cultivation by using DEA approach in Guntur district. The results of the study would be

useful to cotton farmers of Guntur district in particular and of Andhra Pradesh in general in identifying the management plans for enhancing resource use efficiency in cultivating cotton. They further indicate,

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whether there is any scope for reorganisation and reallocation of resources that would contribute to the realisation of constant returns to scale among the farmers.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Guntur district in Andhra Pradesh was purposively selected for the study, as the district ranks first in the cultivation of Bt cotton in new Andhra Pradesh state after its bifurcation. Top two mandals in terms of area under Bt cotton in Guntur district viz., Veldurthi and Prattipadu were selected. From the list of villages arranged in descending order of acreage under cotton, top two villages from each mandal were selected. For the selection of farmers, a list of farmers from the selected villages was obtained from the respective Gram Panchayat Offices. To analyze the resource use efficiency, the farmers were conveniently categorized according to their land holding size i.e., Marginal (<1 ha), Small (1-2 ha) and Other farmers (>2 ha). From these three different categories, a total of 180 farmers were selected at

random, representing 60 farmers from each category. So, the sampling frame consists of one district, two mandals, four villages and 180 farmers (60 farmers each in marginal, small and other categories), which forms the basis to elicit the requisite data. A well structured pre-tested schedule was employed to collect the requisite information from the sample farmers. The study was conducted in the year 2013-14.

DEA Model: The DEA method is a frontier method that does not

require specification of a functional or distributional form, and can accommodate scale issues. This approach was first used by Farrell (1957) as a piecewise linear convex hull approach to frontier estimation and later by Boles (1966) and Afriat (1972). This approach did not receive wide attention till the publication of the paper by Charnes et al. (1978), which coined the term Data Envelope Analysis. A large number

of papers have extended and applied the DEA technology in the western

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world. Very few studies have used this approach in India, especially in agriculture and no studies were conducted so far for analyzing the resource use efficiency that too in Andhra Pradesh. DEA method has the disadvantage that it does not explicitly accommodate the effects of data noise. In the present case, the DEA method was preferred because, data noise was less of an issue as most of the variables in analyzing resource use efficiency were included and because of its ability to readily produce rich information on technical efficiency, scale efficiency and peers.

Several DEA models have been presented in the literature. The basic DEA model evaluates efficiency based on the productivity ratio which is the ratio of outputs to inputs. This study applied Charnes, Cooper and Rhode’s (CCR) (1978) model and Banker, Charnes and Cooper (BCC) (1984) model. The production frontier has constant

returns to scale in CCR model. The basic CCR model formulation (dual problem/ envelopment form) is given by:

The basic CCR model formulation (dual problem/ envelopment form)

Minθ - ε1 1

m s

j rj r

s s

Subject to:

01

n

J ij ij

x s x

(i=1, …………, m)

01

n

J rj r rj

y s y

(r=1, ………… , s)

0j (j=1, ………… ,n)

Source: Zhu (2003, p.13)

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where, θ denotes the efficiency of Decision Making Unit (DMUj), while yrj is the amount of rth output produced by DMUj using xij amount of ith input. Both yrj and xij are exogenous variables and λj represents the benchmarks for a specific DMU under evaluation (Zhu 2003). Slack variables are represented by si and sr. According to Cooper, Seiford and Tone (2004) the constraints of this model are:

i. The combination of the input of firm j is less than or equal to the linear combination of inputs for the firm on the frontier;

ii. The output of firm j is less than or equal to the linear combination of inputs for the firm on the frontier; and

iii. The main decision variable θj lies between one and zero.

Further, the model assumes that, all firms are operating at an optimal scale. However, imperfect competition and constraints to finance may cause some firms to operate at some level different to the

optimal scale (Coelli, Rao and Battese 1998). Hence, the Banker, Charnes and Cooper (1984) BCC model is developed with a production frontier that has variable returns to scale. The BCC model forms a convex combination of DMUs (Coelli, Rao and Battese 1998). Then the constant returns to scale linear programming problem can be modified to one with variable returns to scale by adding the convexity constraint Σλj = 1. The model given below illustrates the basic BCC formulation

(dual problem/envelopment form):

The basic BCC model formulation (dual problem/envelopment form)

Minθ - ε1 1

m s

j rj r

s s

Subject to :

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01

n

J ij ij

x s x

(i=1, …………, m)

01

n

J rj r rj

y s y

(r=1, ………… , s)

0j (j=1, …………. ,n)

1

1n

jj

Source: Zhu (2003, p.13)

This approach forms a convex hull of intersecting planes (Coelli, Rao and Battese 1998). These planes envelop the data points more tightly than the Constant Returns to Scale (CRS) conical hull. As a result, the Variable Returns to Scale (VRS) approach provides technical efficiency (TE) scores that are greater than or equal to scores obtained from the CRS approach (Coelli, Rao and Battese 1998). Moreover, VRS specifications will permit the calculation of TE decomposed into two components: Scale Efficiency (SE) and Pure Technical Efficiency (PTE). Hence, this study first uses the CCR model to assess TE then applies the BCC model to identify PTE and SE in each DMU. The relationship of these concepts is given below:

Relationship between TE, PTE and SE: This is given by

TECRS = PTEVRS*SE

where, TECRS = Technical efficiency of constant return to scale

PTEVRS = Technical efficiency of variable return to scale

SE = Scale efficiency

Source: Coelli, et al., (1998).

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The above relationship, which is unique, depicts the sources of inefficiency, i.e., whether it is caused by inefficient operation (PTE) or by disadvantageous conditions displayed by the scale efficiency (SE) or by both. If the scale efficiency is less than 1, the DMU will be operating either at Decreasing Return to Scale (DRS) if a proportional increase of all input levels produces a less-than-proportional increase in output levels or Increasing Return to Scale (IRS) at the converse case. This implies that resources may be transferred from DMUs operating at DRS to those operating at IRS to increase average productivity at both sets of DMUs (Boussofiane et al.,1992).

Data and Variables considered in the Study: DEA assumes that,

the inputs and outputs have been correctly identified. Usually as the number of inputs and outputs increase, more DMUs tend to get an

efficiency rating of 1 as they become too specialized to be evaluated with respect to other units. On the other hand, if there are too few inputs and outputs, more DMUs tend to be comparable. In any study, it is important to focus on correctly specifying inputs and outputs. For every inefficient DMU, DEA identifies a set of corresponding efficient DMU that can be utilized as benchmarks for improvement of performance and productivity. DEA is developed based on two scales of assumptions viz., CRS model and VRS model. CRS means that the farmers are able to linearly scale the inputs and outputs without increasing or decreasing efficiency. This is a significant assumption. The assumption of CRS may be valid over limited ranges, but its use must be justified. As an aside, CRS tends to lower the efficiency scores while VRS tends to raise efficiency scores.

For enabling the study of evaluation of resource use efficiency of cotton farmers, the researcher observed the resources or inputs and

productivity indicators or outputs as follows:

Inputs: X1 – Irrigation cost (Rs), X2 - Fertilizers cost (Rs.),

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X3 – Pesticides cost (Rs.), (X4) – Human labour cost (Rs.),

Outputs: Y1 – Assets created on the farm (Rs.), Y2 – Gross returns

from Cotton (Rs.)

The present study involves the application DEA to assess the resource use efficiency of 180 cotton cultivating farmers in the year 2013-14. This model is executed using input-orientation with radial distances to the efficient frontier. The DEA was solved using the MAXDEA version 5.2 taking an input orientation to obtain the efficiency levels.

Determinants of Technical Efficiency: Ray (1991) and Worthington

and Dollery (1999), used traditional DEA in the first stage to estimate the technical efficiency and in the second stage estimated the determinants of technical efficiency from the factors contributing to this technical efficiency by using econometric procedure. In the present study, the technical efficiency values obtained from the DEA model considering the CRS input-oriented model were used for examining the

relationship between the technical efficiency and factors influencing it. The technical efficiency score from CRS model was chosen as the dependent variable for its high accuracy in discriminating efficiency as compared to variable returns to scale (Gonclaves et al., 2008). The above inputs are considered as explanatory variables. The traditional method of regression was used for this purpose and OLS analysis was carried out to estimate the regression equation. The regression model specified for the present study is given in the following equation:

Y= a X1b1 X2b2 X3b3 X4b4 µ

where, Y = Technical efficiency scores (CRS), X1 – Irrigation cost (Rs), X2 - Fertilizers cost (Rs.), X3 – Pesticides cost (Rs.) and X4 – Human labour cost (Rs.), ‘a’ and ‘bi’ are the constant and the coefficients

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respectively, which were estimated through the OLS analysis after appropriate log conversion.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

To compute resource use efficiency in cotton production, DEA approach was employed in the first stage to estimate the technical efficiency and in the second stage estimated the determinants of technical efficiency from the factors contributing to this technical efficiency by using econometric procedure.

i. Technical efficiency in cotton: To obtain efficiency levels of each

of the farms as decided by the physical inputs (quantities), DEA models, which are input-oriented, were used at different production scales under the assumption of CRS. After introducing convexity in the CRS model, the VRS were estimated. By using the efficiency levels of these CRS and VRS models, the scale efficiency for each farm was obtained. The results on efficiency measures (with constant and variable returns) and the descriptive statistics for cotton producing farms in the Guntur district are given in Table 5.12. According to Ferreira (2005), the

farmers operated at 0.90 or more score were considered as ‘efficient farms’. The explanation for this flexibility is to avoid compromising the analysis through a farm that stands out as being an outlier rather than for its true relative efficiency. Data recording errors and external factors were also attributed for this flexibility.

Marginal farms: It was observed from Table 1 that, only about 52 per cent of farms under assumption of CRS performed with efficiency level equal to 0.90 or greater, i.e. 31 of the total 60 farms. The average efficiency score was 0.8103. Based on this, it could be inferred that remaining 29 farms, which did not operate at the maximum efficiency level, could reduce the input level by 18.99 per cent and maintain the same level of cotton production as achieved by 52 per cent of the farmers. When the assumption of constant scale was relaxed and the

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model with VRS was calculated, the impact of production scale on technical efficiency level was visible. In marginal farms, the number of efficient farms was 61.67 per cent and the average technical efficiency score increased to 0.8621. These better results from the model with variable returns were mainly due to the inclusion of scale efficiency, which the previous model did not take into consideration. As regards to the scale efficiency, about 71.67 per cent of cotton farms (43 out of 60 farms) under marginal farms category, either performed at the optimum scale or were close to the optimum scale (farms having scale efficiency values equal to or more than 0.90).

Small farms: Under the assumption of CRS, about 31.67 per cent of

the farmers in this category were found efficient with values equal to or more than 0.90, i.e., (19 out of 60 farms). The average technical efficiency score in this category was 0.8241. In the case of variable returns, the average technical efficiency score was 0.9123 and nearly 72

per cent of the farms had the score equal to or more than 0.90. As regards to the scale efficiency, nearly 85 per cent of the small farms (51 out of 60 farms) either performed at the optimum scale or were close to the optimum scale (farms having scale efficiency values equal to or more than 0.90).

Other farms: It was observed that, 65 per cent of farms under the

assumption of CRS performed with efficiency level equal to 0.90 or greater, i.e., 39 out of total 60 farms. The average efficiency score was 0.8625. This indicates that, remaining 10 farms, which did not operate at maximum efficiency level, could reduce the input level by 13.75 per cent and maintain the same level of cotton production as achieved by 65 per cent of the farmers. Nearly 74 per cent of the other farms are being operated at VRS with an average technical efficiency score of 0.9105. As regards to the scale efficiency, 81.67 per cent of the farmers (49 out of 60 farmers) under other farms either performed at optimum scale or

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were close to the optimum scale (farms having scale efficiency values equal to or more than 0.90).

From the above analysis it is clear that, the number of farms operating at CRS are more in number in other farms (65%) followed by marginal (51.67%) and small farms (31.67%). Similarly, regarding the number of farmers operating at VRS, the other farms are again more in number with 73.33 per cent followed by small (71.67%) and marginal farms (61.67%). With reference to scale efficiency, small farms dominate the scenario with 85 per cent followed by other (81.67%) and marginal farms (71.67%). At pooled level, 37.22 per cent of the farms are being operated at CRS with an average technical efficiency score of 0.7251 i.e., 67 out of 180 farms. This indicates that, remaining 113 farmers, who did not operate at the maximum efficiency level, could reduce the input level by 27.49 per cent and maintain the same level of

efficiency as achieved by 37.22 per cent of the farmers. Forty one per cent of the farmers at pooled level are being operated at VRS with an average technical efficiency score of 0.8631. As regards to scale efficiency, 46.11 per cent of the farmers (83 out of 180 farmers) at pooled level, either performed at the optimum scale or were close to the optimum scale (farms having scale efficiency values equal to or more than 0.90).

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Table 1: Efficiency Measures and Descriptive Statistics across Farms according to Scale of operations

Scale of operations

Efficient farms

(θ ≥ 0.90)

Efficiency measures

No. % Mean Standard

deviation

Maximum

Minimum

Marginal farmers

Technical efficiency (Constant returns) 31 51.67 0.8103 0.1529 1 0.4216

Technical efficiency (Variable returns)

37 61.67 0.8621 0.1251 1 0.5026

Scale efficiency 43 71.67 0.9127 0.0768 1 0.6892

Small farmers

Technical efficiency (Constant returns)

19 31.67 0.8241 0.2127 1 0.5023

Technical efficiency (Variable returns) 43 71.67 0.9123 0.1087 1 0.5921


Other farmers



44 73.33 0.9105 0.1521 1 0.4521


Pooled farmers



74 41.11 0.8631 0.1236 1 0.3821


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2. Regions of Operations in the Production Frontier: In addition

to knowing about the number of efficient farms, extent of inefficiency and optimum scale of operation, it is also important to understand the distribution of farms in the three regions of production frontier, i.e. how many farms are under increasing, decreasing or constant returns. These were estimated using the equations given under methodology and the results have been presented in Table 2.

Seventy per cent of the farms in the marginal farms category were found operating in the region of increasing returns or the sub-optimal region. The production scale of these farms could be increased by decreasing the costs, since they were performing below the optimum production scale. Only 12 per cent of cotton farms in the marginal farms category were found in the decreasing returns region and these farmers could increase their technical efficiency by reducing their input usage consequently their production levels. This region is also called as

supra-optimal i.e., the farms were performing above the optimum scale of production. In the constant region of frontier i.e., optimum scale of production, 18.33 per cent of the marginal farms were found operating. Regarding small and other farms, 18.33 and 53.33 per cents respectively are operating at DRS and 63.33 and 11.67 percents respectively are operating at IRS respectively. This signifies that, for the farmers operating at IRS are to be provided with more resources and the same should be decreased towards the farmers operating at DRS. Compared to other farms category, there are less number of farmers operating at CRS both in small farms category (23.33%) and marginal farms category (18.33%). This indicates that, there is more efficient utilization of resources by other farms compared to small and marginal farms.

On the whole, majority of the farmers (47.22%) are operating at IRS and only 26.11 per cent of the farmers are operating at DRS. This

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signifies that, more resources should be provided to these farms operating at IRS and the same should be decreased towards the farms operating at DRS. Nearly 27 per cent of the farms are operating at CRS indicating efficient utilization of resources.

Table 2: Category-wise distribution of farmers in Guntur district according to types of return among different scale of operations

Types of returns to

scale

Marginal farmers

Small farmers

Other farmers

Total farmers

Increasing 42 (70.00)

38 (63.33)

7 (11.67)

85 (47.22)

Constant 11 (18.33)

14 (23.33)

21 (35.00)

48 (26.67)

Decreasing 7 (11.67)

8 (13.33)

32 (53.33)

47 (26.11)

Total 60

(100) 60

(100) 60

(100) 180

(100) Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentages to the respective column totals.

3. Determinants of input-use (CRS technical) efficiency of cotton farms: Log linear regression model was used to analyze the

major determinants of input use efficiency of cotton farms. The input variables considered under DEA model were again considered as influential factors for the CRS obtained for the three categories of farmers. The analytical findings revealed that, across all the categories of farmers and at pooled level, the models are statistically significant,

as indicated by higher and significant Adjusted R2 values. The two variables irrigation cost (X1) and fertilizer cost (X2) (both positively influencing at 1% level) are the major determinants of Resource Use Efficiency (CRS) of all the selected farmers categories and at pooled level. Pesticides cost (X3) also influence the CRS in large farms and at

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pooled level, but significant at five per cent level. Human labour cost (X4) also found to be significantly influencing the CRS of all categories of cotton farmers and at pooled level but remained significant at 5% level except for other farms (at 1% level). It is heartening that, all the farms are resorting to low dosages of pesticide application because of the resistance of Bt cotton to boll worm menace and hence, this variable is not exerting any significant influence on the CRS of these farmers. However, other farms are resorting for pesticide application to control other pests and diseases on the crop and this significantly influenced (5% level) the CRS. Even at pooled level, this variable (X3) was found exerting significant (5% level) influence on the CRS.

Thus, irrigation cost (X1) and fertilizer cost (X2) are the major determinants of cotton farms across all the farmer categories and even at pooled level. In view of their positive influence on the CRS, it is

essential to strengthen modern irrigation infrastructure like drip irrigation and offer more fertilizer subsidies to the farmer to enhance the crop production on cost-effective basis.

Table 3: Determinants of CRS (Resource Use Efficiency) of cotton farms in Guntur district

Variables Marginal farms

Small farms

Other farms

pooled farms

Intercept 0.2123 0.3126 0.3872 0.2639 (X1) Irrigation cost 0.2319** 0.3306** 0.1268** 0.1639** (X2) Fertilizer cost 0.2763** 0.1968** 0.1421** 0.1306* (X3) Pesticide cost 0.1419NS .1916NS 0.2663* 0.3028* (X4) Human labour cost 0.0619* 0.0462* 0.0312** 0.0394*

Adjusted R2 0.86** 0.91** 0.93** 0.89** Note: **: Significant at 1 percent level, *: Significant at 5 percent level, NS: Non – Significant.

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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The above analysis regarding resource use efficiency of cotton

farmers revealed that, nearly 27 per cent of farmers are operating at CRS indicating efficient utilization of resources. Majority of the farmers (47.22%) i.e., 85 out of 180 are operating at IRS and only 26.11 per cent of the farmers (47 out of 180 farmers) are operating at DRS indicating that, more resources should be provided to the farms operating at IRS and the same should be decreased towards the farms operating at DRS. The following policy implications must be borne in mind to improve the resource use efficiency of cotton farmers in Guntur district:

It was found that, the sample farmers are spending huge

amount on applying chemical and fertilizers. So, it is also advocated to adopt INM, so as to ensure both cost effective and quality production of cotton. The on-farm demonstrations need to be conducted to educate the farmers on these technologies.

