running to stand still: small-scale farmers and the green revolution … · running to stand still:...

19
www.acbio.org.za Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi SUMMARY REPORT October 2014

Upload: vuongkien

Post on 12-Apr-2018

223 views

Category:

Documents


3 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

w w w . a c b i o . o r g . z a

Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in MalawiSUMMARY REPORTOctober 2014

Page 2: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

Contents

Acknowledgements iiiAcronyms ivExecutivesummary viIntroduction 1Methodology 4 Backgroundtotheresearch 4 Processandmethodologydesign 5 Selectioncriteria 6 Siteselection 6 Researchtools 7Context 9 TheGreenRevolutionpushinAfrica 9 OverviewofagricultureinMalawi 11 Overviewofthreeproductionsystems 15 AGRA,seedandsoilfertilityinMalawi 18Farmerperceptionsofagriculturalchallenges 21Nutritionandfoodsecurity 25 Dietarydiversity 26 Sourcesoffoodconsumed 26Landaccessandcultivation 29Productionandyields 33Theroleoftobacco 36Seedaccessandpractices 40 Hybridorlocalmaize 45 Seedselectionandrecycling 47 Seeduseandhouseholdfoodsecurity 48Agriculturalpracticesandsoilfertility 50 Agriculturalpractices 50 Agriculturalpracticesandhouseholdfoodsecurity 51 Syntheticfertiliseruse 53 Organicsoilfertilitymethods 56 Soiltestresultsandanalysis 58 Soilfertilityandhouseholdfoodsecurity 60TheFarmInputSubsidyProgramme(Fisp) 62 FISPandseed 62 FISPandfertiliser 64Marketaccess 66Conclusionandfurtherresearch 70Appendix1:AGRApassandSHPgrantsinMalawi,2007-2015 73References 76

Page 3: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

The African Centre for Biosafety (ACB) is a non-profit organisation, based in Johannesburg, South Africa. It was established to protect Africa’s biodiversity, traditional knowledge, food production systems, culture and diversity, from the threats posed by genetic engineering in food and agriculture. It, has in addition to its work in the field of genetic engineering, also opposed biopiracy, agrofuels and the Green Revolution push in Africa, as it strongly supports social justice, equity and ecological sustainability.

The ACB has a respected record of evidence-based work and can play a vital role in the agro-ecological movement by striving towards seed sovereignty, built upon the values of equal access to and use of resources.

©The African Centre for Biosafetywww.acbio.org.zaPO Box 29170, Melville 2109 South AfricaTel: +27 (0)11 486 1156

Design and layout: Adam Rumball, Sharkbouys Designs, Johannesburg

Cover image: Stephen Greenberg

Page 4: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi iii

Acknowledgements

Researchteam:AlinafeBanda(Kusamala)MollyCheatum(Kusamala)KondwaniChikadza(UniversityofMalawi)KenChilungulo(NASFAM)DrBlessingsChinsinga(UniversityofMalawi)DrStephenGreenberg(ACB)GarethJones(ACB)FrazerMataya(NASFAM)

WeappreciatethevaluableassistanceofCharlesZawandaandJosephMsaya(NASFAMKasungufieldofficers),GreyBanda(ChamamaNASFAMAssociationChair),LesterBotomanandDonwellKamalongo(ChitedzeResearchStation)andFrankMasankha(NASFAMHeadOffice),SwissDevelopmentCooperation(SDC)forfundingandinput,MariamMayetandHaideeSwanbyatACBforinput,GeorgePhiriandStaciaNordinatFAOMalawiforinput,andinterviewrespondentsandfarmersfortheirtimeandinsights.

