ryan mulvihill pretak-ap_proposal

Absolute Pitch and False Auditory Memory

Running head: ABSOLUTE PITCH AND FALSE AUDITORY MEMORY

NPSY 154a, Prof. Gutchess

Are those with Absolute Pitch

Less Vulnerable to False Auditory Memories?

Ryan Mulvihill-Pretak

Brandeis University

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Recent technological advancements in neuroscience have begun to explain various

cognitive phenomena, such as the ability known as absolute pitch, occurring in one out of every

10,000 everyday people (Elmer, Rogenmmoser, Kühnis, and Jäncke, 2015). Without any

pneumonic devices or a reference pitch, these individuals can identify or produce any note, and

name the key of a song or the pitch of a noise—for example, the humming of a refrigerator or the

snap of a finger. Though this ability is certainly uncommon, it has significantly higher

prevalence in professional musicians (Elmer et al., 2015). Due to the fact that accuracy is the key

determinant of absolute pitch (AP), one could hypothesize that AP individuals might be less

susceptible to false auditory memories when faced with various tasks involving misinformation

and/or suggestibility. Further investigation could potentially answer questions extending beyond

music that concern the manner in which auditory information in general is consolidated in and

retrieved from the long-term memory. The way AP individuals process these stimuli with greater

accuracy could have implications for human memory overall.

Specific Aims:

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether AP individuals are equally or less

vulnerable to creating false auditory memories, when compared with individuals who do not

have this ability. They are likely to exhibit greater accuracy for auditory stimuli, because they

can connect musical notes with conceptual knowledge for the notes' identities. I predict that not

only will AP individuals have greater accuracy in tasks involving auditory stimuli, but more

specifically will exhibit less vulnerability to creation of false auditory memories.

Background Literature:

The link between auditory and frontal cortices

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One theory of absolute pitch proposed by Elmer et al. (2015) suggests that it entails early-

on processing of notes, and instantaneous association with pre-existing information in memory.

AP individuals are able to assign names of notes (A vs. B flat vs. C sharp) to their respective

pitches more rapidly and with higher accuracy than non-AP individuals. The allocation of notes

to stored semantic information for the notes' identities occurs in regions of higher mental

processing—namely, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). People with absolute pitch

show a strong functional link between their auditory cortex and DLPFC.

The roles of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Apart from its traditionally well-known role in decision-making (which has clear

applications to absolute pitch, involving the rapid identification of notes), the DLPFC is one of

numerous cortical areas relevant to working memory and executive function. Sometimes called

the "how" system, the DLPFC is responsible for determining which response should be executed

in any particular situation and when, by using complex mechanisms to convert the external

stimuli into neural responses. When individuals encounter readily distinguishable stimuli, they

exhibit higher levels of activity in, among other areas, the DLPFC (O'Reilly, 2010). Its

involvement in working memory can be applied to those with absolute pitch, since AP

individuals often experience unplanned situations in which they instantaneously interpret and

identify a brief pitch.

Recent studies have also discovered a function of the DLPFC in special conditions of

long-term memory. Its involvement has been suggested in the creation of associations between

related concepts. In a study conducted by Murray and Ranganath (2007) participants compared

the similarities and differences of various pairs of items, which strengthened the connection

between the pairs. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) displayed greater activation in

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the DLPFC when participants retrieved memories for these conceptual relationships. This could

be similar to how AP individuals relate the sound of a pitch with its name. Both items of

information are stored in and can be retrieved from their long-term memories based off of a

given stimulus. Like the knowledge for names, procedures, and other facts, this long-term,

semantic information is permanently stored and may be accessed at any time—declaratively,

explicitly, and consciously. In other words, AP individuals can respond to an auditory stimulus

(a musical note) by labeling it, or respond to a verbal stimulus (a note's name) by singing its

tone.

Tonality and false memory creation

In a 1996 study, Schacter et al. found a region in the DLPFC showing higher activation

for false over true recognition, "Perhaps reflecting the need for evaluation or monitoring of the

strong sense of familiarity produced by false targets" (as cited in Schacter and Slotnick, 2004, p.