Since, majority of the farmers (47.22%) are operating at IRS and

only 26.11 per cent of the farmers are operating at DRS, more resources should be provided to the farmers operating at IRS and the same should be decreased for the farmers operating at DRS, so as to make the former farms to be resource efficient.

References

1. Afriat, S.N. 1972. Efficient estimation of production functions. International Economic Review. 13: 568-598.

2. Banker, R.D., Charnes, A and Cooper, W.W. 1984. Some models for estimating technical and scale inefficiencies in data envelopment analysis. Management Science. 30. 1078-1092.

3. Bennett, R., Kambhampati, U., Morse, S., & Ismael, Y. (2006). Farm-level economic performance of genetically modified cotton in Maharashtra, India. Review of Agricultural Economics, 28(1), 59-71.

4. Boles, J.N. 1966. Efficiency squared – Efficient computation of efficiency indexes. Proceedings of the the 39th Annual Meeting of the

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Farm Economic Association. pp. 137-142. 5. Boussofiane, A., Dysan, R.G and Thanassoulis, E. 1992. Applied data

envelopment analysis. European journal of operation research. 52:1-15.

6. Charnes, A., Cooper, W.W and Rhodes, E. 1978. Measuring the efficiency of decision making units, European Journal of Operations Research. 2: 429-444.

7. Coelli, T., Rao, D.S.P. and Battese, G. 1998. An Introduction to Efficiency and Productivity Analysis. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Boston.

8. Farrell, M.J. 1957. The measurement of productive efficiency. Journal of Royal Statistical Society. 120(3): 253-290.

9. Gonçalves, R. M. L., Wilson da Cruz Vieira, João Eustáquio de Lima and Sebastião Teixeira Gomes. 2008. Analysis of technical efficiency of milk-producing farms in Minas Gerais. Economia Aplicada. 12(2): 321-335.

10. James, C. (2007). Global status of commercialized biotech/GM crops: 2007 (ISAAA Brief No. 37). Ithaca, NY: International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications.

11. Kambhampati, U., Morse, S., Bennett, R., & Ismael, Y. (2005). Perceptions of the impacts of genetically modified cotton varieties: A case study of the cotton industry in Gujarat, India. AgBioForum, 8(2&3), 161-171.

12. Ray, S. 1991. Resource use efficiency in public schools: A study of Connecticut data. Management Science. 37: 1620-1628.

13. Sreenivasamurthy, D., Sudha, M., Hegde, M. R and Dakshinamoorthy ,V. 2009. Technical Efficiency and its Determinants in Tomato Production in Karnataka, India: Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) Approach. Agricultural Economics Research Review. Vol. 22, 215-224.

14. Sundaram, V., Basu, A.K., Krishna Iyer, K.R., Narayanan, S.S., & Rajendran, T. P. (1999). Handbook of cotton in India. Mumbai, India: Indian Society for Cotton Improvement.

15. Worthington, A. and Dollery, B. 1999. Allowing for nondiscretionary factors in data envelopment analysis: A comparative study of NSW local government. Working Paper Series in Economics. No.99-12, University of New England, Armidale NSW 2351 Australia.

16. Zhu, J. (2003). Quantitative models for performance evaluation and benchmarking. Kluwer Academic Publishers. London.

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PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF THE SSI

UNITS IN NORTH COASTAL DISTRICT OF ANDHRA PRADESHS, A STUDY REPORT

LT.CDR.Kosaraju Ravi Kumar Ph.D. Scholar

Mewar University Chittorghar, Rajasthan & HOD and Vice-Principal

Dr.VS.Krishna Govt.Degree & PG (A) College,Visakhapatnam

Dr.G.Chandra Mouli Research Guide /Supervisor

Mewar University, Chittorghar Rajasthan &

Reader in Commerce Dr.VSK.Govt Degree and PG (A)

College, Visakhapatnam, AP The SSI units play a predominant role in the progress of our Nation. They lay down a path of economic transition from traditional to modern technology. Such a tendency is observed in the growth of small scale units, and creates ample employment opportunities. The argument is based on the thinking which is based on the assumption that small enterprises are labor intensive. Moreover, the small enterprises help in encouraging the competitive spirits and generate the impulses’ of self development; the small scale units are also able to make use of the local and the latest resources like the nearby raw

materials, funds and entrepreneurial ability. SSI units provide an environment that encourages the building up of a net work of complementary relations among plants & firms. SSI units instigate the spirit of decentralization since most of the large industrial houses are found in the metro and the cosmopolitan cities only where as the small units are mostly found in villages and in the semi urban areas. If further encouraged, the smaller villages and the backward areas can benefit from the fruits of the modern industrialization.

From the side of the Production management, several SSI units fail in designing the product, reaching the product standardization and their liability, the capacity planning, the process

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planning, the work study. Most of the SSIs are unable to follow the ideal flow patterns, material requirement planning and controlling, inventory controlling techniques and systems. Most of the SSIs rely upon the traditional and on worn-out plant& machinery and lack quality control consciousness.

Soon after our independence, SSIs have been given special and prominent berths as they are instrumental in generating extra employment in rural and urban areas through a meager capital investment. It has powerful strong linkages. Hence research and study on this are thought to be significant. All the activities of SSIs need to be closely watched and monitored to initiate immediately needed remedial

measures, since the problems are specific to the region and to the organization. There are several research studies on SSIs but basically most of them dealt with the general problems and the industrial sickness. Studies on SSIs overall managerial Practices are very much limited. In the state of Andhra Pradesh, studies of this nature and type are even less and the North Coastal Districts of Andhra Pradesh are not an exception to this.

1.2 Significance of the Study

There is a multi-dimensional significance of management.

Organizations are formed to achieve the predetermined objectives and goals of an enterprise, like increasing in sales volume, market share, and return on investment. Process of managerial activities ensures the quick and timely achievement of the laid down organizational goals.

The basic task of management is to generate surplus out of their operations over the cost of their production. Profit is an essential element for the growth and survival of any business. The Industrial

unit can undertake more expansion and diversification programs when

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the profits are ploughed back to a great extent. And thus profits and growth are interlinked and interwoven.

The Present corporations are in no way better than that of a battle field. Competition is racing in terms of more competitors, number of variety of products and more consumer education and information. Sound management practices aid in formulating the appropriate strategies to cope up and encounter the competition.

The managers, through their effective functional management practices, utilize the scarce resources of the organization efficiently in such a manner to cause positive effects to the society in terms of better standard of living and social development.

Excellent management practices make sure the proper discharge of social responsibilities of an enterprise by satisfying the interests of all the stake holders, and society at large. They thus help to create effective and positive relations with the internal as well as the external environment and create good business ecology in terms of the differences of Culture, Science and Technology and Peace.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

The objectives of the study are as follows:

1) To determine the understandings and the views of the persons responsible for formulating and implementing policies in respect of functional management in the sample SSIs.

2) To understand the production management practices of the select sample SSI units particularly with reference to a. Capacity Planning

b. Decision relating to unit’s location

c. Layout Design and Maintaining of productivity records and others such as preparation of production budgets maintaining of inventory control systems etc.

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1.5 SAMPLE DESIGN

As per the records of 2008-09, the total number of units registered in the study area comes to 17,606.

An attempt has been made in this study to cover 1.28% of the units [sample size 227]. The investigator personally visited the units along with his team.

1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY:

The following are the limitations of this study.

1. The units that are not registered with DICs are not included because of non availability the required recorded data.

2. The units covered under the study restricted to only manufacturing, processing units and few service units and other categories have not been covered to draw meaningful information.

3. The focus of this study is strictly limited to functional management practices of select SSIs units .

1.7 SOURCES OF DATA

For the purpose of the study data from primary and secondary sources have been used.

1.7. a. Collection of primary data:

Primary data from sample units was collected by the researcher and his team through personal interview on the basis of a schedule & questionnaire1.7. b. Collection of Secondary Data:

The primary data is supplemented with the data collected from the secondary sources. In this connection, the researcher and his team had visited the District Industries Centers and the Department of

Ministry of Commerce and Industries, Andhra Pradesh for collecting the basic data relating to the SSIs.

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1.8. STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED:

i. Majority of the analysis is tabular based and Bi-variate analysis is applied in several places. For classifying the cases into different groups with a better degree of accuracy.

TABLE – 10

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO CATEGERY OF BUSINESS &TIME SPENT ON PRODUCT DESIGN AND

SPECIFICATION

Sl. No.

Category Of Business 6 months

6 to 12 months

12 months above

Total Number of units

1. Agro Based & Edibles 38 (63.33)

14 (23.33)

8 (13.33)

60 (100)

2. Engineering 25 (54.34)

10 (21.73)

11 (23.91)

46 (100)

3. Chemical & Pharmacy 27 (61.36)

10 (22.72)

7 (15.90)

44 (100)

4. Automobile & Services 20 (60.60)

7 (21.21)

6 (18.18)

33 (100)

5. Construction 18 (58.06)

7 (22.58)

6 (19.35)

31 (100)

6. Textiles & Garments 7 (53.84)

4 (30.76)

2 (15.38)

13 (5.72)

Total 135 (59.47)

52 (22.90)

40 (17.62)

227 (100.00)

Note: Figures in brackets indicate % to the row total.

It can be viewed from the table 10 that out of the total select sample SSI units that 59.47% units could spend 6 months or less time on product design and specification while 22.90% of the total units could design and specify the product in 6-12 months time and 17.62% of the total units could design & specify their products in more than 12

188



months time out of which agro based units are a head with 6333% Followed by chemical units with 61.36%, automobile &service units’ with60.60%, construction units with 58.06%engineering units with 54.34% and the textile units with 53.84% in less than 6 month’s time spent on their product design and specification.

In the 6-12 months time spent category, textile units are a head with 30.76% followed by 23.33% of the agro based units ,22.72% of the chemical and pharmacy units, 22.58% of the construction units, and 21.73% of the engineering units and 21.21% of the automobile and service units.

Coming to the third category of the units that spent more than 12

months time in designing and specifying their products, engineering units are ahead with 23.91%followed by 19.35% of the construction units ,18.18% of the automobile and service units,15.90% 0f the chemical and pharmacy units,15.38% of the textile units and 13.33% Of the agro based units.

From the above table it can be interpreted that out of the total select sample SSI units that 59.47% units could spend 6 months or less time on product design and specification while 22.90% of the total units could design and specify the product in 6-12 months time and 17.62% of the total units could design & specify their products in more than 12 months time .Agro based units are more in number followed by the chemical units and then the engineering units that spent less than 6 months time and also in case of the category of 6 to 12 months’ time on their product design and specification while in case of the units that spent more than 12 months time on their product design and

specification the engineering units are more in number followed by the agro based units and then the chemical units.

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Table 11 deals with the distribution of the data of the select SSI units according to type of business and the time spent on product design and specification.

TABLE – 11 DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO TYPE OF

ORGANIZATION &TIME SPENT ON PRODUCT DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION

Slno. Type Of Business 6 months

6 to 12 months

12 months above

Total Number of units

1. Proprietary 85(66.40) 25(19.53) 18(14.06) 128(100)

2. Firm 37(57.81) 14(21.87) 13(20.31) 64(100)

3. Company 7(33.33) 7(33.33) 7(33.33) 21(100)

4. Cooperative Society/Trust 6(42.85) 6(42.85) 2(14.28) 14(100)

Total 135(59.47) 52(22.90) 40(17.62)

227(100.00)


It can be viewed from the table 11 that 59.47% of the total units under sample study are in the category of less than 6 months’ time spent on product design and specification followed by 22.90% of the total units in 6-12 months time spent category followed by 17.62% of the total units

in more than 12 months time spent on product design and specification category. In the less than 6 months ‘ time spent category proprietary concerns are a head with 66.40%,followed by firms with 57.81%coop societies with 42.85% and companies with 33.33%.

In the 6-12 months time spent category, coop societies are leading with 42.85%followed by33.33% of the companies, 21.87% 0f the firms and the proprietary concerns with 19.53%.

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In the third category of the units that spent more than 12 months of their time on their product design and specification, 33.33% of the companies are leading followed by 20.31% of the firms, 14.28% of the societies and 14.06% of the proprietary concerns

From the above table it can be interpreted that the majority of the proprietary concerns spent less than 6 months’ time on their product design and specification followed by the firms while the companies in equal number had spent time on their product design and specification on all the 3 cases and the societies and trusts had equally in number had spent time on their product design and specification in case of less than 6 months and 6 to 12 months time taken cases.

Table 12 deals with the data relating to the distribution of the select SSI units according to the location of the unit and the time spent on product design specification by the units.

TABLE – 12

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF THE UNIT &TIME SPENT ON PRODUCT DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION

Sl. No.

Location of the unit

6 months

6 to 12 months

12 months above

Total Number of Units

1. Rural 56(54.90) 23(22.54) 23(22.54) 102(100)

2. Urban 79(63.20) 29(23.20) 17(13.60) 125(100)

Total 135(59.47) 52(22.90) 40(17.62) 227(100.00)

Note: Figures in brackets indicate % to the total number of units.

It can be viewed from the table 12 that out of the total select sample ssi units 59.47% of the units spend less than 6 months time followed by 22.90% of the units 6-12 months time and 17.62% of the units spent more than 12 months time in designing and specifying their products. In the less than 6 months time spent category the urban units are a

191



head with 63.20% followed by 54.90% of the rural units. In the 6-12 months time spent category The urban units are a little ahead with 23.20% while the rural units are with 22.554%.In the third category of the units that spent more than 12 months time the Rural units are a head with 22.54% of the total rural units followed by 13.60% of the total urban units. From the above table it can be interpreted that majority of both the Rural and urban category of the units spent less than 6 months time on their product design and specification. in case of the units that had spent 6 to 12 months time on their product design and specification, urban units are relatively more in number than the rural units. In case of the units that spent more than 12 months time

on their product design and specification on the other hand, the rural units are relatively more in number than the urban units.

Table 13 deals with the data of distribution of the select sample SSI units according to the entrepreneur’s gender and the time spent on their product design and specification.

TABLE – 13

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO GENDER OF THE ENTREPRENEUR &TIME SPENT ON PRODUCT DESIGN

AND SPECIFICATION

Sl. No.

Gender of the entrepreneur

6 months 6 to 12 months

12 months above


1. Male 92(55.75) 39(23.63) 34(20.60) 165(100.00)

2. Female 43(69.35) 13(20.96) 6(9.67) 62(100.00)

Total 135(59.47) 52(22.90) 40(17.62) 227(100.00)


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It can be viewed from the table13 that in the less than 6 months’ time spent on product design and specification category The female entrepreneurs are a ahead with 69.35% followed by 55.75% of the total male entrepreneurs. In the 6-12 months time spent category, males are a little ahead with 23.63% while female is with 20.96%. And in the more than 12 months time spent category, the male entrepreneurs are a head with 20.60% where as the female in this category being only9.67%.

From the above table it can be interpreted that the units with male entrepreneurs are more in number than the female entrepreneur floated units in case of the units that had spent less than 6 months time on their product design and specification where as in case of the units

that had spent 6 to 12 months time on their product design and specification also the male grouped units are more in number than the female group headed units. However in case of the units that had spent more than 12 months time on their product design and specification, the male group headed units are more in number than the female group headed units.

Table 14, deals with, the distribution of SSI units according to the level of the education of the entrepreneur and; the time spent by them on product design and specification.

TABLE – 14DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO LEAVEL OF EDUCATION OF THE ENTREPRENEUR &TIME

SPENT ON PRODUCT DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION

Sl. No.

Level of Education of the entrepreneur

6 months

6 to 12 months

12 months above


1. Below 10th class 9(81.81) 2(18.18) – 11(100)

2. 10th class 10(76.92) 3(23.07) – 13(100)

3. Inter Mediate 20(62.50) 5(15.62) 7(21.87) 32(100)

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4. Graduate 45(61.64) 16(21.91) 12(16.43) 73(100)

5. Technical 19(51.35) 8(21.62) 10(27.02) 37(100)

6. Post Graduate& above

7(58.33) 3(25.00) 2(16.66) 12(100)

7. Technical diploma holders

25(51.02) 15(30.61) 9(18.36) 49(100)

Total 135(59.47) 52(22.90) 40(17.62) 227(100.00)


In the less than 6 months time spent on product design and specification group, persons with below 10th class are ahead with 81.81%followed by 76.92% of the 10th class qualified,62.50% intermediate qualified persons,61.64% of the graduates, followed by 58.33% of the post graduates, 51.35% of the technical graduates and 51.02% of the technical diploma holders. In the 6-12 month time spent group technical diploma holders are leading with 30.61% followed by 25% of the post graduates, 23.07% of the persons with 10th class qualification,21.91% of the persons with degree qualiufication,212.62% of the technical graduates,18.18% of the intermediate qualified

entrepreneurs. In the more than 12 months time spent group of the entrepreneurs, the technical graduates are a ahead with 27.02% followed by 21.87% of the intermediate qualified, followed by 18.36% of the technical diploma holders and 16.66% of the post graduates

From the above table it can be interpreted that the less qualified entrepreneurs spent lesser time on their product design and specification. The more the entrepreneurs are technically and educationally qualified relatively the more time they spent on their product design and specification.

Table 15 deals with distribution of the SSI units according to the age group of the entrepreneurs and the time spent by them in their product design and specification.

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TABLE – 15

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO AGE GROUP OF THE ENTREPRENEUR &TIME SPENT ON PRODUCT

DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION

Sl. No.

Age Group Of the entrepreneur

6 months

6 to 12 months

12 months above


1. Below 30 years 12(70.58) 3(17.65) 2(11.75) 17(100)

2. 30 to 40 years 41(64) 14(21.88) 9(14.06) 64(100)

3. 40 to 50 years 58(56.86) 25(24.51) 19(18.63) 102(100)

4. Above 50 years 24(54.55) 10(22.73) 10(22.72) 44(100)

Total 135(59.47) 52(22.91) 40(17.62) 227(100.00)


From table 15 it can be viewed that in below 30 years age group of the entrepreneurs 70.58% had spent less than 6 months time followed by 17.65% in 6-12 months time and 11.75% spent more than 12 months time in designing and specifying their product.

In the age group of 30-40 years, 64% of the entrepreneurs spent less than 6 months time followed by 21.88% spent 6-12 months time and 14.06% of that group spent more than 12 months time in their product design &specification.

Coming to the 40-50 years age group, 56.86% of the total entrepreneurs in that group spent less than 6 months time followed by 24.51% spent

6-12months time followed by 18.63% of the entrepreneurs spent more than 12 months time in their product design and specification.

Coming to the age group of more than 50 years, 54.55% of the entrepreneurs spent less than 6 months time in their product design and specification followed by 22.91% spent 6-12 months time and 17.62% spent more than 12 months time.

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From the above table it can be interpreted that the lesser the age group of the entrepreneur, the less time they had spent on their product design and specification. In case of the higher age groups also majority of the units spent less than 6 months time on their product design and specification

Table 16 deals with the distribution of the SSI units according to the experience status and time spent on product design and specification.