Page 5: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

iv A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y

Acronyms

ACB AfricanCentreforBiosafetyACE AgriculturalCommoditiesExchangeADMARC AgriculturalDevelopmentandMarketingCorporationADP Agro-dealerDevelopmentProgramme(AGRA)AFSA AllianceforFoodSovereigntyinAfricaAGRA AllianceforaGreenRevolutioninAfricaANOVA AnalysisofvarianceASSMAG AssociationofSmallholderSeedMultiplicationActionGroupsAU AfricanUnionCa CalciumCA ConservationAgricultureCAADP ComprehensiveAfricanAgriculturalDevelopmentProgrammeCAN CalciumammoniumnitrateCEC CationexchangecapacityCGIAR ConsultativeGroupforInternationalAgriculturalResearchCIAT InternationalCentreforTropicalAgricultureCISANET CivilSocietyAgricultureNetworkCNFA Anon-profitinternationaldevelopmentorganisationbasedinWashingtonDCCO2 CarbondioxideCSO CivilSocietyOrganisationDARS DepartmentofAgriculturalResearchServicesDUS Distinct,uniformandstableEACI EducationforAfricanCropImprovementETG ExportTradingGroupFAO UnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganisationFGD FocusgroupdiscussionFIAAC FundfortheImprovementandAdoptionofAfricanCrops(AGRA)FISP FarmInputSubsidyProgrammeFO FarmerOrganisationFOSCA FarmerOrganisationSupportCentreinAfricaFSO FarmerSupportOrganisationFtF FeedtheFuture(USgovernment)GDP GrossDomesticProductGM GeneticallyModifiedGR GreenRevolutionH+ HydrogenionsICRAF WorldAgroforestryCentreICRISAT InternationalCropResearchInstitutefortheSemi-AridTropicsIITA InternationalInstituteforTropicalAgricultureIMF InternationalMonetaryFundISFM IntegratedSoilFertilityManagementISSD IntegratedSeedSectorDevelopmentK Potassium

Page 6: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi v

LRC LandResourcesCentreMARDEF MalawiRevolvingDevelopmentFundMASP MalawiAgro-dealerStrengtheningProgrammeMg MagnesiumMK MalawianKwachaMNCs MultinationalCorporationsMoAFS MinistryofAgricultureandFoodSecurityMSHC MalawiSoilHealthConsortiumN NitrogenNAFSN NewAllianceforFoodSecurityandNutrition(G8)NASFAM NationalSmallholderFarmers’AssociationofMalawiNEPAD NewEconomicPartnershipforAfrica’sDevelopmentNGO Non-governmentalOrganisationNPK Nitrogen,phosphorous,potassiumOAU OrganisationforAfricanUnityOPV Open-pollinatedVarietyP PhosphorusPASS ProgrammeforAfrica’sSeedSystems(AGRA)PPP Public-privatePartnershipR&D ResearchandDevelopmentRumark RuralMarketDevelopmentTrustS SulphurSAGCOT SouthernAgriculturalGrowthCorridorofTanzaniaSDC SwissDevelopmentCooperationSEPA SeedProductionforAfrica(AGRA)SFFRFM SmallholderFarmerFertiliserRevolvingFundofMalawiSHP SoilHealthProgramme(AGRA)SPSS StatisticalPackageforSocialSciencesSSTP ScalingSeedsandTechnologiesPartnershipSTAM SeedTradeAssociationofMalawiTIP TargetedInputProgrammeUPOV UnionfortheProtectionofNewVarietiesofPlantsVDC VillageDevelopmentCommitteeWEF WorldEconomicForum

Page 7: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

vi A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction, context and methodology

MalawihasbeenhailedasaGreenRevolutionsuccessstory.Butacloserlookrevealsfarmerstrappedinacycleofdebtanddependencyoncostlyexternalinputs,andanerodingnaturalresourcebase.Small-scalefarmersareusingshockinglyhighlevelsofsyntheticfertiliseratgreatfinancialcosttothemselvesandthegovernment,withtheadditionalconsequenceofrisingsoilinfertility.Encouragedbygovernmentsubsidiesandthepromiseofmassiveyieldincreasesfarmersareincreasinglyadoptinghybridmaizeseed.However,adoptionofthesehybridseedscomesatthecostofabandoningthediversityandresilienceoflocalvarietiesandtheever-escalatingrequirementforsyntheticfertiliserapplications.Givenstructurallylowproductprices,theslightyieldincreasesbeingrealisedbyfarmersseldomjustifytheaddedfinancialandecologicalexpenseoftheinputs.Indeed,findingsshownettransfersawayfromfarminghouseholdstoagribusinessesthroughtheadoptionofGreenRevolution(GR)technologies.Thisreporthighlightstheplightofsmall-scalefarmersatthereceivingendoftheGreenRevolutionpushinMalawi.