156). Although AP individuals show high accuracy for identifying a pitch by name, the extent to

which they are susceptible to creating false auditory memories remains unanswered. Due to the

fact that this identification comes so naturally to AP individuals, they may grow overly

accustomed to it and—under manipulation and/or absentmindedness—devote too little attention

to a note, and as a result, falsely remember it. If the DLPFC, associated with absolute pitch,

shows activation both during the accurate recall of a note, as well as the recall of misinformation

due to familiarity, further research should explore in greater depth the relationship between

absolute pitch and false auditory memories.

On a different note than familiarity, schemas are cognitive organizational systems that

assist people in interpreting and relaying well-known information. They are useful, efficient

shortcuts to this information, but the downside is that these frameworks sometimes close people

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off to new information that does not converge with their pre-existing ideas or knowledge. Vuvan,

Podolack, and Schmuckler (2014) discuss schemas, as well as expectancy, in relation to false

memories. Musicians with a trained ear from years of experience will do considerably well in

"expecting" what is to come in musical passages based on established patterns for tonality and

key. These expectations, in turn, influence the speed and accuracy of their processing. The

congruency theory, as Vuvan et al. (2014) labels it, argues that people will remember

information that fits, or that is congruent, with their schema better than information that does not.

It is important to remember that memory is not a fact-by-fact record of previous events, but

rather a reconstructive process that uses schemas constructed from past experiences to make

decisions and predictions in current or future situations. Vuvan et al. (2014) tried manipulating

these expectations to induce false memories upon participants in a study. In a sequence of tasks,

they progressively weakened effects of memory and expectation by changing the tonality of

musical stimuli from major to minor tonalities, and finally to atonal patterns that induce no

perceptual schemas or patterns. The goal was to determine if expectancies generated by tonality

would influence produced memories for single notes. Once participants developed expectancies

for melodies based on strong, perceptually stable tonalities, these schemas showed influence over

subsequent memory for the single notes. It was found that eliminating tonal schemas from

melodies removed the effects of the congruency theory. In other words, without any tonality-

based expectancies for melody, there were no effects on memory, because a lack of tonal

structures or schemas prevented participants from using their typical memory strategies. This

experiment can be applied to the special case of AP individuals to compare their performance vs.

non-AP individuals'. A similar design will be used later on for the purposes of this study.

Relevant tests to identify absolute pitch and explore false memories

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LePort et al. (2012) used two methods originally designed to test individuals with highly

superior autobiographical memory (HSAM): the Public Events Quiz (PEQ) and the 10 Dates

Quiz (10DQ). The PEQ contained 15 questions asking for the exact date of a given well-known

event, and 15 questions asking for a notable event that occurred on a given date. The 10DQ

presented ten randomly generated dates of which the participants had to identify the day of the

week on which each date took place, an event that fell within a month of each date, and a

description of a personal event that occurred on each date. Although HSAM and absolute pitch

are unrelated, they are comparable in that they are unusual, outstanding abilities that extend

beyond the average realm of human memory. To ensure AP individuals' ability, these two

measures will be adapted.

Although little is known of the link between absolute pitch and false memories, many

studies have investigated false auditory memories more generally. Vernon and Nelson (2000)

presented misinformation to examine the influence on false auditory memories. They showed a

short film followed by a nine question survey. Eight of the questions were filler, but one asked

participants to recall a particular phrase that a character had said. Despite the fact that this

character had not spoken, 23 of 30 people answered what they believed he had said. This

observation demonstrated that under suggestion, people are likely to create false memories ―

even in the auditory realm. Because the question implied that he had spoken, asking for his exact

words, participants failed to recall he in fact did not speak and instead falsely reconstructed a

memory of his words. The influence of suggestibility on false memory creation will be applied to

the special case of absolute pitch for the purposes of this study.

Experimental Design:

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The proposed experiment uses behavioral measures of participants' responses to various

stimuli and corresponding questions.

Participants: For the control group, a sample of fifty adult musicians will be recruited for

this study without compensation. All with 20 or more years of experience, 25 will be part of a

full orchestra, and the other 25 will be part of a mixed choir. Every person must be able to read

sheet music. We will recruit any of those who claim to have absolute pitch (whether in or

extending beyond this sample), who will endure confirmatory evaluation. Due to the fact that the

average percentage of AP individuals is 0.01%—or 1 in every 10,000 people—it will be

impossible to match AP vs. non-AP individuals proportionally; therefore, the experimental AP

group will consist of as many individuals as possible, with an anticipated amount between eight

and ten. Data will be collected for every participant, including his or her age, gender, years of

experience, instrument(s) of choice, and whether he or she has absolute pitch (Group 1) or

relative pitch or neither (Group 2).