TABLE – 16

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO THE ENTREPRENEUR HAVING & TIME SPENT ON PRODUCT

DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION

Sl. No.

Experience Status of the entrepreneur

6 months

6 to 12 months

12 months above


1. Entrepreneur with some previous Experience

52 (22.91)

21 (9.25

11 (4.84)

84 (100)

2. Entrepreneur without any previous Experience

83 (58.04)

31 (21.66)

29 (20.30)

143 (100)

Total 135 (59.47)

52 (22.90)

40 (17.63)

227 (100.00)

Note: Figures in brackets indicate % to the row total. Out of the Entrepreneurs with some previous experience22.91% spent less than 6months time followed by 9.25% spent 6-12 months time and 4.84% spent more than 12 months time in their product design and specification. In case of the entrepreneurs without any previous experience majority 58.04%spent less than 6 months time in designing and specifying their products followed by 21.66% spent 6-12 months and 20.30% spent more than 12 months’ time.

From the above table it can be interpreted that relatively there are more entrepreneurs with some previous experience and majority of them spent less than 6 months time on their product design and

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specification followed by the 6 to 12 month category and more than 12 month category in that order while in case of the entrepreneurs without any previous experience, majority of them also do belong to less than 6 month time category follow34ed by the 6 to 12 month category and more than 12 month category.

References:

1. Medora B.Phiroze (1965)”Entrepreneurship in India, Political Science, Quarterly, l.30

2. AP. Productivity Council, Journal Monthly,2013 July

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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF CRACKING AND SLIP BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

STRENGTHENED BY GFRP

MS. (Mr) Ayad S. Adi Ph.D. Student

Department of Civil Engineering Sinhgad Collage of Engineering

Pune University,Pune

Prof. Dr.(Mrs) B. S. Karkare

Prof. of Engineering and Principal VIIT,Andhra University

Visakhapatnam

Dr.(Mr) Mohammad Makki Abbass Lecturer

Department of Highway and Transportation Collage of Engineering

Al-Mustansiriya University Baghdad, Iraq

1.Introduction

FRP composites are gaining acceptance rapidly as a cost effective, durable means of strengthening RC structures. Glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) has high strength to weight ratio as well as excellent resistance to corrosion and environmental degradation. It is

flexible and forms all kinds of shapes, and is easy to handle during construction [1, 2, and 3]. GFRP has been widely used in strengthening concrete structures, and extensive research has already been conducted on the use of GFRP.

Many a times the same structure is put to a different use. In such a case complete reconstruction of structure is an unviable option, if up-gradation is an available alternative. Therefore, strengthening and rehabilitation of such structures is considered to be the most practical method to avoid reconstruction. As a result, structural rehabilitation and strengthening of existing structures has become the construction industry's major growth area. Amongst various methods developed for strengthening and rehabilitation of reinforced concrete

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(RC) beams, external bonding of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) strips to the beam has been widely accepted as an effective and convenient method. The efficiency of RC beam strengthened with FRP strips depends on proper bonding between the concrete and the strips. The adhesive plays an important role in bonding of FRP and concrete, particularly for interfacial de-bonding and concrete cover separation, the mechanisms relate to the mechanical properties of the adhesive and inter-laminar fracture toughness.

In 2003, Ciro Faella et.al [4], investigated the behavior of RC beams strengthened by FRP under static loading. The authors utilized a bi-linear shear-stress-to interface - slip relationship by means of an inverse identification procedure from the experimental tests results.

In 2006, N.K. Photiou et.al [5] investigated the effectiveness of an ultra-high modulus, and a high modulus CFRP strips used in strengthening an artificially degraded steel beam of rectangular cross-

section under four-point loading. The authors noticed that the beams using high modulus CFRP reached even higher ultimate loads and exhibited ductile response leading to large deflections. Neither fiber breakage nor adhesive failure was observed in either the U-shaped or the flat plate strengthened beam.

In 2007, Dong-Suk Yang et,al [6], investigated the behavior of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with CFRP Plate. Interfacial bond behavior between concrete and CFRP plates was discussed and relationships between bond stress and interfacial bond-slip model between CFRP plates and concrete were derived. In 2008, M. Taher Khorramabadi and C.J. Burgoyne [7], investigated the bond behavior of FRP and concrete and showed that the condition of the substrate material to which FRP bonds is crucial in this behavior but is overlooked in most conventional bond tests. The distribution of the

strain in the FRP and the slip relative to the substrate material was

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compared, for both conventional shear bond pull-out tests and at the tension face of a reinforced concrete beam strengthened with FRP.

In 2013, L.J. LI et.al [8], presented an experimental study on 8 cracked reinforced concrete (RC) beams strengthened with carbon fiber reinforce polymer (CFRP) sheet under four-point bending, the researchers investigated the effects of concrete crack on the load-carrying capacity of strengthened the beams at de-bonding failure and founds that for the beams with multiple cracks, crack spacing is a major factor affecting the de-bonding strength.

In 2013, N. Chikh et.al [9], investigated an experimental tests on the composite and the slip at the free and loaded ends were measured. They studied the influences of the concrete strength, the type and the configuration of the reinforcement, and the embedded length on the bond behavior between the three materials (concrete, epoxy adhesive and CFRP) were evidenced and compared.

2.Experimental Investigation

In present study three width of GFRP strips and two grades of

concrete were used and the effect of these variables on slip behavior was studied. GFRP strips were bonded to RC beams using epoxy resin.

2.1. Specimen Description

Reinforced concrete beams of cross section 150mm x150mm and full length 700mm, 620 mm center to center were cast using two bars of 8mm diameter tension reinforcement and 6mm diameter stirrups at 80mm spacing. Grade of steel used is Fe 500 and two grades of concrete used was M35 and M45.GFRP strips of 580 mm length were used with three different widths of 25 mm,50 mm and 100 mm. These strips were bonded to the reinforced concrete beams in middle 580 mm length using epoxy resin. Dial gauges were fitted at the central mid – third and at the end of beam to record the slip increments.

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2.2. Material Properties

2.2.1. Concrete: Concrete mix was designed according to BS5282 and

IS10262:2009. The mix proportions with (W/C) ratios of 0.405 and 0.37 were used for grade M35 and M45 respectively, using Ordinary

Portland Cement 43 Grade.

2.2.2. Epoxy Resins: Epoxy resins: Epoxy resins Goldbond® 1893

having compressive strength of 550 kg/cm2 was used.

3. Loading Conditions

The composite beams made up of RC and strengthened with GFRP sheets were tested under load till failure and the slip behavior of the beams was studied.

Tests were carried out under Universal Testing Machine having 1000 kN capacity. The schematic arrangement for testing is shown in Figure (1). All the tests were carried out under a standard loading condition. The load levels and the corresponding slips were recorded at each increment of loading. The results were plotted using slip readings on the dial gauges D1, D4 at the ends and D2, D3 at the central mid – third span.

Figure 1. GFRP and RC beam layout.

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4. Test Procedure

The load was applied with an increment of (2 kN) until first

crack was observed in concrete remove. Subsequently an increment of (1 kN) was used up to failure. Loading was continued until severe cracking of the beams or fracture of GFRP occurred. The test set-up is shown in Figure (2). Horizontal slip of the beams relative to the GFRP was measured at the level of the interface between RC beams and GFRP by means of dial – gauges with least count of (0.01mm).

Figure 2. Specimen setup under UTM.

5. Observation and Results

In the initial stages of loading around 35% from the ultimate applied loading, a little slip recorded between concrete and GFRP interface. When the applied loading increased at a constant rate, the slip was increased up to the first cracked was initiated in concrete at the interface between GFRP and bottom surface of beam in the central portion around 60 -70% from the ultimate loading , as bending moment is maximum in this region. The slip values increased and crack further propagated toward top as the load was increased. With the propagation of the first crack, slip between concrete and GFRP interface started increasing up to 90% of the ultimate applied loading. As the load increased, further cracks were initiated and the location of these cracks moved towards supports. Later on inclined shear cracks started

developing near the support region as loading was further increased.

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Failure occurred by slowly developing vertical cracks near the center line of beams, with subsequent shearing failure nearer to the support.

Table (1), gives applied loading and corresponding slip values for first crack, failure load and corresponding slip values for all specimens.

ConcreteGrade

GFRPWidth (mm)

Loading to

record slip(kN)

mark First crack

Final failure

%P/Pmax

P (kN)

slip (mm)

Pmax (kN)

Slipmax

(mm)

M35 - DR2 24 - 44 - Control specimen

M35 25 23 D11 31 0.024 46 0.07 60.2

22 D12 25 0.024 47 0.11

M35 50 28 D31 33 0.028 54 0.07 62.9

32 D32 35 0.02 54 0.07

M35 100 38.5 D51 46 0.024 62 0.1 65.4

37 D52 43 0.03 64 0.16

M45 - ER 28 - 46 - Control specimen

M45 25 27 E51 30 0.019 47 0.08 65.9

27 E52 32 0.022 47 0.13

M45 50 26 E31 34 0.0137 58 0.09 66.3

39 E32 43 0.014 58 0.115

M45 100 43 E11 53 0.07 72 0.18 67.1

41 E12 49 0.09 74 0.22

Table 1. Loading and corresponding slip values for first crack and failure load.

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(a) GFRP width 25mm. (b) GFRP width 50mm. (c) GFRP width 100mm.

Figure 3. load - slip curves for 35MPa concrete.


Figure 4. load - slip curves for 45MPa concrete.


Figure 5. comparssion load - slip curves for 35 and 45MPa concrete.

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6. Discussion

6.1. Cracking Pattern

Typical patterns of cracking in composite beams under four points loading consisted of vertical cracks near the center-line in the

initial stage of loading and subsequent diagonal cracks near the support location at failure, see Figure (6). As the load was increased following pattern was observed:

1. In all the specimens' first crack was observed in central region of the beam, where moment is uniform and maximum.

2. The crack propagated vertically upwards and more cracks initiated with location of cracks shifting towards support.

3. Cracks near the supports propagated diagonally and finally the specimens failed in shear.

It was also observed that load at first crack was about 60-70% of failure load.

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Figure 6. Shows the cracking pattern photographs of all specimens.

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6.2. Slip Behaviour

Load-Slip curves for different specimens of M35 and M45 grade

of concrete are shown in Figures (3, 4 and 5). These curves indicate that load slip is bilinear in nature. As the load was applied to the specimens following pattern was observed:

1. Initially the slip was very negligible.

2. As the load was increased, slip started increasing suddenly at a particular load value. This increase is linear with increase in load.

3. In most of the specimen, failure occurred due to de-bonding of GFRP strip and concrete.

Initial part of load-slip curve shows very high slope indicating a little slip. The slope of load-slip curve suddenly changed at a particular load. Liner curve in this part has relatively smaller slope. Large slip nearer to failure load indicated diminishing composite action between the RC beam and GFRP and reduced shear capacity of epoxy resin.

6.3. Effect of width of GFRP strip and Grade of Concrete on Cracking and Sip

For lesser width of GFRP strips, slip recorded at failure was less and as the width of GFRP strips was increased the slip at failure

increased. As the grade of concrete increased from 35MPa to 45MPa, the first crack load and final failure loads increased however the effect of lesser width of 50mm of GFRP was not significant for higher grade of concrete. For larger GFRP widths and larger concrete strength slip at failure was considerably large up to 0.22 mm.

7. Concluding Remarks

Based on the experimental investigations, following conclusions can be drawn:

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1. In the initial stage of loading of the specimens, slip was very small.

2. When load was increased beyond a particular value (35% of ultimate applied loading), sudden increase in slip at the interface of concrete and GFRP was observed.

3. At about 60-70% 0f ultimate (failure) load, signs of first crack were observed in central zones of all specimens.

4. The slip continued increasing as the loading was further increased.

5. With this increase in load, the crack started propagating upwards (vertically) and additional cracks started showing up

and the location of cracks shifted towards supports.

6. The cracks nearer to support started propagating diagonally close to failure load.

7. The nature of load-slip curve is bi-linear.

8. With increase in width of GFRP strips the slip at failure increased considerably indicating increased ductility.

9. For larger concrete strength, smaller width of GFRP strips did not show considerable increase in slip. Large width of GFRP showed large slips.

References

1. Alsayed SH, Al-Salloum YA, AlmusallamTH. (2000)" Fiber-reinforced polymer repair materials — some facts", Proceedings

of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering ,138(3):131,4.

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2. Moy S.(2001)" FRP composites life extension and strengthening

of metallic structures". ICE Design and Practice Guides, London (UK), Thomas Telford Publishing.

3. Teng JG, Chen JF, Smith ST, Lam L.(2002)," FRP—strengthened RC structures".West Sussex (UK),John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

4. Ciro Faella _ Enzo Martinelliy Emidio Nigroz (2003)." Interface Behaviour in FRP Plates Bonded to Concrete: Experimental Tests and Theoretical Analyses Proceedings Advanced Materials for Construction of Bridges, Buildings, and Other Structures". III Engineering Conferences International.

5. N. K. Photiou, L. C. Hollaway, M. K. Chryssanthopoulos(2006)," Strengthening of an artificially degraded steel beam utilising a carbon/glass composite system", Construction and Building Materials, 20 ,pp11–21.

6. Dong-Suk Yang, Sung-Nam Hong and Sun-Kyu Park (2007),"Experimental Observation on Bond-Slip Behaviour between Concrete and CFRP Plate" ,International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials ,Vol.1, No.1 pp.37-43.

7. M. Taher Khorramabadi and C.J. Burgoyne(2008)," Tests on FRP-Concrete Bond Behavior in the presence of Steel", Engineering Department, University of Cambridge , Trumpington St., Cambridge, UK.

8. J. LI et.al(2013)," Experimental study on the deboning behaviours of cracked of beams strengthened with cfrp sheetl".

9. Chikh, A. Merdas et.(2013)," Study of the Bond Behaviour of concrete Beam Strengthened with NSM-CFRPN". al Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering , Vol III,

WCE 2013, July 3 - 5, London, U.K.

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COMREHENSIVE SECURITY VERSUS THE TRADITIONAL

NOTION OF SECURITY

Dr Nisar Ahmad Meer Lecturer

Political Science Govt. Degree College Boys, Anantnag, J & K

INTRODUCTION

Security has traditionally been defined in terms of states and the qualities of state hood .The modern science of security studies (in the traditional sense), as Steven Walt argues, has evolved around seeking

cumulative knowledge. “About the role of military force”. Until the end of the cold war, national security as it was known always focused on the military defense the state. In contrast to comprehensive security the traditional concept of national security embraces two distinct characteristics. First, Security is commensurate with national survival in a system of world politics i.e. inherently contentious and anarchical and state is the central unit of analysis,2nd understanding force postures and capabilities is a key tenet of traditional security .Sovereign states develop military doctrines :weapon system serve their defense but may also intensify interstate conflicts and fuel security dilemmas.

Comprehensive security by contrast, demonstrates two distinct shifts away from the states as the central unit of analysis, representing two opposite but ultimate interrelated foci. The first shift is towards

focusing on the external community at large, as it has been shown that the rampaging forces of the environment and the ravaging effects of globalization go far beyond the ability of the state to contain them by its own resources. Epidemics like AIDS and other such diseases. Another such reminder is the series of financial crises hitting Europe (1990’s) Latin America (1994-95) and Pacific Asia (1997-99).

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The other trend is a shift inward from the states towards the individual citizen in term of human security. As defined by the United National Human Development Report of 1994, human security includes safety from chronic threats and harmful disruptions in the patterns of daily life. In the growing literature, the concept of human security has

been expanded to include economic health and environmental concerns as well as physical security of the individual. After the 9/11 atmosphere of ubiquitous terror, which threatens the peace of mind and quality of life of the ordinary individual, is a new source of sinister threat to human security, in addition to being a threat to a country national security in the traditional sense.

Economic Security (Geo-economics):-

Recently, geo-economics has raised to rival, even out weight, geopolitics as a desideratum determining a country national interest and its foreign policy behavior. This has come about not only because of the end of the cold war but also more importantly, because of the globalization of the world economy beyond the stage of complex interdependence. The term ‘geo-economics’ has been much bandied about it needs a definition. On the macro level, in the geo-economics age, matters pertaining to manufacturing, marketing, financing and research and development are transnational and eventually, globalised.

On the micro level, national power is no longer measured exclusively or even mainly, by a state if military might, and economic security has eclipsed through not displaced, military security on the scales of strategic importance to a country national interest.

The formulation which combines both macro- level economic power management and micro-level implications for individual states caught in a shifting power game, captures the essence of geo-economics as we use the term in this discourse, in addition to redefining power and what the new era power configuration imply, the formulation also

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points up the paramount of geo-economics calculations in the concerns of nations in world politics.

Environmental Security (Ecopolitics):-

Ecopolitics, strictly speaking, has much broader connotation than the combination of the three terms economics, ecology and politics of which the term is contraction. In its original formulation by Dennis Pirages, “global ecopolitics involves the use of environment issues,

control over natural resources, scarcity arguments, and related concerns of social justice to overturn the international hierarchal expansion. As such ecopolitics revolution encompasses a number of developments affecting all nations, subsumed under what pirages calls a new security,” resulting from the exponential growth of population.

The threat of environmental degradation is far more serious than generally realized. Laster Brown has warned of the danger to humanity of climatic rise (global warming) due to increasing concentration of Co2 (carbon dioxide) which had by 1998 hiked 31 percent in the two centuries since the industrial revolution. If Co2 concentration doubles pre industrial levels during the twenty-first century as projected, global temperature is expected to rise by at least one degree, and as much as 4 degrees Celsius (or 2-7 degree Fahrenheit). Sea level is projected to rise from a minimum of 17

centimeters to as much as 1 meter by 2100.As Brown summarizes; this will alter every ecosystem on earth.

According to the latest reports, unusually high temperatures drought and forest fire brought suffering and death through the Europe continent and British Isles in the summer of 2003.preliminary estimates of farm losses alone rose to billions of dollors.the news proved that global warming is not a problem limited only to any particular or regional terrian.Considering the depleting fishery,forestry and other resources invoking the specter of global economic decline and raising

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doubts as to the sustainability of global economic development.Brown motto that we should be eplacing economics with ecology is a counsel of wisdom for all.Infact the earliest official recognition of environmental hazards as a threat to national security.

Human Security (Human Development):-

Human security and human development falls into a continuum concerning human well being. The former deals with the

psychological end state of development instead of the more mechanical aspects of human development. At a minimum, it is based on an individual and collective sense of protection from perceived present and potential threats to physical and psychological well being from all manner of agents and forces affecting lives, values, and property.

Human security is often subject to domestic structural conflict, or inequalities of society and brute atrocities by the victims own government as has happened with increasing frequency in the past two decades in Reanda and elsewhere, but these atrocities are not a monopoly of African nations. The Kosovo crisis dramatized the modern vulnerability of individuals to state aggression even in a European country.