Inearly2014theAfricanCentreforBiosafety(ACB)launchedamulti-yearresearchprogrammeinsouthernandeastAfricatoinvestigateseedandsoilfertilitypracticesandthechallengesfacingsmall-scalefarmersintheregion.Malawiwasthefirstcountrytobestudied,andACBworkedwiththeNationalSmallholderFarmers’AssociationofMalawi(NASFAM),theKusamalaInstituteofAgricultureandEcologyandDrBlessingsChinsingaattheUniversityofMalawitoconducttheresearch,andwithChitedzeResearchStationforthesoiltesting.Theresearchprogrammehastwobroadaims:tocontributetotheestablishmentofaregionalresearchnetworkonseedandsoilfertilityissues,andtoofferanevidence-basedcritiqueoftheGRagenda.ThesecondaimincludesaparticularfocusontheactivitiesoftheAllianceforaGreenRevolutioninAfrica(AGRA),aninstitutionthatplaysacriticalcoordinatingroleinexpandingtheGRontheAfricancontinent.

AGRA’sworkintheGRpushiswide-rangingandincludessupporttopublicandprivateplantbreeders,soilscientists,privateinputsuppliers,agriculturalcreditextensionandpolicyandadvocacy.InMalawi,AGRA’slargestinvestmenttodatehasbeentheMalawiAgro-dealerSupportProgramme(MASP),runbyUS-basedCNFA(anon-profitinternationaldevelopmentorganisation)until2012.ThereweretwoAGRA-sponsoredprojectswithinthestudysites,theCNFA-managedMASP,fallingunderAGRA’sProgrammeforAfrica’sSeedSystems(PASS),andsupporttoNASFAMforpigeonpeaintegrationaspartoftheSoilHealthProgramme(SHP).Theimpactoftheseprojectstodateisdiffuseinthestudysites.Theseprojectshavehadarelativelysmallimpactonfarmerswithinthestudysitessofar,buttheyareonlybuildingblocksinawiderGRthrustinwhichAGRA’sinfluencehasbeensignificant.AGRAistheco-ordinatoroftherecentlyestablishedScalingSeedsandTechnologiesPartnership(SSTP)undertheauspicesoftheG8’sNewAllianceforFoodSecurityandNutrition(NAFSN).Atthetimethisresearchwasbeingconductednopracticalactivitieswereyettakingplaceunderthispartnership.Follow-upresearchtobeconductedbyACBin2015willincludeinvestigationoftheseAGRAinterventionsinmoredetail,togetherwithcountrypartnerswherepossible.

Theresearchmethodologyincludedashortsurveywith90farmersintwoNASFAMsitesinKasungu(ChamamaandChipala)andoneKusamalasiteinDowa(Nambuma).Thesurveycovereddemographics,land,productionandyields,agriculturalpracticesandsoilfertilityandseedaccessandpractices.Stratificationwasbasedongender,ageandproductionpractices.Across-sectionofconventionalagriculture,conservationagriculture(CA)andagro-ecologicalpracticeswereidentifiedasthebasisforacomparisonofimpactsonhouseholdnutrition,productionandsoilfertility.Analysisofthecomparativeaspectsisplannedasalongitudinalstudy,withthisfirstsurveydesignedasabaselinestudy.Inadditiontothebaselinesurvey,interviewsandfocusgroupswereconductedwithparticipatingfarmers,anddiscussionswereheldwitharangeofrelevantnationalandlocalinformants.Theinitialresultsrevealhighlevelsof

Page 8: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi vii

hybridisationofconventional,CAandagro-ecologicalpractices;withfarmerssimultaneouslyusingpurchasedcertifiedandhybridseedandsyntheticfertiliserandapplyingfarmingmethodssuchasleavingcropresiduesonthefield,intercroppingandrecyclingseed.TheuptakeofGRtechnologiesisunevenandthereasonsforthisarenotassimpleaslackofknowledgeoraccess.Farmersalsomakechoicesandhedgeriskbyemployingarangeofdifferentiatedpractices.Whatfollowsisacondensedsummaryofthemainresultsofthisresearch,togetherwithconclusionsandrecommendationsforpolicydevelopmentandfurtherwork.Afullreportwillbemadeavailableshortly,followingthissummary.