The preliminary part of this study will ensure the authenticity of the AP individuals by

adapting the PEQ and 10DQ (LePort et al., 2012). In the first task, AP individuals will identify

15 given pitches by name, and then replicate 15 other pitches given their names. The pitches will

be ordered randomly and lack any pattern of key or sequence. In the second task, 10 randomly

generated pitch names will be given to the participants, each for which they must identify/sing

three things: the three notes of its associated major chord, the three notes of its associated minor

chord, and a well-known song in the pitch's key. For example, the participant will be given the

following stimulus: "A." He will respond with the notes of the major chord (A, C sharp, E), the

notes of the minor chord (A, C, E), and a popular song in the key of A. Participants' responses

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will be collected and scored, and strict guidelines will be used to confidently identify absolute

pitch (a 95% minimum). This will divide participants into the experimental and control groups.

Design & Procedures: This between-groups design examines AP participants'

vulnerability to false auditory memories compared to non-AP participants.

Experiment 1: Are AP individuals less vulnerable than non-AP individuals to creating false

memories?

To examine any potential differences between AP and non-AP individuals' susceptibility

to false auditory memories, the first experiment entails three levels—increasing in complexity—

of various lists of musical stimuli, including different tones and pitches. I predict a general

decline in accuracy as the complexity of the notes increases, measure-by-measure, for both AP

and non-AP individuals; however, for all three measures, AP individuals will create fewer false

memories than non-AP individuals.

In the first task, participants will be played ten lists of five random notes. After each list,

they will hear a note that was not in the list, and answer whether the target note was played in its

respective list: YES or NO. In the second task, participants will be played eight lists of four

three-note sequences. Some of the sequences will be chords with a particular order, and others

will be random. After each list, they will hear a sequence that was not in the list, and answer

whether the target sequence was played in its respective list: YES or NO. Finally, in the third

task, participants will be played six lists of three four-measure patterns. The short patterns will

vary in rhythm/melody, list-by-list. After each list, they will hear a pattern that was not in the

list, and answer whether the target pattern was played in its respective list: YES or NO.


memories due to schematic expectancies?

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In continuation, Vuvan et al.'s 2014 study can be adapted to see if schemas for major

tonalities and high vs. low expectancies for various keys and melodies have an effect on later to-

be-recalled single notes. Participants will hear different melodies—each in 4/4 time signature

and between 14 and 16 beats total, all in G major—in order to develop strong schemas for

tonality. After each melody, they will hear a single probe tone and be asked whether or not they

heard it in its corresponding melody: YES or NO. There will be 20 total trials of melodies

followed by corresponding probe tones. We will also look at differences between high and low

expectancies for probe tones. An example of a high expectancy would be a probe tone of D,

since the key of G major includes D in the chord. Alternatively, a low expectancy would be a

probe tone of D sharp, since G major does not include that note in the chord. I predict that AP

and non-AP individuals will perform equally well for whether or not the probe was heard in its

respective melody when expectancy is low; however, when expectancy is high, I predict that

while non-AP individuals will still exhibit relatively accurate memories, AP individuals will

exhibit significantly less false memories. This is due to the fact that they have higher accuracy in

relating pitches with names, and due to this connection of information, they will be more

accurate in recalling whether or not a note was in the melody, whether expectancy is low or high.


memories influenced by suggestibility?

The last experiment will examine the differences of suggestibility between AP and non-

AP individuals. I predict that because AP individuals show high accuracy and efficiency for

musical stimuli, they will create fewer false memories than non-AP individuals. A design used

by Vernon and Nelson (2000) will be adapted to the special case of AP individuals. Both groups

will be shown a brief film of a character studying sheet music that she says is two lines total

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(although the music itself cannot be seen) and must be learned in four minutes. She begins to

practice aloud, singing a section of four quarter notes in a minor key. After the film, the

participants will have ten minutes to answer nine total questions—eight of which, consisting of

verbal and nonverbal information, are designed to be easily answered. The auditory target

question, however, use suggestibility to test participants' vulnerability to false memories. The

question says: "In a major key, she sings: (1) Two half notes; (2) Four quarter notes; (3) Your

own answer." Based on Vuvan et al.'s 2014 study, people's perception of minor keys is weaker

than it is for major keys, so the question purposefully implants misinformation ("In a major key")

to see whether the participant chooses the wrong notes altogether (1), answers the correct notes

but with the wrong tonality (2), or realizes the trick and mentions the correct tonality (3).