Although the state terrorism is the most shocking and outrageous assault on the sanctity of human security other less

dramatic, although no less disconcerting. Sources of human insecurity exist, such as .Income inequality, clean water shortage illiteracy, food shortage, housing shortage and infectious diseases.

Infectious diseases especially are a devastating for Africa. A reported 23 million people in sub Sahara Africa were said to have begun the twenty first century with a death sentence by HIV; the virus that leads to AIDS. For the first time in the modern era, life expectancy for an entire region is declining, threatening the economic future of 800

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million people in sub-Sahara Africa; and it is declining by 20 years or more.

Poverty is one of the most threats to human security while an international conference on AIDS was being held in his country. Thabo Mbeki of South Africa was quoted by the New York Times, Fourth July

2000 as saying, “that extreme poverty rather than AIDS, was the tiger Killer” in South Africa president Mbeki was supported by no less prestigious an environmentalist than Bjorn Lombrog, director of the environmental Assessment Institute in Denmark, who believed that the world should and global poverty before global warming.

References

1. John Baglas. “International and global security in the post cold war era”, in 2008.

2. William T. Ton & Russel Trood, “Linkage Between traditional security and Human security”, in ton, Thakur and Hyun, ed Asia Emerging Regional order, p.15

3. .Ramesh thakur, “From National to Human Security”, The Economic politics Nexus (Sidney: Allen & Unwin, 1998) p.53.

4. Cited in Gareth Porter, Environmental Security as a National Security Issues”, Current History May 1995 p.221.

5. Steven Walt the Renaissance of security studies, International

studies Quarterly Vol.35 No.2pp. 211-239 1991.

6. Herz J Idealists international and the security dilemma, World Politics, 1950.

7. Buzan Barry & Lene Hense, International Security, London School of Economics & Political Science University of Correnphang 2007.

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CHALLENGES OF SEMESTERISATION AS PERCEIVED BY

TEACHERS OF UNDER GRADUATE COURSES IN CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY AND SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR SMOOTH

IMPLEMENTATION

Partha Sarathi Mallik Assistant Professor

P.G. Dept. of Education Fakir Chand College, West Bengal

Semester System of Examination is an innovative practice in the field of education which has formal origin in European Universities where the conventional curriculum is divided in to two halves. Due to its interwoven benefits to students, teacher, teaching and learning maximum institutions are trying to implement it in their educational system. It provides better freedom and flexibility to the students during choosing courses and achieving learning objectives as per his / her own capability. It creates a self confidence on the part of the student in teaching learning. Continuous assessment being an important component of semester system encourages the students to work systematically throughout the course. (Natarajan,1984). Realizing its importance different committees and Commissions employed in the field of Indian Education have suggested for implementing it in Higher

Education. “Thus all circumstances conspire today to put an undue and unnatural emphasis on examination, especially the external examinations ; and they have come to exercise a restricting influence over the entire field of Indian education to such an extent almost to nullify its real purpose” (Secondary Education Commsion, P-237). The crippling effect of Existing Annual examination on the quality of work in Higher Education is so great that examination reform has becom crucial to all progress and has to go hand in hand with improvement in teaching” ( Indian Education Commsion, P-290). So the Commitee suggested some innovative practices to be introduced in the field of Evaluation like conducting common internal examinations for inter

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institutution comparability, using oral test and practical examinations, improving the quality of written examinations and showing the results of Internal and external examinations seperately etc. Unversity Grants Commsion in its differen plan of action have taken administrative anf fincial steps for implementing Semester System of Examination in High

Educational Institutions trough out the country. UGC in its report in the year 1973 “A plan of action” had some recommendation for examination reforms like integreating teaching with examination, i.e. those will teach they will evaluate, introduction of continuious and comprehensive evaluation system instead of termal examination as the former helps in assessing the motivation level, capacity for hard work, quality of organisational capacity etc.But in the system is facing a lot of problem during implementation. It has been tested from the University experience like Delhi where there was agitation from the teaching commnity due to implemnation of the system withouth taking appropriate prior steps. (Bhatacharyya, 2011).So without a thorough knowledge regarding the implementabilty of semester system and

perceived problems associated with system in relation to grass root level, it is not desirable on the part of the University to introduce this new system.

Objectives:

1- To find out the the nature of problem the college teachers will face during implementation of semester system.

2- To find out nature of problem Govt. College teachers and Aided college teacher will face seperately .

3- To find out nature of problem the Rural, Urban and Semi urban Aided College teachers will face seperately during semesterisation .

4- To explore the suggestions from teachers regarding steps to be taken for smooth implimentation of semester system.

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Research Questions:

1- What types of problems the college teachers will face during implementation of semester system of Examinations?

2- What types of problems the Govt. College teachers and Aided college teacher will face seperately during implementation of semester system of Examinations?

3- What are the habitation specific problems as perceived by the

Rural, Urban and Semi urban Aided College teachers. during implementation of semester system of Examinations?

4- What are the steps to be taken as suggested by teachers regarding smooth implimentation of semester system?

Methodology: In the present study researcher has adopted survey

Design for data collection, analysis and interpretation. One Likert scale is developed by the researcher to find out the perceived problems of semester implementation in college level of Calcutta University. The scale has another part that is concerned with seeking suggestions from teachers regarding steps to be taken for smooth semester implementation. The data are tabulated from individual items factor wise. These are analysed by simple % to draw the conclusion.

Sample and Sampling Design: In the present study the population

is the total degree colleges under Calcutta University. Within population frame, 20 colleges are selected by stratified Purposive sampling technique. The strata are Nature of college (Government and Aided) and within the Aided college there is another strata known as Location (Rural, urban and semi urban).So five are Government

colleges and 15 are aided colleges. Among 15 aided colleges five are rural based college, five are urban colleges and five are semi urban college. Among twenty colleges sample units ten teachers from each college are selected purposively from whom data are collected.

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Data Analysis: In the Scale there are four major problem areas that

the teachers will perceive i.e. 1) Time management related problem 2) Teaching learning problem 3) Structural problem of the system itself 4) Resources related problems in the scale. Nominal data are calculated for 200 respondents according to the preference tick marks given by them. During calculation of factor 1 related problem the response of items number Item 1 is taken to consideration. The scores of Items

number 2, 3,5,6,7 and 10 are for second factor. Item number 4, 8,9,15 are for third factors and item number 11, 12, 13,14,16,17 and 18 are taken to assess the last factor. To find out the Mean of individual factors the response of the individual items belonging to that particular factors are added than dived by number of items. After that the percentage of C.V of each factors are calculated by dividing the S.D. by Mean of the factor and then multiplying it with 100 to find out the relative consistency of the opinion in respect of identified problem areas/factors.

Table-1-Teachers’ response about problems of semester system

Factors Mean Standard Deviation

Number of Items

Number of Respondents

C.V.

Time management related problem

3 .97 01 200 32%

Teaching learning problem

22 3.79 06 200 17.22%

Structural problem of the system itself

16 2.83 04 200 17.68%

Resources related problems

28 1.49 07 200 6.77%

Interpretation:

It indicates that more the coefficient variation the greater the fluctuations of response which indicate less perceived problem and less the C.V. index, more consistence regarding problem. It is evident that

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according to the teachers’ opinion Resources related problem is significant hindrance in the path of implementation of semester system in under graduate colleges. Furthermore teachers perceive that Time

management related Factor is least problematic for semester implementation. The C.V. of teaching related problem and structural problem is moderate which indicate that these changes are compromisible.

Table-2

Differential response among Govt. and Aided College Teachers about problems of semester system.

Factors Government Non-Government Total Time management related problem

Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourabl 200

12 38 68 82

Teaching learning problem

19 31 97 53 200


21 29 73 77 200


17 32 106 44 200

Interpretation:

Those who opted for Strongly Agree (S.A) and Agree alternatives in positive items, it indicates that they are in favour of perception of more problem and rests are less. In the negative statements those who opted for Disagree and strongly disagree, it indicates that they are infavour of perception of more problem and rests are less.

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Table-3- Differential response of Teachers’ of Urban, Semi

Urban and Rural Aided College about problems of semester system.

Factors Rural Urban Semi Urban

Total

Time management related problem

Favorable Unfavor able



150

27 23 18 22 21 29 Teaching learning problem

24 26 15 35 19 31 150


17 33 26 24 15 35 150


38 12 26 24 31 29 150

Table-4- Teachers’ response on changes to be brought for semester implementation

Change required Govt. Aided Total No Change required

Govt. Aided Total

Change in syllabus 22 63 85 Unchanged 28 87 115

Increase Teaching Days and Hour

9 27 36 Same 41 123 164

More building and Infrastructure.

13 107 120 Not required 37 43 80

More Teaching and Non-Teaching

21 111 132 Not required 29 39 68

Computerized and innovating teaching

27 86 113 Same as now 23 64 87

Strictness of students attendance

32 119 151 As exist now 18 31 49

Small class room Homogeneous grouping

41 122 163 No need of Change

9 28 37

Introduce Grading and C.B.C.S system

26 85 111 Traditional Marking.

24 65 89

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Graphical representation of suggestion:

Interpretation: 44% Government college teachers have suggested

bringing changes in the existing syllabus but 42% teachers from aided colleges opt to bring change in the existing syllabus. Regarding suggestions for increasing the teaching hour and working days only

18% teachers from both Government and aided Colleges suggests in favour of this but 82% teachers are of the view that the existing system is sufficient. Regarding increasing building and other physical infrastructure facilities, 26% government college teachers support this but 74% teachers are of the view that existing building and infrastructure in their colleges is sufficient for introduction of semester system of examination. 42% Government college teachers suggest for recruitment of more teaching and non teaching staffs before implementation of semester system but 74% teachers from aided college favour for appointment of more teaching and non teaching staffs before semester implementation.54% Government college teacher says that the traditional methods of teaching is to be changed to modern computerized teaching for semester system but 57% aided college teachers have the same view. 64% government college teachers

say that student attendance should be strictly maintained in the semester system but 79% aided college teachers have the same opinion.

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82% from the teachers of Government College say that there should be small group class room teaching that means the teacher student ratio should be low in the semester system but 81% Aided college teachers have same opinion. 52% Govt. college teachers suggest that there should be introduction of grading system and Choice based credit

system along with semester system but 56% teachers from aided college suggest same.

Conclusion: The Under graduate teachers of Calcutta University has

stated that Resource related problem is the major hurdle in the path of semester Implementation. This problem is more evident near rural aided college teachers and less among Govt. College teachers. They have rated other problem comparatively less. So they have suggested more resources, strictness of class attendances for students, small group teaching prior to semester implementation.

References:

1. Association of Indian Universities (1979).Monograph on semester system for Universities, New Delhi: A.I.U.

2. Bhattacharyya, Saumyajit (2011). “The Semesterisation’ Impasse at Delhi University”. Economic and Political Weekly, vol. XLVI no 19.May 7, 2011, PP.22-25.

3. Dressel, Paull (1961) Evaluation in Higher Education, Boston: Hongtin Mittlin Company

4. Elbow, Peter (1992) “Making better use of student evaluation”.

ADE - Bulletin, Vol.111,pp. 2-8.

5. Examinations in higher education (1971).New Delhi: Inter-university Board of India and Ceylon

6. CU takes first step towards Semester pattern, The Statesmen, 2nd May 2010, Kolkata.

222



7. Mallik, P.S.(2013). “A Study on Implement ability of Semester

System of Examination in Under Graduate Course of Calcutta University”. Indian Journal of Applied Research. vol. III. no 11.Nov.2013, PP.122-124.

8. Nayak, B.K.(2012). History, heritage and development of Indian

Education, New Delhi: Axis Book Pvt. Ltd.

9. NCERT (1985). Contemporary Issues in Public Examinations, New Delhi.

223



THE EFFECT OF HARTMANN NUMBER Ha ON TWO IONIZED

FLUIDS THROUGH A HORIZONTAL CHANNEL BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL WALLS

S.V.V.Rama Devi Assistant Professor

Dept. of Engineering Mathematics Dadi Institute of Engineering &Technology, Anakapalle

Visakhapatnam- Andhra Pradesh, India Formulation of the problem:

Two-fluid/or two-phase flow phenomena occur in various

industrial applications within all fluid mechanics application fields, aerospace, automotive, nuclear applications, etc. Also, which are of great practical concern in a large number of engineering disciplines, including the chemical, petroleum and various power generating industries. In all these domains, it is important to predict two-phase (or two-fluid) flow behavior. Consider a MHD two–dimensional steady state viscous two-fluid flow of an ionized gas driven by a common

constant pressure gradient

xp

in a horizontal channel consisting of

two parallel walls extending in the x– and z–directions, taking Hall currents into account. These currents are included in this present analysis using the generalized Ohm’s law illustrates the flow model and the coordinates system choosing the origin midway between the walls.

The upper and lower fluids in the regions 0 y h1 and –h2 y 0 are

designated as Region-I and Region-II respectively. The Regions-I and II are occupied by two immiscible electrically conducting incompressible

fluids having different densities 1, 2 , viscosities 1, 2 and electrical

conductivities 01 , 02 . And channel width is assumed to be very large

in comparison with the channel height. Since the walls are infinite in extent along x- and z-directions, so all physical quantities except

224



pressure will be functions of y only. A constant magnetic field B0 is

applied in the y–direction i.e., transverse to the flow field. The

interface between the two immiscible fluids is assumed to be flat, stress free and undisturbed. The boundaries of the channel are rigid. We assume that the magnetic Reynolds number is small. The x-axis is taken in the direction of hydrodynamic pressure gradient in the plane parallel to the channel walls but not in the direction of flow. Further with a view to simplify the theoretical analysis, the following assumptions as in Sato (1961), Raju and Rao (1992, 1993) were considered:

a. The ionization is in equilibrium which is not affected by the applied electric and magnetic fields.

b. The effect of space charge is neglected.

c. The flow is fully developed and stationary, that is /t = 0

And /x = 0 except p/x 0.

d. The magnetic Reynolds number is small [so that the externally applied magnetic field is undisturbed by the fluid, namely the induced magnetic field is small compared with the applied field [Shercliff (1965)].

Therefore components in the conductivity tensor are expressed in terms of B0.

e. The flow is two-dimensional, namely /z = 0.

With these assumptions, the governing equations of motion and current can be formulated as follows for the two-dimensional steady state problem of study in two regions.

Region– I

22 21

1 1 12 2 2

1 ( ) ( ) 01 1a a

d u mk H mz u H mx wdy m m

225



2

2 212 1 12 2 2

1 ( ) ( ) 01 1a a

d w mk H mx w H mz udy m m

,

1 12 2 2 2

11 1 1x x z

a

m s mI m w m um m H m

,

1 12 2 2 2

1 11 1 1z z x

a

m s mI m u m wm m H m

,

Region –II

22 2 22

1 1 22 2

2 22 22

1 ( )1

( ) 0,1

a

a

d uh h H mz udy m

m h H mx wm

2

2 2 222 1 22 2

2 22 22

1 ( )1

( ) 0,1

a

a

d wh h H mx wdy m

m h H mz um

2

0 1 2 0 0 22 22 2 2 21 1 1x x z

a

m s mI m w m um m H m

,

1 0 2 0 0 1 02 22 2 2 21

1 1 1z z xa

m sI m u m wm m H m

,

Where,2

1 22 21 ;1 1

m smk s km m

,

0 1 0 21 22 21 1 ;

1 1s ms

m m

,

226



Ix + iIz =0 0

x z

i p

J iJB u

. (i=1, 2)

The non-dimensional forms of the velocity, temperature and interface boundary conditions become:

,0)1(,0)1( 11 wu

,0)1(,0)1( 22 wu

),0()0(),0()0( 2121 wwuu

1 21du dudy h dy

And 1 21dw dwdy h dy

at y=0.

The conditions represent the no-slip conditions at the walls. The conditions represent the continuity of velocity and shear stress at the interface y=0.

-1

-0.6

-0.2

0.2

0.6

1

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2Y

u

Fig.1 Primary Velocity profiles for different Ha and a=0.333, s0=2, s1=1.2, s2=1.5, h=0.8, m=2, s=0.

Ha=2

Ha=10

Ha=20

Ha=30

Ha=50

227



Results and discussions

The problem of two-ionized fluid flows in channels under the action of uniform transverse magnetic field between two parallel walls is investigated analytically. The resulting differential equations are solved and obtained the closed form solutions for the velocity distributions (both primary and secondary) in the two regions.

Corresponding computational values for various sets of values of the governing parameters involved have been determined to represent them graphically and are as shown in figs.1 and 2 discussed the effect of flow parameter, such as the Hartmann number. Since the problem involves too many non-dimensional parameters, so for the sake of

conciseness, we fix some of the parameters viz., 1 21.2, 1.5 for all

the numerical computations and analyze the effect of other important parameters on the flow.

The effect of varying the Hartmann number aH on velocity

distribution in the two regions is shown in figures 1 and 2 respectively.

-1

-0.6

-0.2

0.2

0.6

1

0 0.05Y

W Fig.2 Secondary Velocity profiles for differet Ha

and α=0.333, s0=2, s1=1.2, s2=1.5, h=0.8, m=2, s=0.

Ha=2

Ha=10

Ha=20

Ha=30

Ha=50

228



From figs., it is observed in both the regions that, an increase in Hartmann number diminishes the primary velocity distribution, while it enhances the secondary velocity distribution for lower Hartmann numbers, say up to 10 and diminishes beyond this number. Also, the maximum velocity in the channel tends to move above the channel centerline towards region–I for Hartmann number Ha =2 when all the remaining parameters are fixed in the case of primary velocity. This type of effect can also be observed in case of secondary velocity distribution at Ha=10.

References:

1. Linga Raju T. and Murti P.S.R.

(2006) J. Indian. Acad. Math. 28(2), p.343.

2. Linga Raju T. and

Ramana Rao, V.V.

(1992) Acta Physica Hungarica,

72(1), p.23.

3. Linga Raju T. and Ramana Rao, V.V.

(1993) Int. J. Engng. Sci., 31(7), p.1073.

4. Linga Raju, T. and Sreedhar, S.

(2009) J. Indian Academy of Mathematics, 31(2).

5. Malashetty Umavathi (1997) Int. J. Multiphase flow, 23, 3, p.545.

6. Malashetty, M.S. and Leela, V.

(1991) Magnetohydrodynamic heat transfer in two-fluid flow. Proc. ASME/AIChE 27TH National Heat Transfer conference and Exposition, 28-31 July.

7. Malashetty, M.S. and Leela, V.

(1992) Int. J. Engng. Sci., 30(3), p.371.

229



8. Malashetty,M.S.,

Umavathi,J.C. and Pratap Kumar,J.

(2001) Heat and Mass Transfer, 37, p.259.