Farmer perceptions of agricultural challenges

Farmersidentifiedhighfertiliserprices(99%),lackofmarkets(82%),changeinrainfallpatterns(81%),andhighseedprices(77%)asthemostseriouschallengescurrentlyfacingthem.Theseprioritieswereconsistentlyhighacrossthethreesites.HighinputpricesareakeylimitingfactorintheadoptionofGRtechnologies,whilelowoutputpricesaretheproductofstructuraldisadvantagesandadverseincorporationofsmall-scalefarmersintoliberalisedglobalcommoditymarkets.Nosignificantgenderdifferentialswereidentifiedwithinmostoftheseriouschallengesidentified.Weakinstitutionalsupport,withparticularemphasisonextensionandresearch,wasidentifiedasanissueinfocusgroups.

Althoughtherewasgeneralconsensusthatfarminghadbecomemorechallengingoverthepastfiveyears,somefarmersfeltthatprogresswasbeingachieved.Manyofthesefarmerstendedtoberetiredworkerswithgenerallyhigherlevelsofeducation.Theresearchrevealssomedifferentiationamongfarmers,atrendthatisinevitablyacceleratedbytheintroductionofGRtechnologies.

Nutrition and food security

Participantswereaskedquestionsaboutdietarydiversityandwhethertheirhouseholdswereabletoeatfoodstheyareusedto,as

proxiesforhouseholdfoodsecurity.Dietarydiversityisameasureofthevarietyoffoodsconsumedinarecentperiod,withthreeorfewerfoodsindicatinglackofdiversity.Around8%ofrespondenthouseholdshadconsumedthreeorfewercategoriesoffoodinthepastthreedays.Thisfigurewouldhavebeenhigherifmeasuredovertheprevious24hours.Morethan80%ofhouseholdshadconsumedmaize,greenleafyvegetables,‘other’vegetables(includingtomatoes,onions,okraandothers)andlegumesinthepastthreedays.Butfewerthan60%ofhouseholdshadconsumedrice,wheatproducts,anykindofmeat,potatoes,fruitorvegetableshighinVitaminA.Sixty-ninepercentofrespondentsindicatedtheysometimes,oftenoralwayscouldnoteatfoodstheyareusedto,whileonly15%werealwaysabletoeatfoodstheyareusedto.

Resultsshowedsomedifferentiationbetweenstudysitesregardingincomebeingenoughtocoverbasicneeds.ThemajorityofrespondentsinChipala(77%)indicatedcurrentincomewasoftenenoughtocoverbasicneeds.Bycontrast,inNambuma(89%)andChamama(82%),themajorityofrespondentsindicatedtheirincomewasrarelyorneverenoughtocoverbasicneeds.Thiswasoneofmanyresultsshowingsomedifferentiationbetweenfarmersindifferentsites.

Anearlyindicationofaprobleminthefoodsystemisflaggedwhenhouseholdsconfirmtheyarenotabletoeatfoodstheyareusedtoandyettheyarearesellingfood.Althougharelativelysmallnumber,50–60%ofthe

Page 9: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

viii A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y

householdsthatwereoftenoralwaysunabletoeatthefoodstheywantedtoalsosoldmaize,beansandgroundnuts.

Mostfoodconsumedinhouseholdsinthepastthreedayswasproducedeitherbythehouseholditselforpurchased,withverylittlefoodbeingsourcedfromtradeorbarter,orbeingreceivedasagiftorshared.Themajorfoodtypesproducedbythehouseholdweremaize(87%),pumpkin/orangesweetpotato(87%),legumes(83%),eggs(69%)andpotatoes(59%).Foodsthatwerepredominantlypurchasedincludeoilsandfats(100%),sugar(96%),dairy(96%),fish(90%),riceandwheat(81%)and‘other’vegetables(75%).Morethanhalftherespondentshadconsumedfruit,whichwassplitbetweenownproductionandpurchase.Banana(23%),papaya(22%)andmango(20%)werethemostcommonfoodtreesgrownbyparticipatinghouseholds.