Expected Challenges and Proposed Plans:

Concerning the selection of participants, there are potential differences in training,

knowledge, and ability between musicians who play stringed or brass instruments, do percussion,

or sing. In relation to absolute pitch and false memories, we will record the specification of their

musicianship and look at differences between groups at the end, but these differences are not the

main focus of the study. If findings indicate that musicianship is an important factor, it is an area

that may be explored in future studies. Similarly, to rule out potential extraneous factors, we will

also record whether participants claim to have relative pitch, which is similar to absolute pitch,

but far more common. Whether or not someone has this ability (as many musicians do) could

potentially change, even enhance, their performance; therefore, to keep factors consistent, it

should be recorded. Likewise it is important to ensure that all of the musicians have roughly the

same amount of minimum experience. The relationship between ability and years of experience

is positive, but at a decreasing rate—that is, a difference of five to ten years is large, and a

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difference of ten to twenty years is lesser yet noticeable, but after that period, there are few

substantial marginal gains of differences in years of experience. For this study, 20 years is the

minimum so that the experimental tasks are not overtly in favor of AP individuals. The control

group is still familiar with music and can perform these tasks, so it is fair and relatively equal for

all participants. Thus, the only true and relevant difference between participants is absolute pitch.

While this study focuses solely on false auditory memories involving musicians, the

question remains for non-musicians with or without absolute pitch. Some people may not have

much experience with music, but still have absolute pitch and not know it. Similar to differences

in musicianship, if the findings of this study are significant, this perspective could be extended to

a larger population to explore the implications for the human memory in general.

Implications of Research:

This experiment may result in findings that broaden our knowledge of the brain's

functions of memory. Specifically, research on absolute pitch may explain how AP individuals

retain musical or auditory information so efficiently—especially if we find a greater immunity to

misinformation imposed by suggestibility and expectancy. This, in turn, may allow us to

discover more about auditory information in general. As has already been discussed, normal

perception of auditory information includes not only the auditory cortex and other cortical areas

associated with memory, but equally importantly, the functional connections between these

areas. Elmer et al. (2015) believes that further investigation into AP individual's memory systems

may give us insight into developing training measures and programs that can enhance the

auditory skills of growing children, aging adults, and people with hearing impairments.

Discovering more about the brain's encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of auditory information

—in AP and non-AP individuals—can potentially allow us to develop strategies to store

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knowledge more efficiently and with better retention in the future. The field of neuroscience is

constantly improving, and more mysteries about human memory will undoubtedly be discovered

that will help use our brains and memories more proficiently.

References

Elmer, S., Rogenmmoser, L., Kühnis, J., & Jäncke, L. (2015). Bridging the Gap between

Perceptual and Cognitive Perspectives on Absolute Pitch. Journal Of Neuroscience,

35(1), 366-371. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3009-14.2015

LePort, A. R., Mattfeld, A. T., Dickinson-Anson, H., Fallon J. H., Stark, C. L., Kniggel, F., &

McGaugh, J. L. (2012). Behavioral and neuroanatomical investigation of Highly Superior

Autobiographical Memory (HSAM). Neurobiology Of Learning And Memory, 98(1), 78-

92. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2012.05.002

Murray, L. J., & Ranganath, C. (2007). The Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Contributes to

Successful Relational Memory Encoding. Journal Of Neuroscience, 27(20), 5515-5533.

doi:10.1523/JNEURODCI.0406-07.2007

O'Reilly, R. C. (2010). The What and How of prefrontal cortical organization. Trends In

Neurosciences, 33(8), 355-360. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2010.05.002

Schacter, D. L., & Slotnick, S. D. (2004). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory Distortion.

Neuron, 44(1), 149-160. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.08.017

Vernon, B., & Nelson, E. (2000). Exposure to suggestion and creation of false auditory

memories. Psychological Reports, 86(1), 344-346. doi:10.2466/PR0.86.1.344-346

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Vuvan, D. T., Podolak, O.M., & Schmuckler, M.A. (2014). Memory for musical tones: The

impact of tonality and the creation of false memories. Frontiers In Psychology, 51-61.

doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00582

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ryan mulvihill pretak-ap_proposal

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