9. Sato. H. (1961) J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 16(7) p. 1427.

10. Schlichting, H. (1960) ‘Boundary layer theory’, McGraw-Hill.

11. Schlichting, H. (1955) McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York p.66.

12. Shercliff, J.A. (1953) Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 49, p.136.

13. Shercliff, J.A. (1956) J. Fluid Mech., 1, p.644.

14. Shercliff, J.A. (1962) ‘The theory of electro-magnetic flow measurement’. Cambridge University Press.

15. Shercliff, J.A. (1965) ‘A text book of Magneto-hydrodynamics’ (1st Ed. pergamon Press).

230



STATUS OF WETLAND BIRDS OF MADDUVALSA

RESERVOIR, MADDUVALASA VILLAGE, VANGARA MANDAL, SRIKAKULAM DISTRICT, ANDRAPRADESH,

INDIA

S.Mukunda Rao Research Scholar

Department of Zoology Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

INTRODUCTION

Wetland birds are excellent indicators of the general health of an ecosystem and measure of its biodiversity. Apart from their beauty, recreational and economic importance. Out of 310 species of wetland birds found in India (Kumar et al. 2005), almost half of these are migratory and visit India from their breeding grounds in China, Russia,

central Asia, Tibet and from across the entire range of the Himalaya. The availability of feeding and roosting habitats is very important for these migratory species, which in some cases migrate up to thousands of kilometers. As wetlands provide a wintering ground for many trans-equatorial species of migratory birds, several wetlands in the country have been identified as being internationally significant under the Ramsar Convention. However, wetlands in India, are facing tremendous anthropogenic pressures (Prasad et al. 2002), which can adversely influence the structure of bird communities (Kler 2002; Verma et al. 2004; Reginald et al. 2007).Birds inhabiting wetlands for feeding, breeding, nesting or roosting are broadly defined as water birds. This comprises bird groups commonly called waterfowl and waders. In addition, several other bird groups like kingfishers, raptors and some passerines are also ecologically dependent on wetlands, hence

known as wetland dependent and associated birds .Monitoring of wetland birds provides valuable information on the ecological health

231



and status of wetlands and can be a vital tool for developing awareness regarding the conservation value of the wetlands. The importance of local landscapes for conservation of avifauna can only be understood by knowing the structure of the bird community of that region (Kattan & Franco 2004). Due to its unique geographical location, a large number

of water birds from Europe and Siberia spend a part of their winter sojourn in the ponds, lakes and canals of Srikakulam wetlands.

Madduvalasa reservoir is the major man made wetland, constructed on the rivers Vegavati and Swarnamukhi, in the hilly area of the district. Its construction was completed in 2002. It is in the Vangara Mandal of Palakonda Division. Madduvalasa dam and its immediate environs are habitats for rich biodiversity. My survey revealed 64 bird species here. Among the 71 plant species reported, Pterospermum xylocarpum is endemic to Peninsular India. Poaching of birds is a major threat faced here. Several migratory birds visit this lake every year during winter. Keeping in view the conservation value of wetland birds, systematic efforts were necessary during April 2012–

March 2014 with the objective to have an overview of the diversity and threats to wetland birds in this landscape

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Madduvalasa (fig1) reservoir is a canal based, rain-fed reservoir, and therefore, the volume of water keeps on changing depending on the season and the amount of rainfall received. The depth of the water varies from 5m in rainy season to 3 m in summer. There is a temple located on the edge of the reservoir, which is devoted to a local deity. Spread-out over an area of about 28.7ha, the sanctuary provides varied habitats for a diverse range of resident and migratory wetland birds with marshlplant growth, terrestrial platforms, and earth mounds with scattered trees, bushy vegetation and surrounding fertile agricultural fields.

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Avifaunal surveys were carried out at regular intervals during

Pre-monsoon, monsoon and Post-monsoon periods of the year, inorder to cover migratory and resident species. The study includes identification of different birds viz., Aquatic, Terrestrial and Water dependent avian species. Observations were made over a period of two

years from October 2008-March 2010 with an aid of field binoculars (7x35 and 10x50 m). Identification was based on standard scientific procedures, field identification by direct sightings, photographs were taken whenever feasible and possible by using Nikon 35 mm digital camera with appropriate zoom lens. Indirect observations, signs and vocalisations were also recorded. Birds seen were recorded with habitat type, season and frequency of occurrence. Monitored the crepuscular period in the study area such as bird number, activity and factors of presence were recorded.

Bird survey was conducted, when birds are most active during day from 07:00 to 11:00 hrs and from 16:00 to 19:00 hrs. Field visits have been conducted weekly thrice in all three seasons and habitat wise. Opportunistic observations were made during other timings and species recorded during these observations included in the checklist.

The bird life in the study area were documented by direct observations, random walks and opportunistic encounters following Bibby et al (1992). Identification manuals and field guides by Ali & Ripley (1989), Kazmierczak (2000) and Grimmett et al., (2001) were used during survey. Common and scientific names of the birds following Grimmett et al., (1998& 2001), Mnakadan and Pittie (2001) were adopted. The birds were categorized as Resident (R), Migratory (M), Aquatic (A), Terrestrial (T) as per Grimmett et al., (2001). All the birds species recorded during the present study were tabulated giving their scientific name, family, IUCN status & legal status if any. Abundance of the recorded species are documented based on the total sightings during the study period as common (more than 10 sightings), uncommon (3-5

233



sightings), and rare (1-2 sightings). The checklist of species with their status was given.The survey covered the lake area. The localities are Atapaka, Potunuru, Adavi Kolanu area, Chettunnapadu, Chinnamithi padu, Kolleti Kota Siddha puram, Upputeru creek, Kovvali, Gudivaka lanka and Jayapuram etc. including wildlife bird sanctuary area.The

numbers of migratory birds are maximum during December and January and starts reducing from February onwards.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sixty four (64) species of wetland birds(Table1,images a,b) belonging to 56 genera and 32 families were recorded from the madduvalasa reservoir wetland from April 2012 to March 2014. The checklist of recorded bird species along with their abundance, feeding guilds, IWPA status, residential and conservational status is given in Table. The family scolopididae represented by 6 species, dominated the wetland bird community of the study area. Among the recorded species, 52 were resident, 12 were migratory both summer and winter. The status of some bird species like Spot-billed Duck, Common Moorhen, Great Cormorant, Grey Heron, Large Egret and Median Egret observed in study area . Among the birds Black bellied Tern, Darter and Painted Stork are ‘Near Threatened’ ones and White bellied sea Eagle falls under Schedule-I of IWPA. A large flock of adult Tufted Ducks without

the prominent was recorded from this reservoir. The summer visitors were spotted during summer seasons from April to August. The winter migratory birds displayed a definite pattern specific to species for arrival at and departure from the wetland. They appeared at the wetland from mid October and stayed up to April. The peak of winter population of migratory birds was observed during the months of January and February. Based on the frequency of sightings, 4 species were rare, 20 species were uncommon, and 40 species were common. The basic requirements of migratory birds at their wintering ground are adequate food supply and safety which is fulfilled by this wetland as

234



it was situated amidst fertile agricultural fields. The composition of birds in major feeding guilds in the study area showed that the insectivore guild was the most common with 35.9% species followed by pisivorus 15.6%, omnivorus 15.6%, predators 9.3%, frugivorus 7.8%, grainvorus 6.2%, and scavengers 6.2% respectively. The diversity of the

wetland birds documented during the present study may be due to the presence of a wide spectrum of feeding niches. The wetland birds are in general heterogeneous in their feeding habits (Ali & Ripley 1987). Thus wetland birds exploit a variety of habitats and depend upon a mosaic of microhabitats for their survival. Many studies have demonstrated the importance of habitat heterogeneity in wetland bird richness and abundance (Svingen & Anderson 1998; Edwards & Otis 1999; Fairbairn & Dinsmore 2001; Riffel et al. 2001; Zárate-Ovando et al. 2008; Datta 2011). In the present study, irrigated agricultural fields surrounding there serviour, with scattered trees and shrubs probably provided shelter and suitable foraging grounds for the wetland birds. This habitat by supporting different food sources like fish, crustaceans, invertebrates, water plants and plankton further adds to the diversity of wetland birds .The population of some of the birds such as Black-

winged Stilt and Little Cormorant was found to be high in winter, but a couple of birds observed in summer and monsoon confirmed their status as residents. Among the birds spotted in this study area, Darter Anhinga melanogaster (Birdlife International 2012a) and Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala (Birdlife International 2012b) are near threatened species. Comb Duck, a bird species listed in Appendix II of CITES was also spotted in the Sanctuary. The spotting of these threatened bird species highlights the importance of mudduvalasa reservioras an important staging and wintering ground for wetland birds.

The avian heritage of this landscape is under threat due to increased

anthropogenic activities resulting in habitat destruction and

235



fragmentation. It is an alarming sign for conservation of the avian diversity of this landscape. Direct observations as well as personal interviews with local people during surveys revealed that anthropogenic activities like livestock grazing, soil digging, encroachment, use of trees and shrubs as a source of fuel by local

people, cutting of emergent and fringed vegetation are some of the major threats to the biodiversity of this landscape wetland needs to be patrolled to minimize disturbance, in particular during the breeding season. Regular surveys related to water bird species diversity and awareness of the local people should be conducted for a detailed assessment of the wetland.

References

1. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987). Compact Handbook of The Birds of India and Pakistan Together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 737pp.

2. Bahuguna, A., J.P. Sati & P.C. Tak (2008). Sighting of Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) in Kalesar National Park, Yamunanagar district, Haryana, India. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 48(4): 49–50.

3. Basavarajappa, S. (2006). Avifauna of agro-ecosystems of Maidan area of Karnataka. Zoos’ Print Journal 21(4): 2217–2219.

4. BirdLife International (2012a). Anhinga melanogaster. In:

IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. <www. iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 19 March 2013.

5. BirdLife International (2012b). Mycteria leucocephala. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. <www. iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 19 March 2013.

236



6. Datta, T. (2011). Human interference and avifaunal diversity of

two wetlands of Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(12): 2253–2262.

7. Edwards, N. & D. Otis (1999). Avian communities and habitat relationships in South Carolina Piedmont beaver ponds. American Midland Naturalist 141(1): 158–171.

8. Fairbairn, S. & J. Dinsmore (2001). Local and landscapelevel influences of wetland bird communities of the praire pothole region of Iowa, USA. Wetlands 21(1): 41–47.

9. Kumar Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999). Pocket Guide to The Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

10. IUCN (2010). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 01 January 2011.

11. Kattan, G.H. & P. Franco (2004). Bird diversity along elevational gradients in the Andes of Colombia: area and mass effects. Global Ecology and Biogeography 13: 451–458.

12. Kler, T.K. (2002). Bird species in Kanjali wetland. Tiger Paper

39(1): 29–32.

13. Kumar, A., J.P. Sati, P.C. Tak & J.R.B. Alfred (2005). Handbook on Indian. Zoological Survey of India, 472pp.

14. Kumar, P. & S.K. Gupta (2009). Diversity and abundance of wetland birds around Kurukshetra, India. Our Nature 7: 212–217.

15. Lakshmi, B.B. (2006). Avifauna of Gosthani estuary near Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. Journal for Nature Conservation18(2): 291–304.

16. Manakadan, R. & A. Pittie (2001). Standardised common and

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scientific names of thebirds of the Indian subcontinent. Buceros 6(1): 1–37.

17. Prasad, S.N., T.V. Ramachandra, N. Ahalya, T. Sengupta, A.

Kumar, A.K. Tiwari, V.S. Vijayan & L. Vijayan (2002). Conservation of wetlands of India- A review. Tropical Ecology 43(1): 173–186.

18. Reginald, L.J., C. Mahendran, S.S. Kumar & P. Pramod (2007). Birds of Singanallur Lake, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. Zoos’ Print Journal 22(12): 2944–2948.

19. Riffel, S.K., B.E. Keas & T.M. Burton (2001). Area and habitat relationships of birds in great lakes coastal wet meadows. Wetlands 21(4): 492–507.

20. Svingen, D.N. & S.H. Anderson (1998). Waterfowl management on grass-sage stock ponds. Wetlands 18(1): 84–89.

21. Tak, P.C., J.P. Sati & A.N. Rizvi (2010). Status of waterbirds at Hathnikund Barrage wetland, Yamunanagar District, Haryana, India.

22. Journal of Threatened Taxa 2(4): 841–844.

23. Verma, A., S. Balachandran, N. Chaturvedi & V. Patil (2004). A preliminary survey on the biodiversity of Mahul Creek, Mumbai, India. Zoos’ Print Journal 19(9): 1599–1605.

24. Zárate-Ovando, B., E. Palacios & H. Reyes-Bonilla (2008). Community structure and association of waterbirds with spatial heterogeneity in the Bahia Magdalena-Almejas wetland complex, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Revista de Biologia Tropical 56(1): 371–389.

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Fig1; Study area of Madduvalasa Reservoir

Table 1;HABITAT, STATUS, IUCN STATUS, GUILD, IWPA STATUS OF BIRDS RECORDED IN SRIKAKULAM

WETLANDS

S.No Family English name Scientific name

Habitat

Abundance

Status

IUCN status

Guild

IWPA

1. Psittacidae Alexandrine Parakeet

Psittacula eupatria

T C R LC FR S IV

2. Dicruridae Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus

T C R LC IN S IV

3. Cuculidae Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea

T C R LC FR S IV

4. Ciconiidae Asian Openbill Anastomus oscitans

A C R LC PR S IV

5. Ploceinae Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus

T Uc R LC GR S IV

6. Dicruridae Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus

T C R LC IN S IV

7. Accipitridae Black Kite Milvus migrans

T C R LC SC S IV

8. Threskiornithidae

Black-headed Ibis

Threskiornis melanocephalus

A C R NT PR S IV

9. Recurvirostridae

Black-winged Stilt

Himantopus himantopu

A C R LC IN S IV

239



s

10. Alcedinidae Blue-eared Kingfisher

Alcedo meninting

A C R LC PI S IV

11. Meropidae Blue-tailed Bee-eater

Merops philippinus

T Uc R LC IN S IV

12. Accipitridae Brahminy Kite Haliastur Indus

T Uc R LC SC S IV

13. Laridae Brown-headed Gull

Larus brunnicephalus

A C WV LC PI S IV

14. Ardeidae Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis

A C R LC IN S IV

15. Rallidae Common Coot Fulica atcra

A C R LC OM S IV

16. Alcedinidae Common kingfisher

Auclcedo attis

A C R LC PI S IV

17. Rallidae Common Moorhen

Gallinula chloropus

A C R LC OM S IV

18. Sturnidae Common Myna Acridotheres tristis

T C R LC OM S IV

19. Scolopacidae Red shank Tringa totanus

A Uc WV LC IN S IV

20. Scolopacidae Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago

A C R LC IN S IV

21. Anatidae Common Teal Anas crecca A C WV LC OM S IV 22. Anhingidae Darter Anhinga

melanogaster

A C R NT PI S IV

23. Strigidae Eurasian Eagle Owl

Bubo bubo T Uc R LC PR S IV

24. Threskiornithidae

Eurasian Spoonbill

Platalea leucorodia

A Uc R NT OM S IV

25. Estrildidae Green Avadavat

Amandava Formosa

T Uc R UV GR S IV

26. Ardeidae Grey Heron Ardea cinerea

A C R LC PI S IV

27. Corvidae House Crow Corvus splendens

T C R LC SC S IV

28. PasserinaePasseridae

House Sparrow Passer domesticus

T C R LC GR S IV

29. Apodidae House Swift Apus affinis

T C R LC IN S IV

30. Phalacrocoracidae

Indian Cormorant

Phalacrocorax fuscicollis

A Uc R LC PI S IV

31. Caprimulgidae

Indian Nightjar

Caprimulgus asiaticus

T C R LC IN S IV

32. Ardeidae Indian Pond Heron

Ardeola grayii

A C R LC PI S IV

33. Coraciidae Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis

T C R LC IN S IV

240



34. Corvidae Jungle Crow Corvus

macrorhynchos

T C R LC SC S IV

35. Sturnidae Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus

T C R LC OM S IV

36. Charadriidae Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus

A Uc WV LC IN S IV

37. Anatidae Lesser Whistling Duck

Dendrocygna javanica

A C R LC OM S IV

38. Ardeidae Little Egret Egretta garzetta

A C R LC IN S IV

39. Ardeidae Little Heron Butorides striata

A C R LC PI S IV

40. Scolopacidae Marsh Sandpiper

Tringa stagnatilis

A Uc WV LC IN S IV

41. Motacillidae Paddyfield Pipit

Anthus rufulus

T C R LC IN S IV

42. Ciconiidae Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala

A C R NT PR S IV

43. Accipitridae Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos

T Uc R LC PR S IV

44. Alcedinidae Pied Kingfisher

Ceryle rudis

A Uc R LC PI S IV

45. Scolopacidae Pintail Snipe Gallinago stenura

A Uc WV LC IN S IV

46. Psittacidae Plum-headed Parakeet

Psittacula cyanocephala

T C R LC FR S IV

47. Ardeidae Purple Heron Ardea purpurea

A C R LC PI S IV

48. Anatidae Red-crested Pochard

Rhodonessa rufina

A R WV LC OM S IV

49. Pycnonotidae

Red-vented Bulbul

Pycnonotus cafer

T Uc R LC IN S IV

50. Charadriidae Red-wattled Lapwing

Vanellus indicus

A C R LC IN S IV

51. Columbidae Rock Pigeon Columba livia

T C R LC GR S IV

52. Psittacidae Rose-ringed Parakeet

Psittacula krameri

T C R LC FR S IV

53. Meropidae Small Green Bee-eater

Merops orientalis

T C R/SV LC IN S IV

54. Columbidae Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis

T Uc R LC GR S IV

55. Scolopacidae Spotted Redshank

Tringa erythropus

A Uc WV LC IN S IV

56. Anatidae Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula

A Uc WV LC OM S IV

57. Accipitridae White-bellied Sea Eagle

Haliaeetus leucogaster

T C R LC PR S I

241



58. Alcedinidae White-breasted

Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis

A C R LC PI S IV

59. Scolopacidae Wood1Sandpiper

Tringa glariola

A Uc WV LC IN S IV

60. Motacillidae Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava

T Uc WV LC IN S IV

61. Anatidae Comb Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos

A R R LC OM S IV

62. Alaudidae Bush lark Mirafra assamica

T R R LC IN S IV

63. Tytonidae Barn Owl Tyto alba T Uc R LC PR S IV 64. Cuculidae Indian Cuckoo Cuculus

micropterus T Uc R LC IN S IV

Where: T-Terrestrial; W-water bird; R-Resident; WR-Widespread

resident; WV-Winter visitor; SV-Summer visitor; WWV-Wisespread winter visitor; BRBreadingresident; LC-Least concern; VU-Vulnerable; EN-Endangered; NT-Near threatened; IN-Insectivorous; OM-

Omnivorus; PR-Predators; FR-Frugivorous; PIPiscivorous;GR-Granivorous; NE-Nectarivorous; SC-cavengers; S I-Schedule I; S IV-Schedule IV; IWPA-Indian Wildlife Protection Act.