InruralMalawimanyfamiliesrunoutoffoodwellbeforethenextharvest,meaningtheyareforcedtoabandontheirowngardensinsearchofcashorin-kindemploymentinordertoaccessfood.Thistrendwasreflectedinthesurvey,with56%ofhouseholdsrunningoutoffoodbetweenthecriticalfarmingmonthsofOctoberandFebruary.Onlysixhouseholds,allinChipala,saidtheydidnotrunoutoffood,anothersignofdifferentiation.

Land access and cultivation

Althoughlandwasnotafocusareaofthisresearch,landownershipandaccessisanessentialvariableinagriculturalproduction.Thesurveyincludedquestionsonthesizeofarespondent’slandholdings,cultivatedareasandthedistancesrespondentshadtotraveltotendtheirfields.

Thesurveyshowedaveragelandholdingsofaround7acres(2.8ha1)perhouseholdwithavariationof4.5acresinNambuma,6.4acresinChamamaand9.9acresinChipala;thelastfigureisskewedbyonelargelandholdingof99acres.Acrossallsites57%ofhouseholdsreportedtheyownedbetween1and3ha,thoughinNambumaalmostthree-quartersownedlessthan2ha.Thisisanotherindicatorofdifferentiationbetweenthesites,withrespondentsinNambumatendingtobelesswell-offandrespondentsinChipalatendingtobeslightlybetteroff.

Cultivatedlandincludesownland,dimbaland(dimbolandtranslatesaswetland/sinEngish;thisislandborderingariverwherecultivationduringthedryseasondependsonresidualmoisture),rentedlandandborrowedland.Theportionofownlandcultivatedaveragedaround70%oftotallandownedbyhouseholds.Justunderathirdofhouseholds(30%)rentedsomelandforcultivation,withtheaveragesizeofrentedlandbeing2.26acresorjustunder1ha.Thosewhowerecultivatingdimbalandreportedlandsizeofcloseto1hainallthreesites.Ofthethreesites,Nambumaismorereliantonrentalsandborrowingwhichsignifiespotentiallanddemand(i.e.peopleneedingmorelandthantheyown).

Therearesomesignificantrelationshipsbetweenthesizeoflandholdingandkeychallengesfacingfarminghouseholds.Changesinrainfallpatternsandlackofmarketsareseriousissuesacrossalllandownershipsizes.Highseedpricesaregenerallymoreofanissuewithincreasingfarmsize,fromtwo-thirdsinthelandlesscategoryto90%inthe3–4hacategoryand82%inthe>4hacategory.Poorqualityseedtendstobemoreofanissue

1. Acceptingthatonehectareismoreorless2.5acres,basedonaNASFAMsurvey

Page 10: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi ix

forsmallerfarmers,fromone-fifthinthe<1hacategorytolessthanone-tenthinthe>4hacategory,butthisisnotaneventrend.Generallyseedqualityisnotamajorissue.

TheMalawiG8CooperationFrameworkcommitstheMalawiangovernmenttorelease200,000haoflandinbothcustomaryandleaseholdareasforlarge-scalecommercialagricultureby2015.Wemustaskwherethislandwillcomefromandwhowillbedispossessedasaresult.

Production and yields

Notsurprisingly,maize(hybridandlocal,combined),groundnuts,tobaccoandbeanswerethemostwidelyproducedcropsinthethreesites,followedbyhybridmaize(asadistinctcategoryfromlocalmaize)andsoya.Hybridmaizeyieldswereonaverage519kgmorethanlocalmaizeyields.AttheprevailingmarketpriceofMK60/kg(US$0.142)thistranslatesintoapotentialadditionalincomeofMK31,140/household(US$74.14).However,thisdoesnotjustifytheadditionalaverageinputcostsofMK5,798(US$13.80)forhybridmaizeseedplusMK81,296(US$193.54)forNPK(three-componentsyntheticfertilisers)andureawhichareusedprimarilyonmaize.Whenincreasedinputcostsaretakenintoaccount,farmersadoptingGRtechnologiesrealiseapotentialincomedeficitofMK55,954(US$133.22).Evenifthesyntheticfertiliserisalsosharedamongstothercrops,overallproductionofthesecropsremainslowanditishighlyunlikelythatfarmerswillrealiseanetprofitbyadoptingthesetechnologies.Theshort-termbenefitofhigheryieldsmasksthisnettransferfromsmall-scalefarminghouseholdstoseedandfertiliseragribusinesses.

AGRA’sseedworkinMalawiemphasisesmaize,beans,soya,peas,groundnuts,cassavaandsweetpotato,soamixtureofcommonlycultivatedcropsandlesscultivatedcrops.Therewassomedifferentiationinthetypeofmaizeproducedbyarea.InNambumaahighpercentageofrespondents(80%)producedlocalmaize,whileinChamamahybridmaizewaspredominant,at90%ofrespondents.

Althoughothercropswerenotaswidelyproducedtherewerealargenumberofsmallercropsthatgenerallyareneglectedbyformalresearchanddevelopment(R&D)effortsbecausetheyareseenasnon-commercialcrops.Yetthesecropsplayacriticalroleinensuringlocalnutritionaldiversity.Inacountrywherethemajorityofhouseholdsareresource-poorfarminghouseholds,thesecropsareextremelyimportant.

Fifty-threepercentoftheparticipatinghouseholdsplantedondimbaland.Ofthese,60%plantedmustard,48%plantedpumpkinand46%plantedtomatoes.Fifty-onepercentoftheparticipatinghouseholdsplantedaroundtheirhomesteads.Aquarteroftheseplantedpapayaandafifthplantedpumpkin.Thereisacleargenderdifferenceregardingthecultivationofdimbaland—64%ofwomen-headedhouseholdshadnotplantedondimbalandinthepastseason,while44%ofmale-headedhouseholdshadnotcultivateddimbalandinthesameperiod.Thisindicateslowerlandaccessforwomen.

Onaverage,slightlylessthan1.5tonsofmaizewasretainedforhomeuse.Becauseofgreateryields,morehybridmaizeonaveragewaskeptforhomeuse(1,493kg)comparedwithlocalmaize(1,173kg).Justoverhalftherespondentsretainedmorethan1tonofhybridmaize,andjustoverathirdoftheproducersretainedmorethan1tonoflocalmaize,forhomeuse.Thevastmajorityofproducersofbeans,groundnuts,pigeonpea,cowpea,soyaandsweetpotatokeptlessthan500kgoftheproductforhomeuse.

The role of tobacco

Malawiistheworld’smosttobacco-relianteconomy,withthecropaccountingforover60%ofexportearnings.Sincethesectorwasliberalisedin1992,small-scalefarmershavebecomethemajorityproducers.NASFAMitselfwasestablishedwithfundingfromUSAIDin1994withaprimaryfocusonintegratingsmallholdersintocommercialtobaccoproduction.KasunguandDowaarebothkeytobaccoproducingareasinMalawi,withover

2.AtarateofUS$1=MK420,theprevailingrateatthetimeoftheresearch.

Page 11: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

x A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y

81%ofparticipatingfarmersgrowingtobaccointhe2013/14season.TableAshowsthetobaccocostbreakdownofaclubinChamamaandindicatesthatthefarmers’shareoftotalvaluewaslessthan11%ofdriedleaf.InordertogeneratetheMK48,115(US$114.56)incomefromaseason’slabour,farmersbearinputcostsofMK181,480(US$432.10).Althoughthesecostsareusuallycoveredbytobaccocompaniesthroughvaluechainfinancingoncontract(credittopurchaseinputswithdeductionsbeforepayment),farmersbeartheriskofproductionfailure.

Thiscaserevealsaclassiccontractfarmingmodel,wherefarmerswithnobargainingpowertakeonloanstogrowcashcropsyetreceiveasmallfractionofitsfinalvalue.AstheWorldBank(2003:5)states,“farmersarecarriedawaybythehighgrossreturnfromtobaccoinsteadofcomparingthenetreturns”.Thereareothernegativeimpactsassociatedwithtobaccocultivation.Itisnotacropthatcanbekeptbackforconsumptionintimesofacutehunger,noristhereanyprospectoffinding

alternativebuyersorvalueaddition.Further,tobaccoextractslargeamountsofnutrientsfromthesoilandrequirestheapplicationoflargequantitiesofpesticides.Thevaluechainneedstobeinvestigatedfurther,togetherwithfarmers,toexaminetherealbenefitsforthem,inthelongrun,ofplantingtobacco.