Image: Images of birds in study area,(a,b)

(a)

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(b)

a. Rose-ringed parakeet

b. moorhen

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CHINA’S POLICY ON KASHMIR

Salfie Muzaffar Parray Political Science

Government Degree College Sumbal, Bandipora, J&K

Introduction

The Kashmir issue has been with India and Pakistan for sixty six years, and most of the scholars like Sumantra Bose in “Roots to Conflict & Paths to Peace” Verghese Kothari in “Crafting Peace” Josef Korbel in “Dangers in Kashmir” Alstair Lamb in “Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy” et al, are ranking it among the world’s longest–running, most central and intractable international disputes. A by-product of the violent 1947 partition of the British India into India and Pakistan, Kashmir issue has led to three wars between India and Pakistan, and repeatedly

sparked crises that have threatened to ignite further violent conflict. India and Pakistan acquisition of nuclear weapons has made the problem even more dangerous. With the result it has endangered not only the peace and stability of subcontinent but that of the whole South Asia. From the time the Kashmir issue came to world attention in January 1948 till date, many international actors try to play a leading role to solve the problem.1

China has not remained indifferent to it either, even if its involvement has not been consistent. China’s declared positions on the Kashmir issue have evolved through four distinct phases, each one determined by its own current interests in the region, its relations with Pakistan and India, and its general Asian strategy. China’s declared position on

1 . Howard B. Schaffer “The Limits of Influence: America’s Role in Kashmir” Viking Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd, 2009;

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the India-Pakistan dispute over Kashmir has been an important determination of Sino-India relations.2 There are at least six distinct Chinese policies that impose on the Kashmir issue. These are:

China’s formal declared position towards the Kashmir issue ;

Chinese demonstrations of security support for Pakistan during

periods of Pakistani confrontation with India over Kashmir;

Steady and substantial support for development of Pakistan’s

military–industrial capability regarded of confrontations with India over Kashmir;

Beijing’s stance regarding modalities appropriate for dealing with the Kashmir issue;

China’s interests, and latent policies, relating to a possible

solution of the Kashmir issue;

Chinese use of Kashmir to achieve diplomatic influence with New

Delhi.3

China’s Formal Declared Position on Kashmir

The Chinese approach to Kashmir during the short period from January 1948 to December 1949 was characterised by objectivity and impartiality. The western powers' pro-Pakistan attitude did not influence the Chinese attitude much even though China was tagged on to the West because of the massive aid which China was receiving from the United States during the Communist revolution. China played an active role during the month, of March 1948 when Dr. Tsiang, the

2 . Bajpai , Kanti P. and Amitabh Mattoo , eds., “Securing India, Strategic height and Practice: Essays by George K. Tanham with Commentarie” . New Delhi: Manohar Publishers,1996 . 3 . John W. Garver, "China's Kashmir Policies," India Review 3, no. 1 (January 2004),

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Chinese representative was the Chairman of the Security Council. On 10 March the Security Council authorised the President, Dr. Tsiang to enter into negotiations with the two parties asked utilise the services of the two former Presidents of the Council, the representatives of Canada and Belgium who had taken interest in the matter and the services of

other members whose participation was agreeable to parties.4

Beijing’s reserve on Kashmir during the 1950s probably derived from an understanding that deep conflicts between Chinese and Indian perspectives over Tibet, plus latent conflicts over the boundary, might someday lead China into conflict with India, making convenient Chinese alignment with Pakistan. In such an eventuality, reversing a pro-Indian stance on Kashmir would prove difficult and embarrassing. Yet China did not leap quickly or easily to Pakistan’s side. Even as Indian–Chinese relations deteriorated over Tibet starting in 1959, collapsing altogether over the border in 1962, Beijing avoided taking sides on the Kashmir issue. Only in early 1964, as Beijing moved to establish a strategic partnership with Pakistan and, probably more importantly, as Pakistan’s rulers became willing to undertake such a partnership, did China fall into line behind Pakistan’s position. From

1964 to 1980 Beijing’s position on Kashmir paralleled Pakistan’s, to wit that the people of Kashmir were entitled to an exercise of self-determination on whether to join India or Pakistan as had been promised them by various United Nations resolutions in 1948 and 1949. By 1965 Beijing endorsed the Kashmiri people’s war of self determination. An “Observer” article in Renmin ribao (People’s daily) on September 5, 1965, for example, began: “The Chinese people deeply sympathize with the just Struggle of the people of Kashmir for their

4Surendra Chopra “Chineses diplomacy and Kashmir” Indian Journal of Political Science; Vol, 29, No; 3, (July-September 1968), pp. 244-251

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right to self-determination...”5 A week later an editorial in Renmin ribao declared “The Chinese government and people...resolutely

support...the Kashmir people’s struggle for national self-determination. . . the Kashmir people will surely realize their desire for national self determination.” 6 Renmin ribao was, and remains, the newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Peter Van Ness makes the point that Beijing refused in the 1960s to declare the war in Kashmir a “war of national liberation” thus denying it full revolutionary legitimacy under Marxist-Maoist theory. But by declaring it a mere war of self determination, Beijing avoided the conclusion that the “people of Kashmir” might be entitled to their own independent state, and paralleled the Pakistani position that the people of Kashmir were entitled to join either Pakistan or India.7 After Deng Xiaoping

consolidated power as Mao’s successor in December 1978, China’s position on Kashmir began to change. One of Deng’s key international objectives was to reduce tension between China and its neighbors, whenever that was possible without sacrificing core Chinese interests, in order to create an environment conducive to a sustained push for economic development. Deng was convinced that the confrontational foreign policies of Mao had contributed to the dire poverty that was the lot of the Chinese people by 1978, and he was determined to set Chinese diplomacy on a new direction. Thus when Indian Minister of External Affairs A. B. Vajpayee visited Beijing in February 1979 and told Deng that China’s position on Kashmir was an additional and

5 Renmin ribao, September 5, 1965, in Survey of China Mainland Press (hereafter SCMP), US Consulate, Hong Kong, No. 3535, September 13, 1965, pp. 33–34. 6 Renmin ribao, September 11, 1965, in SCMP, “Indian Reactionaries are Plain Aggressors,” No. 3538, September 16, 1965, pp. 31–34. 7 Peter Van Ness, Revolution and Chinese Foreign Policy, Peking’s Support for Wars of National Liberation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p. 97.

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unnecessary irritant in Sino-Indian relations, Deng was receptive. Within a year or so Beijing acceded to New Delhi’s request. In June 1980 Deng publicly stated that the Kashmir issue was a bilateral issue left over from history between India and Pakistan, and should be resolved peacefully.8 Beijing thus adopted a more or less neutral

position on the Kashmir issue. Being “left over from history” meant that the problem was not due to the sinister intentions or actions of either India or Pakistan, but, implicitly, to the incompetence or perhaps sinister intentions of the former British masters of the subcontinent. This can be seen, in fact, as a slight nod toward India since it entails an implicit rejection of Pakistan’s view that Indian aggression and expansionism is at the root of the Kashmir problem. Being a bilateral issue between India and Pakistan also meant that China need not take sides on the substance of the dispute. Specification of Kashmir as a bilateral issue which should be solved via India–Pakistan negotiations also embodied a slight tilt toward India. Pakistan, being the weaker power which also believed it enjoyed the advantage of majority support

within Indian Kashmir, had long called for international involvement in a resolution of the dispute. India, being the stronger power and in possession of the better part of Kashmir, insisted on settlement of any disputes via purely bilateral talks. Until about 1990 Beijing tried to prevent the implicit pro-India tilt of its declared Kashmir policy by mentioning occasionally the role of the United Nations and/or United Nations Resolutions in solving the issue. Once again Indian diplomats intervened to lobby for Chinese non-reference to out of date (from the Indian perspective) UN resolutions or mediation. By the early 1990s the almost universal formulation of China’s position on Kashmir was that it was a bilateral matter to be solved via peaceful negotiations

8 John W. Garver, Protracted Contest, Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), p. 228.

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between India and Pakistan.9 In May 2001 Premier Zhu Rongji visited both India and Pakistan, and again laid out China’s position on the Kashmir issue. China had always emphasized the need for negotiations between India and Pakistan (i.e. bilateral negotiations) to achieve a peaceful settlement of that dispute, Zhu said.10 China’s position on

Kashmir did not change following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States. Pakistan’s leaders apparently hoped that Pakistan’s renewed partnership with the United States after 9–11, plus heightened international fear that an India–Pakistan war that might further admirer terrorism, would lead to stronger international pressure on India to compromise with Pakistan on Kashmir. As tension between Pakistan and India spiraled in May 2002, a spokesman for China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) reiterated China’s position on Kashmir: China’s position on the issue of Kashmir has been clear cut. We have always maintained that the Kashmir issue is one between India and Pakistan left over by history. China hopes that the two sides should seek new ways to appropriately solve the problem through peaceful exchanges and negotiations and refrain from military conflicts.11 In August 2002, Pakistani President Parvez Musharraf

traveled to Beijing in search of further Chinese support. The visit produced no shift in China’s position. China hoped that Pakistan and India would settle their differences peacefully through dialogue, Jiang Zemin told Musharraf.12 Very occasional references to the United Nations and United Nations resolutions regarding Kashmir did not entirely disappear from Beijing’s stance, however. In June 1998, for

9 United Nations Resolutions and importance of reference to the will of the Kashmir people. 10 “see (Editorial), Jang, May 12, 2001. Trans., FBIS; wnc.dialog.com 11 Foreign Ministry spokesman’s press conference on May 30, 2002. www.fmprc.gov.cn/ eng/30672.htm. 12“PRC President Jiang Zemin Hopes For Peaceful Settlement of India–Pakistan Dispute” English), August 2, 2002. Via FBIS; wnc.dialog.com.

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example, China’s Ambassador to the United Nations Qin Huasun addressed the UN Security Council on the Kashmir issue. Pakistan and India should, Qin said, “look for a solution [of the dispute] . . . in accordance with the principles of the relevant United Nations resolution and the Simla agreement [of 1972] and through peaceful

negotiations.” 13Qin then added the following very pointed comment: “We are opposed to any action which pursues regional hegemony.” “Regional hegemony” is a longstanding Chinese code word for Indian policies objectionable to Beijing. While it is possible that occasional comments such as these by Qin Huasun are accidental, uninformed, and not deliberate, this does not seem likely. Qin’s 1998 comments came in the midst of a multifaceted Chinese campaign to pressure New Delhi to withdraw its public statement identifying China as the primary threat spurring India’s nuclear weapons tests and nuclear weaponization in May 1998.14 In this context, Qin’s words likely constituted a subtle but deliberate warning to New Delhi that, if India adopted a policy of hostility toward China, Beijing might once again shift toward a less neutral and more pro-Pakistan stance on the Kashmir issue.

China’s Strategic Partnership with Pakistan during Kashmir Crises

Another dimension of Chinese policy regarding Kashmir has been Beijing’s determination to maintain close military cooperation and

strategic partnership with Pakistan even during periods in which Pakistan–India relations sour because of conflicts over Kashmir. This has meant that Chinese assistance to Pakistan, including military

13 United Nations Security Council, 3890th Meeting, June 6, 1998. S/PV.3990, p. 12. Available through www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/scact1998.htm 14J.H. Garver “The Restoration of Sino-Indian Comity following India’s Nuclear Tests,” The China Quarterly No. 168 (December 2001), pp. 865–89

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cooperation and assistance to the development of Pakistani military capabilities, has continued even during periods of high and rising military tension between India and Pakistan over Kashmir. This Chinese policy arises, in large part, out of a deliberate attitude of tolerance for the policy choices, domestic and foreign, of Pakistan’s

ruling elites—a cardinal characteristic of the Sino-Pakistan entente. Beijing’s close strategic partnership with Pakistan has waxed during periods of military rule in Pakistan (under Muhammad Ayub Khan, Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan, Zia ul-Haq, and Parvez Musharraf) as well as during periods of civilian rule (Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Benazir Bhutto, and Nawaz Sharif). It has prospered under rule by more secular Pakistani rulers, and during periods of intensifying Islamization of Pakistani politics. Instead of encouraging revolutionary struggle against the Pakistani government, China’s Premier Zhou Enlai in 1964 actually discouraged it.15 Pakistan offers the only case with convincing evidence that China deliberately assisted a foreign country to develop nuclear weapons—once Pakistan’s leaders requested such assistance in 1972. China’s entente with Pakistan has waxed under every one of China’s supreme leaders, from Mao Zedong, to Jiang

Zemin. China’s leaders understand the centrality of Kashmir to Pakistani leaders. In 1956, as Sino-Pakistan relations began to intensify, the former PLA general newly designated as ambassador to Pakistan, Geng Biao, undertook an in-depth study of the Kashmir issue.16 In August 1956, shortly before the first visit by a Pakistani prime minister to China, Geng briefed PRC Premier and Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai on Kashmir. The Kashmir question was exceptionally sensitive and China’s stance on it would determine to a

15 Mohammed Yunus, “Reflections on China, An Ambassador’s View From Beijing” (Islamabad: Services Book Club, 1988), p. 152. 16 Anwar H. Syed, “China and Pakistan: Diplomacy of an Entente Cordiale” (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1974).

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significant degree the quality of its relations with both India and Pakistan, Geng told Zhou. In order to develop good relations with both India and Pakistan, Geng proposed, first, that China “not become involved” in the Kashmir issue, and second, that it “take the principled high ground”. Zhou Enlai accepted Geng’s proposal, according to

Geng’s account.17 When Zhou Enlai visited India at the end of 1956, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharal Nehru arranged for him to visit Kashmir. Understanding that such a visit would imply some degree of Chinese support for India on the Kashmir issue, Zhou declined the visit, according to Geng Biao. While much diplomatic water has flowed under the bridge since 1956, one principle remains constant. Kashmir remains extremely important to both India and Pakistan, so much so that each closely examines China’s stance on the problem. It follows from this understanding that Chinese efforts in the 1990s and 2000s to pressure Pakistan over Kashmir, or refusal to stand by Pakistan during periods of tension with India over Kashmir, could easily have undermined the Sino-Pakistan entente. On the other hand, stable, continued Chinese cooperation with Pakistan in all areas, including military cooperation, even during periods of Pakistan–Indian conflict

over Kashmir, would demonstrate to Pakistani leaders the utility of friendship with China—even if Beijing conceded ground to New Delhi in terms of its formal, declared position on Kashmir. These calculations have meant that China has stood quietly but effectively behind Pakistan during periods of Pakistan–India conflict over Kashmir. Three cases of India–Pakistan confrontation illustrate the operation of this principle: the 1990 confrontation over Pakistani support for insurgency in Kashmir; the 1999 confrontation over Kargil; and the year-long military confrontation that developed in the aftermath of the December

17 New China’s Diplomacy, Volume 2 (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1991), pp. 57–63.

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2001 terrorist attacks on the Indian parliament. The 1990 India–Pakistan crisis was rooted in efforts by India’s central leaders (both Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi) to increase control over Indian Kashmir by engineering splits in the local Kashmiri leadership and manipulating Kashmir state-level elections. The result was a deepening

alienation of Kashmiri Indians from the central government. By 1989 armed rebellion within Indian Kashmir was the result. By 1990 Indian Kashmir was in a state of chaos and confusion, in January, the central government dismissed the local Kashmir government and imposed central rule. This further aggravated the situation. Crowds of hundreds of thousands of angry Kashmiris challenged the police and demanded independence. Police firing on the crowds killed hundreds. The insurgency in Indian Kashmir found strong sympathy in Pakistan. Insurgents from Indian Kashmir found refuge in Pakistani Kashmir and easy access to Pakistani arms bazaars.18 By April Indian Prime Minister V. P. Singh was warning Pakistan against providing further assistance to the Kashmiri rebels on pain of Indian military retaliation against Pakistan. If Pakistan persisted, Singh warned, it might pay a “very high price.”19 As tension spiraled between India and Pakistan in

1990, Beijing demonstrably continued its military cooperation while signaling that such cooperation could continue regardless of what might happen in the international situation. In February 1990 PRC Defense Minister Qin Qiwei led a ten-man PLA delegation to Pakistan. The delegation included the deputy commander of the Lanzhou Military Region bordering on both Pakistan and India. During his stay in Islamabad, Qin expressed strong support for Pakistan in the face of mounting Indian pressure. “Pakistani leaders apparently hoped that

18 Robert Hardgrave and Stanley A. Kochanek, “India, Government and Politics in a Developing Nation, 5th ed”. (Forthworth: Hartcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, 1993), pp. 162, 304. 19 Facts on File (New York: Facts on File Inc., 1990), pp. 73–74, 164–65, 293.

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international fear of an Indian–Pakistan nuclear war would precipitate international mediation in the Kashmir issue. India responded to Pakistan’s move by marshaling infantry and artillery to retake the strategic hill. A war that resulted in 1,250 casualties flared from late April to mid July 1999.20 Throughout the Kargil war Beijing

demonstrably continued its military cooperation with Pakistan. In May 1999 Pakistan’s the then Army Chief of Staff Parvez Musharraf, prime architect of the Kargil episode, and future leader of the military coup that would end civilian rule in Pakistan five months later, visited Beijing. Musharraf was received by PLA Chief of Staff General Fu Quanyou. In publicized comments, Fu stated that Sino-Pakistan friendship would never change no matter how the world situation or domestic situation might change. “The military ties between China and Pakistan are a vital part of the bilateral relations between the two countries and an important part of the Sino-Pakistan comprehensive cooperative partnership,” Fu declared.21 Shortly after Musharraf left Beijing, a PLA goodwill delegation led by the Political Commissioner of the PLA’s General Armaments Department visited Pakistan at the invitation of the Pakistani armed forces. Press reports indicated that

the two sides discussed purchase of conventional weapons during the goodwill delegation’s visit. Again during the 2002 India–Pakistan military confrontation, China demonstrably continued its military cooperation with Pakistan. India responded to the December 13, 2001 attack on the Indian parliament in New Delhi by Pakistan-based terrorists by mobilizing along Pakistan’s borders forces adequate for a for a full scale attack on Pakistan. Pakistan launched a counter-

20 The casualty figure is from a database on violent conflicts created and maintained by Peter Brecke at Georgia Institute of Technology. It is available at: www.inta.gatech.edu/ peter/taxonomy/html. 21 “Fu Quanyou Holds Talks With Pakistani Military Officer,” Xinhua (English), May 15,1999. Via FBIS; wnc.dialog.com.