Seed access and practices

SeedisakeyfocusintheGRthrust.Asoutlinedabove,AGRAhasamajorfocusonseedinMalawiandisinvolvedinsupportingR&Dandtheproductionanddistributionofimprovedseedforallthemajorcropsgrownbysurveyrespondents,asidefromtobacco.Althoughgermplasminthepublicsphere—nationalagriculturalresearchsystemsandtheConsultativeGroupforInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)institutes—isthebasisofmuchofthisdevelopment,thelong-termaimistoinvolvetheprivatesectorinproductionanddistribution.Theimplicationsforfarmer-managedseedsystemsandagro-biodiversityaredownplayed,withfarmer-

Table A: Tobacco cost breakdown for one club, Chamama

Total (48bales)(US$)

Per bale(US$) Per bale (MK)

a.Proceedsfromsales 8,445 175.9 73,878

b.Chargesatauctionfloor(sellingconcession,TCCcessandclass,ARET,NASFAMlevies)

359.2 7.5 3,150

c.Deductions(NASFAMtransport,hessian,tax) 909.56 18.95 7,959

d.Loanrepayment 6,042.65 125.89 52,873

e.Balingjack 102.86(MK43,200)

2.14 900

f.Transporttoactioncommittee 114.29(MK48,000)

2.38 1,000

g.Profitafterdeductions,loanrepaymentetc.(butexcludinglabour)

916.44 19.09 8,019

h.Averageperfarmer3 114.56(MK48,115)

2.39 1,002

i.Farmers’shareoftotalsale(g/ax100) 10.85%

Source:focusgroupdiscussionsandreceiptsMK/US$420:1exchange

3. Totalfiguresontheauctionhousereceiptforthetobaccoclubofeightfarmersinthiscase.

Page 12: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi xi

managedsystemsconsideredinferiortoprofit-generatingprivateactivityinseedproductionanddistribution.

Oneoftheobjectivesofthestudywastoinvestigateseedaccess,farmer-basedseedpractices,andtheimplicationsofthesepracticesonagriculturalproductivity.Investigationsfoundthatcertifiedorhybridseedusewaslimitedtomaize(73%ofrespondents)andtobacco(42%).ThroughtheFISPthegovernmentofMalawiplaysamajorroleincreatingamarketforhybridmaizeseedand,toalesserextent,improvedlegumes,whilethetobaccocompanieshavetheirownclosedvaluechainsforimprovedtobaccoseed.Despitethis,respondentsrecycledevenhybridseedforvariousreasons,themostcommonofwhichweretoensureseedavailabilitywhenthefirstrainsarriveandthehighpricesofcertifiedseedwhichlimitaccess.

AGRA-supportedseeddevelopment,productionanddistributionprogrammescoverafairlywiderangeofcroptypesinMalawi,butfarmersinthesurveyarestillusingnon-certifiedseed.Almosthalftherespondentsplantednon-certifiedorlocalmaizevarieties,andthemajorityoffarmersplantednon-certifiedcowpeas(87%,butonalowbase),beans(75%)andsoya(60%).Manyfarmersplantedbothhybridandlocal/uncertifiedmaize.Theavailabilityofcertifiedseedmaybeanissue,butofmoreimportanceisthelimitedaccesstocertifiedseed.Thisisduetohighpricesandvariousqualityfactors(includingstorage,processing,conversionratesofkernelstoflour,taste,insectresistancebothinthefieldandinstorage,anddroughttolerance).Respondentstendedtoreservelocalmaizeforconsumption,andsellahigherproportionoftheirhybridmaize.Theavailabilityoflocalanduncertifiedvarietiesoffersfarmersarangeofoptions.