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mobilization, and the two countries stood eyeball-to-eyeball on the brink of war for over a year.22 Further terrorist attacks on of Indian army personnel in May and July 2002 poured more fuel on the flames. As the crisis unfolded in late December 2002, Pakistan’s (by then) President Musharraf made a five day visit to China. Musharraf met

with PRC Defense Minister and Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission Chi Haotian. Chi declared that Sino-Pakistan friendship was “time tested” and “all-weather.” The strong bond between the armed forces of the two countries would continue and develop further in the twenty-first century, Chi said.23 President Jiang Zemin also reassured Musharraf that Sino-Pakistani friendship had withstood the test of time, was all-weather, and was deeply rooted. He said that China would continue to aid Pakistan and forcefully further the two countries’ all-round cooperative partnership.24 During Musharraf’s visit, seven agreements were signed on Chinese economic and technological cooperation with Pakistan.25

An “All-Weather” Friendship

China did not suspend its military cooperation with Pakistan during periods of India–Pakistan military conflict. That cooperation continued without hindrance by the conflict over Kashmir. In the context of the 1999 and 2002 confrontations over Kashmir, China also gave Pakistan

major assistance in the enhancement of its national defense capabilities. Yearbooks of the Stockholm International Peace Research 22 Brahma Chellaney, “India Is Ready to Defend Itself,” New York Times, December 28, 2001, pp. A8 and A17.. 23 “Chi Haotian “Meets Pakistani President,” Xinhua (English), December 21, 2001. Via FBIS; wnc.dialog.com. 24 “PRC: Jiang Zemin Interviewed by Pakistani Correspondent on Ties, Afghanistan,” Xinhua (English), December 18, 2001. Via FBIS; wnc.dialog.com. 25 . SIPRI. "SIPRI Military Expenditure Database." SIPRI. http://milexdata.sipri.org/ (accessed April 3, 2011).

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Project (SIPRI) indicate a number of new orders and licences granted by China to Pakistan during these years. In 1999, for example, China agreed to sell or licence to Pakistan advanced fighter aircraft and ground attack aircraft.26 In April 2002 China delivered to Pakistan the first batch of 20 F-7PG fighter aircraft developed jointly by Pakistan

and China.27 In September 2002 China’s North China Industries Corporation was awarded a $100 million contract for cooperation in manufacture of a new tank.28 While long-standing Chinese policy prohibits suspension of already approved orders to states as expression of disapproval for various policies (sanctions are deemed to be an instrument of “big power bullying” in which China does not engage), Beijing could easily have deferred conclusion of new agreements until well after India–Pakistan tension over Kashmir had passed. This does not seem to have happened. Chinese arms sales to Pakistan seem to have continued uninfluenced by various India–Pakistan confrontations over Kashmir. In fact, some Chinese assistance to Pakistan seems specifically linked to addressing Pakistani vulnerabilities revealed during the 1999 and 2002 confrontations over Kashmir. During the later days of the 1999 Kargil confrontation New Delhi had ordered

deployment of an Indian fleet off Pakistan’s Karachi port. This surprise move effectively bottled up the bulk of Pakistan’s navy and threatened closure of the port that handled 90% of Pakistan’s foreign trade. In response to the Indian move, Pakistan’s leaders had Chinese experts draw up extremely ambitious plans for the development of a new harbor complex at Gwadar in Pakistan’s Baluchistan. The new Gwadar

26 “Register of the Transfer and Licensed Production of Major Conventional Weapons,”from SIPRI Yearbook, 2000, p. 409, and SIPRI Yearbook, 2001, p. 385 (Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute). 27 “China Briefing,” Far Eastern Economic Review, April 11, 2002, p. 24. 28 “Pakistan To Engage Chinese Firm on Al-Zarar Tank,” The News (Islamabad), September 7, 2002. Via FBIS; wnc.dialog.com.

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port was to include twenty-three deep-water berths, onshore dock and cargo handling facilities, plus new highways and rail lines linking Gwadar to the rest of Pakistan. While economic considerations having to do with accelerating development were part of Pakistan’s calculations regarding the Gwadar project, strategic concerns about

strengthening Pakistan’s ability to withstand a potential Indian naval blockade were central to Islamabad’s decision to move ahead with the Gwadar project. During a May 2001 visit to Pakistan, Premier Zhu Rongji committed China to major support of the Gwadar project. In August of the same year, China agreed to provide $198 for the first stage of the project plus another $200 million for modernization of Pakistan’s railway system.29 China also supplied large amounts of aid that contributed to strengthening Pakistan’s ability to withstand Indian pressure. In the two years preceding Pakistan Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali’s visit to China in March 2003, China had supplied Pakistan over $2 billion in assistance. Most of this went to the Gwadar project, expansion and improvement of Pakistan’s railways, and electrical power generation. In short, China made very substantial contributions to Pakistan’s ability to withstand Indian pressure during

a period when Pakistan repeatedly resorted to proxy military force to push New Delhi toward settlement of the Kashmir issue.

Beijing’s Policies toward Modalities for Resolving the Kashmir Conflict

Beijing has balanced its “all-weather” “tested by adversity” support for Pakistan during periods of Kashmir-induced India–Pakistan conflict with support for peaceful and bilateral resolution of the Kashmir issue. Beijing has urged both India and Pakistan to avoid war over Kashmir and to solve the issue via bilateral negotiations. While directed more or 29 John W. Garver, “The Security Dilemma in Sino-Indian Relations,” India Review Vol. 1, No. 4 (October 2002), pp. 1–38.

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less evenly at both Islamabad and New Delhi, this Chinese prompting is especially important as regards Pakistan, for it is there that Beijing enjoys greater positive influence. While not entirely ruling out the possibility of international mediation—including possible Chinese mediation (a possibility that is popular with Pakistani commentators)—

Beijing has consistently refused (at least since Deng Xiaoping took power) to support Pakistan’s efforts to internationalize the Kashmir issue. During the various India–Pakistan crises over Kashmir since Deng came to power in 1978, Beijing has called and worked for avoidance of war. During the 1990 crisis, for example, Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference vice chairman Wang Renzhong visited Pakistan. In Islamabad Wang called for solving the Kashmir dispute via peaceful negotiations and without resort to military force or causing escalation of tension.30 Beijing has also declined to support Pakistan’s efforts to “internationalize” the Kashmir issue—to raise the issue at the United Nations, or to mobilize international attention on Kashmir in hopes of pressuring India to make concessions. As noted earlier, internationalization has been linked repeatedly to Pakistan’s use of proxy military forces to create crises. By creating military crises,

Pakistan hoped to play on international fears of nuclear weapons use to secure international intervention on Kashmir. Beijing declined to support both aspects of this Pakistani plan. During both the 1999 and 2002 crises, Beijing’s advice to Islamabad was to discuss the Kashmir issue directly with India. On neither occasion did China raise the Kashmir issue in the United Nations. Efforts to raise the issue at the United Nations would only encourage further Indian inflexibility, Beijing told Islamabad. Beijing did not rule out some sort of international consideration of Kashmir, or even the possibility of

30 Xinhua, “Gulf, Kashmir Discussed,” December 1, 1990, p. 13. Via FBIS; wnc.dialog.com.

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international mediation. But neither did it call for such international action, or endorse Pakistani calls. It apparently took several months for China’s strategic analysts to rethink the implications of Pakistan’s tactics in the post-9–11 world. The outrageous nature of the December 13, 2001 attack on the Indian parliament, plus India’s subsequent

mobilization for an attack on Pakistan, apparently led Beijing to conclude that such tactics were unacceptable. Several days after the December 13 attack, spokesperson said that China opposed and condemned any form of terrorist activities and was against any country that launched terrorist attacks through organizations or individuals. The spokesperson refused to comment directly on Indian charges that the attack on the Indian parliament was sponsored by Pakistani intelligence services.31 The policy of supporting the Kashmiri people’s armed struggle for self-determination continued by inertia until Mao’s death. Deng Xiaoping in effect scrapped this policy in 1980 when he shifted China’s formal position on Kashmir to neutrality. Deng’s implicit—but only that!—renunciation of armed struggle by the Kashmiri people was part of a broader push to demilitarize China’s foreign relations and international environment. In short, an India–

Pakistan war would retard China’s drive to raise itself to a modest level of prosperity by the middle of the twenty-first century. The second reason for Beijing’s desire to avoid an India–Pakistan war over Kashmir is that such a war would endanger two fundamental elements of China’s South Asia strategy:

(1) Maintaining Pakistan as a balance to India and

(2) Improving relations with all the states of South Asia. Regarding the maintenance of Pakistan as a balance to India, another major India–Pakistan war raises the specter that India would finally rouse itself, 31 “On Indian Parliament Bombing, Musharraf’s Visit,” AFP, December 18, 2001. Via FBIS; wnc.dialog.com.

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mobilize its overwhelming national strength, and one way or another finally and decisively subordinate Pakistan. Confronted by such an eventuality, Beijing would face a Regarding Beijing’s objective of fostering cooperation with all the states of South Asia, an India–

Pakistan conflict would present considerable difficulties. In the first instance, since China would almost certainly render political and material support to Pakistan in the event of such a war, a conflict would deal a severe blow to Sino-Indian ties. This would be the case even if China did not intervene in the war. Mere support for Pakistan would probably be sufficient to devastate Sino-Indian ties. Chinese support for Pakistan in the event of another India–Pakistan war would also greatly worsen Indian apprehensions about Chinese ties with other South Asian states—Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, etc. For a lengthy period of time following an India–Pakistan war in which China supported Pakistan, India would likely be more vigilant about using its great influence in South Asia to stunt Chinese ties, especially military-security ties, with India’s small South Asian neighbors.

China’s Interests regarding a Substantive Settlement of the Kashmir Issue

China’s Kashmir policy must be understood within the broader contexts of its South Asia policy in general and where this policy fits in

Beijing’s global strategies and its bilateral relationships with India and Pakistan in particular. Beijing is interested in the peace and stability in Kashmir as it would advance China’s trade, and access to oil resources of pacific region. The Kashmir problem gives china extra-ordinary power against India and influence over Pakistan. besides, POK and the more than 5000 square kilometers of Kashmir territory, ceded by Pakistan to china in 1963, provide china with a smooth and assured connectivity to the Arabian Sea and west Asia, which has both strategic and trade significance for China. China will not like to lose this connectivity or compromise it in the event of a conflict of the Kashmir.

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China aims to have stability in its neighbourhood and increase market penetration in south Asia, and for these reasons stability in Kashmir and peace between India and Pakistan are essential. China’s Western development strategy (WDS) for its interior provinces including Tibet and Xinjiang make it imperative that there is peace and stability on the

borders of these provinces as they aim to increase their external trade and serve as major hubs for trade with china’s western neighbors.32

Kashmir as a Source of Chinese Leverage with New Delhi

Beijing’s ability to tilt toward either India or Pakistan on the Kashmir issue gives China significant leverage with New Delhi. Managing the contradiction between maintaining the Sino-Pakistan entente cordiale and pushing ahead with greater Sino-Indian cooperation is the heart of China’s strategic problem in South Asia. Kashmir has served as a useful mechanism in Beijing’s management of that contradiction. Given that it has been Pakistan’s most trusted foreign supporter, China enjoys considerable influence and prestige in Islamabad. Throughout the process of Sino-Indian rapprochement, Indian leaders have been desirous of edging China away from Pakistan, especially regarding Kashmir. A Pakistan with lesser rather than greater Chinese support would be less likely to adopt risky policies involving military adventures against India. A Pakistan with lesser levels of Chinese support would

also, plausibly, be more likely to agree to turn the line of control in Kashmir into a de jure international boundary. A more pro-Indian, less pro-Pakistan Chinese stance on Kashmir would also suggest that, in the extreme event of another India–Pakistan war, China would not only remain non-belligerent, but also offer Pakistan a lesser level of political and material support. On the other hand, Indian policies angering Beijing have risked pushing China toward a more pro-Pakistan stance 32 S. Mahmud Ali, “Cold War in the High Himalayas, the USA, China, and South Asian the 1950s”, (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999).

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on Kashmir. Beijing can use shifts in its stance on Kashmir to punish Indian policies on a wide range of issues, from Tibet and Taiwan, to nonproliferation, to emphasis on “the China threat.” Thus, in the aftermath of New Delhi’s explicit naming of China as “enemy number one” as justification for its May 1998 nuclear weaponization, Beijing

had Qin Huasun at the United Nations raise the possibility of China returning to a 1960’s type pro-Pakistan stance on Kashmir. New Delhi’s desire to influence Beijing’s stance on Kashmir has created a set of incentives for India to accommodate China. The utility of this set of incentives is suggested, perhaps, by the fact that most Indian leaders are generally satisfied with the post-1980 changes in China’s Kashmir policy and have generally accepted to the continuation of China’s broad support for the development of Pakistani military capabilities and defense industrial complex. The Kashmir issue is so emotional—linked closely to the national identities of both India and Pakistan—and so dangerous, that by changing its formal declared position on it, Beijing was able to secure Indian acceptance of an ongoing strategic military partnership between China and Pakistan. This was not a bad deal for China. Again, this seems to suggest the magnitude of the leverage that

Kashmir gives Beijing.

Conclusion

China’s mix of Kashmir policies involves an attempt to balance China’s interests with both Pakistan and India. It requires an attempt to balance China between those two countries, enabling China to further its ties and interests with both. China’s objective is to foster cooperative relations with all South Asian countries, including both India and Pakistan, and the particular menu of Chinese Kashmir policies that has evolved is a reflection of this objective. Beijing has given India a considerable amount in terms of China’s formal, declared policy toward Kashmir. It does not blame India for the conflict in Kashmir. It does not endorse internationalization of the issue or

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reference of the conflict to the United Nations. Chinese representatives do not publicly mention plebiscites or the will of the Kashmiri people, and only very rarely mention the United Nations. Beijing calls instead for bilateral talks, consultations, or negotiations between India and Pakistan as methods of resolution. And in 2001 Beijing has come out

against cross-border terrorism on the Kashmir issue and urged Pakistan to suppress such activity. At the same time, China has continued strong assistance to Pakistan’s national security efforts and persisted with that assistance regardless of changes in India–Pakistan relations. In fact, during times of bad weather between Pakistan and India, Beijing has invariably demonstrated its continuing support for Pakistan’s national defense, even though some of the storms Pakistan faced might have derived from the Kashmir policy choices of Pakistan’s rulers. This mix of policies seems to have served Chinese interests fairly well. Beijing has, in fact, sustained its strategic entente cordiale with Pakistan, while navigating toward ever-deeper cooperation with India.

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EFFECT OF SAQ TRAINING ON SELECTED MOTOR

ABILITIES OF SAI EAST FOOTBALL PLAYERS BETWEEN 15-18 YEARS

Santosh Toppo Ph.D. Scholar

Department of Physical Education & Sports

Pondicherry University Pondicherry

Basant Tirkey Physical Training Instructor

UCET Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribag

Jharkhand

INTRODUCTION

Human beings by nature are competitive and ambitious for the excellence in all athletes performance, not only every men but also every nation wants to show their supremacy by challenging the other men over nation. This challenge stimulates inspires and motivates the entire nation to sweat and strives to run faster, jump higher, throw further and exhibit greater speed strength, endurance skill in the present competitive scientific, systematic and planned sports training.

There is an increasing demand for football player to be not highly skilled and tactically sound but also athletically adept. Speed agility and quickness (SAQ) trainings have become a popular way to

train athletes, whether they are school children on a soccer field or professional in a training camp. SAQ training can cover the complete area of training intensity, from low to high intensity. All individual will come into a training programme at a different level; thus training intensity must coincide with the individual's abilities [1]. According to Jovanovic, et al. (2011) SAQ training remove mental blocks and thresholds and allow the athlete to exert maximal force during controlled and balanced movement patterns, which are specific to their sport [3]. The SAQ training method consolidates speed, agility, and quickness through the range of soccer specialized exercises. All

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exercises are performed with optimal biomechanical movement structures, and consequently, energy and time savings are made [2].

Speed has been long considered as just one single entity: how far an object goes from point A to B early. High-speed actions in soccer have been categorized as requiring acceleration, maximal speed or

agility skills (Gambetta, 1996) whilst Chapman et al. (2008) described speed in soccer as consisting of running speed, reaction speed and acceleration speed during the first steps (referred to as quickness) [1]. Agility is closely related to balance because it requires athletes to regulate shifts in the body's centre of gravity while subjecting them to postural deviation [4] and it is very important when it comes to soccer players. Pearson [5] mentions 4 elements of agility such as balance, coordination, programmed and random agility all of which are used on the SAQ continuum with appropriate volume and intensity with regard to athletes’ age and level of motor readiness.

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of SAQ training on motor abilities. For this 15 SAI east football players of age ranged between 15 to 18 years who were regularly practice at SAI, NSEC at salt lake, Kolkata were selected. The selected subjects underwent 3 months SAQ training. Pertaining to variables namely

speed and agility were assessed using standard test as 40 yards sprint and 6 x 10 meter shuttle run and data were collected prior and after training program. Statistical analysis as descriptive and ‘t’ test was done by using SPSS 16 version and significance difference was observed at P<0.05.

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Table – I

Descriptive Analysis on Speed of SAI East Football Player

Mean SD SEM Correlation ‘r’

Mean difference

‘t’ ratio

Sig.

Pre test

5.74 0.33 0.08

0.99 0.03 4.50* 0.000 Post test

5.71 0.33 0.09

It is inferred from above table that mean and standard deviation (SD) on speed of SAI east players in pre test is 5.74 ± 0.33 with standard error mean (SEM) 0.08. In post test mean and SD is 5.71 ± 0.33 with SEM 0.09. The mean difference between pre test and post test is 0.03 and the ‘t’ ratio value is 4.50 which is statistically significant at P<0.05 as the p value is 0.000.

Graph I representing speed mean of SAI east football player in pre test and post test

5.68

5.7

5.72

5.74

Pre test Post test

5.74

5.71

Speed

Mean

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Table – II

Descriptive Analysis on Agility of SAI East Football Player

Mean SD SEM Correlation

‘r’

Mean difference

‘t’ ratio

Sig.

Pre test

16.38 1.28 0.33

0.95 0.23 2.22* 0.043 Post test

16.14 1.16 0.30

It is inferred from above table that mean and standard deviation (SD) on agility of SAI east players in pre test is 16.38 ± 1.28 with standard error mean (SEM) 0.33. In post test mean and SD is 16.14 ± 1.16 with SEM 0.30. The mean difference between pre test and post test is 0.23 and the ‘t’ ratio value is 2.22 which is statistically significant at P<0.05 as the p value is 0.043.

Graph II representing agility mean of SAI east football player in pre test and post test

16

16.1

16.2

16.3

16.4

Pre test Post test

16.38

16.14

Agility

Mean

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DISCUSSION ON FINDINGS

This study has shown that 12 weeks of SAQ training had positive effects on speed and agility on SAI east football players. All football players improved their performance significantly in post test with due respect to pre test on speed and agility. The result reveled that SAQ training is an important tolls for the improvement in soccer players. They also confirm Bloomfield et al.’s (2007) [6] viewpoint that

the SAQ regimen is an important training method for the improvement of speed and quickness. Although it is considered that the best period for the development of agility is at the age of 16 (Markovic et al., 2007), this study has shown that agility can also be improved in later years using an appropriate training programme [4]. The SAQ training elements consist of exercises and equipment that evoke neural adaptations in programmed and random conditions with a gradual progression, and thus, both slow and fast SSC performance is enhanced [2].

CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded that SAQ training have positive effect on soccer players on selected motor abilities (speed and agility). However, a great deal of planning is needed to create an appropriate and effective SAQ program.

References

1. Rahul Kumar Prasad and M. S. Dhapola (2014) Effect of eight weeks S.A.Q. training programme on selected physical fitness variables. Golden Research Thoughts, Volume 3, Issue 7

2. Mario Jovanovic, Goran Sporis, Darija Omrcen, and Fredi Fiorentini (2011). Effects of speed, agility, quickness training method on power performance in elite soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(5)/1285–1292

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3. Dr. V. Vallimurugan & J. Vincent Paul (2012) Effect of SAQ

training on selected physical fitness parameters of men football players, International Journal of Advanced and Innovative Research, Volume 1, Issue 2

4. Zoran Milanovic, Goran Sporis, Nebojsa Trajkovic, Nic James and

Kresimir Samija (2013) Effects of a 12 Week SAQ Training Programme on Agility with and without the Ball among Young Soccer Players. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 12, 97-103

5. Pearson, A. Speed, Agility and Quickeness for Soccer. London, United Kingdom: A & C Black, 2001.

6. Bloomfield, J., Polman, R., O’ Donoghue, P. and McNaughton, L. (2007) Effective speed and agility conditioning methodology for random intermittent dynamic type sports. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21(4), 1093-1100.

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BROKEN FAMILY STRUCTURE AND ITS IMPACT ON

CHILDREN

Suzain Rashid Lecturer

Department of Education Govt. Degree College, Baramulla

Introduction:

A human child needs care and protection for its survival for a longer period than is necessary for the survival of other animal babies. The relationship that develops around reproduction and care of off spring between father, mother and children is thus lengthened, enlarged and refined. The term family is used to refer to that portion of human experience which results from the behaviour of men and women in connection with reproduction and care of off spring.

In the modern age, many functions of the family have shifted to other institutions but nevertheless, there are many

biological and psychological needs which man cannot satiate without a family. (HAVELOCK ELLIS) have shown in his penetrative essays, that the value of the mother’s milk for the child cannot be obtained in any other manner. The family moulds the character and personality of an individual. It is through the family, that society imparts its culture to the individual.1) It is in the family that the child acquires such important qualities as Sincerity, Sympathy, Self-submission and Consciousness of responsibility.2) The character is developed in the

family which helps the child in becoming an important and responsible member of the society.3)In family ,child gets an opportunity for free expression of thoughts and development of his entire personality. In the words of BURGESS and LOCKE, “The family is a fundamental agency in the cultural conditioning of the child; the family tradition provides the child with his earliest behavior patterns and standards of

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conduct.”According to the U.S. Census Bureau, a family refers to’ two or more persons related by birth, marriage or adoption, who reside together.’’

So, family is very important part of our lives. It helps in shaping and improving our lives. Now the question arises what if the

family is BROKEN/DISTURBED/SEPARATED/SPLITTED? Broken family is a family with children involved where parents are legally or illegally separated. How this kind of family has an adverse impact on the various developmental aspects of child’s Life? Psychologists have proved that the absence of family affection has a serious impact upon the child’s Development. Biological needs can be satisfied even outside family but it can never be the source of emotional fulfillment. Broken family affects every dimension of life, be it, Socio-Personal, Psycho-Emotional or Educational aspects .Usually in these kinds of families the whole family looses contact with each other. A broken home makes a child insecure.

Broken family affects the child in different areas of development which are described here:

Physical/biological area: Too often, parents are so caught up in their

hurt and angry feelings towards their spouse that they are not aware how their attitude, thoughts and actions affect their child. A child can

sense conflict within the family even if there is a mood change in parents. Children respond to changes physically. Eating or sleep patterns could be altered. They may seem anxious and demonstrate this nervousness by splitting up or experiencing bowel complications. Parents of broken families are too occupied with their personal issues that they fail to give individual attention to their children, which in turn disturbs the child all together. Broken family even disturbs the homeostasis and imbalances the secretion of hormones which also inurn affects the physical development of the child.

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Social area: A child from a broken family feels embarrassed that his

family is not intact or integrated and withdraws from routine social activities. Living with this guilt he prefers to be in isolation. He feels ashamed to share his feelings with others. Thus, making him an introvert. Coming home is a fear for him. So, the child likes staying out for hour’s together in order to escape from the tensions he faces at home. The child gets irritated and angry even on small things. Children

of broken families are more prone to get involved in anti-social activities like Robbery, Drug abuse, Criminality, Delinquency, bad company.

Psychological area: Depression ,stress ,hysteria ,anxiety ,phobia ,

mood swings ,absent mindedness are some common problems associated with children from broken family .The child usually lives with this dilemma that may be he is the cause of all the trouble between his parents. Researches show that children from broken families are nearly 5 times more likely to suffer damaging mental troubles then those whose parents stay together. It also showed that two parents are much better than one, if children are to avoid slipping into emotional distress and anti-social behavior. Researches show that in 2004 nearly one third of children were found to have mental disorders. Growing up in a family where fear and anxiety are constantly shown to children by their parents can teach them to be anxious as well .In addition, if a child grows up in an abusive home, he/she may learn to

always expect the worse.

Emotional area: Divorce and separation of parents can bring about

uncharacteristic emotions and behaviors among their children. There is a grieving process, and children find it difficult to cope with their emotions. Verbal expression is difficult; Feelings can come out through behaviors that can be difficult and challenging such as AGRESSION, LOW SELFCONFIDENCE, FRUSTRATION, HESITATION, CONFUSION etc. Children of broken families tend to show excessive

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anger .Such children also have troubles in decision making .Emotionally a child feels numb in many ways .A child feels an environment of animosity and hate .Research shows that11% of those children whose families broke up had emotional disorders, against 3% of those whose families were still together.

Educational area: The child’s first school is his family and home .The child’s education is in the hands of the parents. Its family which

imparts practical knowledge to the child. One of the most important area that is affected by broken family is child’s academic performance.”Children who are a member of broken family earned low grades and their peers rated them as less pleasant to be around” (Cherlin 1981).Academic achievement tends to be lower among children of broken families. A study was conducted in November 2005,by the U.S Center for Marriage and Family which showed that broken family structures consistently lead to educational difficulties for children. The study says, ‘When it comes to educational achievement, ‘Children living with their own married parents do significantly better than other children. Children from broken families lack proper guidance/supervision of parents, their study habits and learning styles get deeply affected. Whatever they do, they are not accountable for it to anyone. Be it their low grades in exams or incomplete homework.

Nobody is there to ask What, Why and How? School does not appeal them. So, they start making excuses to skip classes. They show less participation in classroom and allied discussions and other co-curricular activities. They grow weak in memory retention and also have less concentration in academics.

Conclusion:

A family that manages to fulfill basic emotional and social needs becomes a stable unit and is termed as a ‘Happy/Integrated’’ family. Some others that don’t, are termed as

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‘’Dysfunctional/Disintegrated/Broken/Spitted’’ family, because they can’t impart stability to their members. Leo Tolstoy has rightly said in his Novel ‘Anna Karenina’ ’that’ Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way’. For many reasons a family can break down. If the concerned family wants, broken family can be

repaired provided if they will put the needed efforts to repair it. It is certainly never so easy. If there is a particular problem going on in a family, one partner or the other partner should fix the problem even though if he/she feels the other partner is wrong. Understanding or forgiving is the best way to do it. Both the partners in a family should be loyal, honest to each other. There should be no scope for distrust atmosphere and repressed emotions. There should be no communication gap between all family members. For every broken family, there is a solution that is “Separation of emotional thoughts from the logical thoughts”. In a broken family case one should only feel emotions but when it comes to making decisions he/she needs to make use of logic. Believe that everything happens for a reason, and ones response to life’s challenges will determine the amount of happiness one’s family will get in return. If in a society there exists a

disintegrated families, then that particular society will be never safe. The family acts as a preventive to the individual from keeping him away from bad habits and crimes too. Not many parents would like their children to embark on careers of crime. Thus; making of a good citizen in society depends upon parents. ‘Mahatma Gandhi ‘and such thinkers paid personal attention to the development of the children. ’Freud’ and other psychologists have proved that a child exhibits the same character and mental tendencies in adult age which he acquires in the family. Family is just not a word; it certainly teaches us the value of relationships by experiencing. There are good/bad times, happy/sad moments in life and family as well. In spite of the above fact we don’t stop loving our life then why should we stop loving our family?

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Apart from family an educational institution has also an important role to play for those children who comes from disturbed family. It is the moral and social responsibility of teacher to understand the psyche of such children and provide certain remedial measures for their emotional disturbance. The guidance and counseling cell of the

institution is also recommended in every educational institution keeping this factor in consideration. These children demand counseling for their better career.

References:

1. Alexander J, Parsons BV. Functional Family Therapy. Pacific Groove, California: Brooks/Cole; 1982.

2. Boszormenyi-Nagy I, Spark GM. Invisible Legalities: Reciprocity in Intergenerational Therapy. New York: Harper and Row; 1973.

3. Broderick CB, Schrader SS. The History of Professional Marriage and Family Therapy. In: Gorman AS, Kinsmen DP, Eds.

4. Goldenberg I, Goldenberg H.Family Therapy: An Overview.6th ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole; 2004.

5. Sprenkle DH. Effectiveness Research in Marital and Family Therapy. Washington, DC: AAMFT; 2002.

6. Retrieved from www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1079510/children-broken-homes-times-likely-suffer-mental-troubles-says-government-

study.html.

7. Retrieved from www.tldm.org/news9/family educational difficulties.html.

8. Wynne LC, Ed. The State of the Art in Family Therapy Research: Controversies and Recommendations. New York: Family Process Press; 2002.

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289



AN OVERVIEW ON QUALITY TEACHING FOR

GLOBAL CHALLENGES

M. Soma Raju Lecturer in English

S.K.B.R. College Amalapuram

Abstract :

Quality education should not be regarded as a process of consumption but as a process of interaction between teacher and students. Education must aim at giving the students opportunities for personal development and confidence to adapt to new situations. According to the demand of facing global challenges we need to improve

the quality of education and develop education standards that contain global and international issues. The globalization may be as a threat or may be as an opportunity. To be successful in facing global challenges, everyone must have great efforts to change the threat into an opportunity. These efforts must be supported by the improvement of human resources. There is a need to develop a high quality education system in which every student can be provided access to the educational components that are essential to such system.

Introduction

It is observed that teacher quality is the most important factor in an educational institution that is influencing student engagement and achievement. Globalization has brought a great effect to human life not only in economic issues, but also in political, social, and cultural issues. Its effect can be positive, or negative, depends on the quality of human resources Some of the components of high quality education system are as follows:

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1. A qualified and inspiring teacher in the classroom

2. A rigorous curriculum that will prepare all students for success in post secondary education, work, and society.

3. Current textbooks, technology, and instructional materials aligned with learning expectations.

4. Adequate learning support services.

5. Qualified campus administrators, to maintain an educational culture that is inviting and safe and that places a high value on student achievement and teaching excellence.

6. A physical learning environment that is safe, well equipped, and well maintained.

All the components stated above should be provided to every student enrolled in public education from preschool to university levels.

Professional Skills

To improve the standards of education Teachers must have a global perspective, well prepared and provided with ongoing professional development and appropriate support.

Teachers have to fulfill these standards with professional skills with universal approach.

Based on the standard of the International Society American Association for Technology in Education (ISTE), the National Council

for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCAT), the Association of Educational Communication and Technology (AECT), the School of Librarian (AASL), there are some characteristics of professional teachers. The characteristics are as follows:

The professional teachers should have basic knowledge of computer/technology operations. Concepts and use technology in

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instruction, apply concepts and skills in making decisions concerning the social, ethical and human issues related to computer and technology.

They should understand the changes in information technologies, their effects on workplace and society, their potential to address lifelong

learning and workplace needs, and the consequences of misuse. Furthermore the professional teacher should be able to use telecommunications and information-access resources to support instruction.

There are some effective strategies that can be implemented:

1. Improve the Curriculum of The Teacher Education by Competency Based, Broad Based, Life Skills, and Technology Based.

The Competency-Based Curriculum represents an approach to instruction which emphasizes the application of knowledge in a manner which may be observed or measured.

Competency-Based Curriculum guides focus on a comprehensive view of each course of study which is delineated into its essential components, a listing of the most important objectives to be mastered, and the competencies which every student should be able to demonstrate after instruction is completed. Competency-Based lessons require students to engage in activities designed to apply learning with an increased emphasis on higher order thinking skills. Students are evaluated not only on knowledge, but primarily on their ability to perform tasks associated with the knowledge acquired. Likewise an education in life skills is designed to help children and young people to learn the skills they need to deal with the likely demands and

challenges of modern life, help students develop a broad range of personal, social, cognitive and environmental skills.

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2. Teachers need to use and integrated Technology.

This can be done by integrating technology applications into pre-service teacher assignment and activities. We mean by technologies especially learning and teaching technologies are those methods and practices used to learn and to facilitate learning. It is the way we learn and the way we teach. It includes the tools we use and instructional design we apply. Technology in learning refers to both tools (the hardware,

software, networks, etc.) and the processes (the methods and strategies used for instructions, the design of our educational organizations, learning management systems, etc.) A growing challenge in education is establishing and implementing strategies to develop the skills and knowledge necessary for teachers to effectively use technology as instructional tools. The extent to which teachers are prepared to infuse technology into curricula and instruction is a major contextual factor’.

The problems that may appear in this case are: what strategies are effective for preparing teachers to integrate technology, and what can students do to enable teachers to make effective use of technology.

3. Recruitment of Teachers based on Professional Competency and Professional

Responsibility.

In order to ensure quality education, the Government should recruit the teachers based on professional competency and professional responsibility. In this case, it should be taken into account that the teachers who have professional competency must also have professional responsibility.

The areas that the teacher is responsible to are:

(1) Subject

(2) To the students

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(3) To the institution of which she/he is a part

(4) To the profession and

(5) To the community at large.

4. Provide Enough Expenditure to Provide Technological Learning Tools and Equipment.

According to the instructional use the technology is categorized into four basic uses:

Tutorial, Exploratory, Application, and Communication

1. Tutorial use includes expository learning, demonstration, and

practice. Examples are drill and-practice software, tutoring systems, instructional television, computer-assisted instruction, and intelligent computer assisted instruction.

2. Exploration applications may promote discovery or guided discovery approaches to help students learn information, knowledge, facts, concepts, or procedures. Examples are CD ROM encyclopedias, micro world, hypermedia stacks, network search tools, and microcomputer-based laboratories

3. Application uses help students in the educational process by providing them with tools to facilitate writing tasks, analysis of data, and other uses. Examples are word processing and spreadsheet software, database, management programs, graphic software, desktop publishing systems, hypermedia, network search tools, and videotape recording and editing equipment.

4. Communication uses are those that allow students and teachers to send and receive messages and information to one another through networks or other technologies. Examples are interactive distance learning through satellite systems, computer and modem, cable links, and e-mail

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5. Teachers must be provided with Ongoing Professional Development and Appropriate support.

If we are to improve education, we must avoid the tendency to rely on simple generalizations and dichotomies. We need to attend to pre-service and in-service issues in improving teacher quality. We need

to be discerning in the kinds of professional development that we support .Teacher quality is not solely determined by a credential or degree, and we should think of it as a characteristic that evolves throughout a teacher’s career, rather than as a static achievement. Teacher quality is an attribute that grows or diminishes based on conditions in which a teacher works, personal motivation, and opportunities for growth and development. In order to make effective use of educational technology, teachers should have to master a variety of powerful tools, redesign their lesson plans around technology-enhanced resources, solve the logistical problem, and take on a complex new role in the technologically transformed classroom. Technology allows all sorts of possibilities for continuing education for teachers, but first they must be comfortable in using it. What we know doesn’t work is somebody standing at the front demonstrating how to use a

computer, and then everyone goes home. We know that becoming comfortable with technology takes an intense amount of time and those educators need to have the computers at college and at home if they are truly to become users.

6. Enhance Teacher Welfare.

The welfare of the teachers is important to enable them develop as an inspiring teachers. In order to attract individuals to the profession and retain them, teacher salaries should be attractive for both new and experienced teachers and salary schedules should offer opportunities for increased compensation without leaving the classroom. In addition,

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we must create an atmosphere in which teachers assume leadership roles in decision-making.

Investment in the professional development of the teachers should not be lost by incentives and practices that draw most experienced teachers away from the classroom.

Conclusion :

Global challenges that influence all areas of human life in the world are

the conditions that are naturally going on as the consequence of the rapid development of science and technology. It is impossible to be avoided but have to be faced by using resources with high quality especially human resources .To face the global challenges successfully, we need qualified human resources that can only be produced through authentic educational program and authentic educational process with high quality teachers. Quality is the keyword for ensuring the quality of education that indicates the quality of output and outcome. Without qualified competent teachers it is impossible to build high quality education. On the other hand, qualified competent teachers will not able to carry out their task professionally without the proper conditions that support their task. Hence, on one hand we need to continually

improve quality in teaching and on the other hand we need to provide proper conditions to support teachers in their professional tasks.

References :

1. Avalos, Beatrice, (2002), Teachers for Twenty-First Century,

Teacher Education: Reflections, Debates, Challenges and Innovations (http:/www.ibe.unesco.org/International/Publications/Prospect/prospect

sOpenFiles/pr123ofc. pdf)

2. Research Implications for Preparing Teachers to Use Technology

(http:/caret.iste.org/caretadm/ news.

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documents/ProfDef.pdf)Discussions of Teacher Quality (http:/www.ets.org/research/pic/teamat.pdf)

3. Guskey, Thomas R., (2001), The Backward Approach (Journal of

Staff Development, Summer 2001 Vol.22 No.

4. Istanto, Freddy H., (2002), A Global Perspective, A Keyword for

Design Education Facing XXI Century, for New ICT Curricula for the 21st Century, Design Tomorrow’s Education, Curriculum Guidelines(http:/www.career-space.com/cdguide/serv3.htm)

5. Schrun, Linne, (2002), Technology in the Classroom,

(http:/www.enc.org/topics/ edtech/contex/document.shtm).

6. Virginia Scale, (2002), Integrating Technology into Planning and

Curriculum (http:/www.ael.org/rtec/ideas.htm)

7. Wenglinsky, (2002), How Teaching Matters Bringing the Classroom

Back into Illinois State Technology Standards, (2001), Core Technology

Standards For All Teachers challenges.(http:/talent.ed.uiuc.edu/docs/Illinois State Technology Standars.pdf)

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