Seedrecyclingisacommonpractice,with80%oflocalmaize,73%ofcowpea,64%ofbeans,55%ofgroundnutsand54%ofsoybeanseedsbeingrecycled.Hybridmaizeistheonlyseedthatwasmostlypurchasedfromseeddealers(59%).Beanseedwasthenextmostpurchasedseed,butonly18%ofrespondentswhousedbeanseedinthepastseasonhadpurchasedit.NASFAMandtobaccocompanyloansarean

importantsourceofpigeonpeaseed(60%)andtobaccoseed(12%)respectively.NASFAM’sintroductionofpigeonpeawassponsoredbyAGRA.Theprogrammehasnothadamajorimpactintheresearchsitestodate,withsmallquantitiesofseedbeingdistributed(lessthan5kgperparticipatingfarminghousehold)andlimitedreturnsforfarmers.Anaspectofplannedfollow-upresearchwillinvestigateinmoredetailthefunctioningandimpactsofNASFAM’spigeonpeaprogramme,includingtheextenttowhichithastakenoffinotherareasofMalawi.FurtherinvestigationwillalsoexploreotherimprovedandhybridseedvarietiessponsoredbyAGRAinMalawi.

Theresearchdidnotuncoveranysystematicmarketinuncertifiedseedinthesitesandconfirmedthatrespondentstendedtosaveseedprimarilyfortheirownuse.Thereisnopracticalsupportfromgovernmentforthesavingorexchangeofuncertifiedseed,whileeffortsbyAGRAandgovernmentaliketendtowardsreplacinguncertifiedseedswithcertifiedvarieties.Thiscouldbringimprovedgermplasmintoseedsystemsbutmayhavenegativeimpactsonseeddiversity.Surveyresponsesindicatedabiggervariationinthecostbetweencertifiedanduncertifiedseedthaninperceivedquality.ThisposesaquestionaboutthevalueformoneyofGRtechnologies.Themainseedcostsincurredbyrespondents

Page 13: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

xii A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y

wereforhybridmaizeandcertifiedtobaccoseed.However,thesecostsarerelativelysmallwhencomparedwiththecostoffertiliserinputs(seebelow).Ahighpercentageofrespondentsincurrednoexpenseinprocuringseedforlocalmaize(85%),groundnuts(64%)andbeans(59%),aswellaspigeonpeas(100%)andcowpeas(78%).ThisemphasisesthatthepracticesofseedsavingandexchangeareverywellestablishedandvitalinMalawi.

Seedqualitywasnotamajorissueformostcrops.Localmaizeseedwasassessedbyrespondentsasbeingoflowerqualitythanhybridmaizeseed.Thequalityoftheirhybridmaizeseedwasassessedasgoodby85%oftherespondents,andthequalityoflocalmaizeseedwasassessedasgoodby62%ofusers.Whilethissignifiessomequalityissuesforlocaloruncertifiedmaize,farmersarenotarguingtoreplacelocalseedwithhybridorcertifiedseed.Giventhehighnumbersoffarmersstillusingthisseed,wecandeducethatitmakesanimportantcontributiontoon-farmproductionsystems.Thequalityofuncertifiedseedswereallassessedasgoodbythemajorityofasmallsampleofusers—pigeonpea(100%),beans(81%),groundnuts(81%),cowpea(77%)andsoya(72%).However,withopenpollinatedvarieties(OPVs),evenofficialadviceisthatseedcanberecycledforthreeyearsbeforenewseedshouldbepurchased.Soitisaquestionofhowlongthefarmershavebeenrecycling,andhowrecyclingfitsintothedisseminationofimprovedOPVs.Effortscanbegearedtowardsinvestigatingthequalityoflocaloruncertifiedseed,identifyingthepositivecharacteristicsoflocal/uncertifiedseedanddevelopingresponsesbasedonparticipatorymethodswithfarmerstoimprovetheseed.

Agricultural practices and soil fertility

Ahighproportionofrespondentsengagedinvarioustypesofagro-ecologicalpractices,includingthosethatfallwithinthedefinitionofconservationagriculture(CA).InMalawiCAisdefinedasminimumsoildisturbance,permanentgroundcoverandcroprotationorintercropping(includingtheuseoflegumesfornitrogenfixing).Thesepracticescanalsobeconsideredagro-ecologicalmethods,althoughGRadvocates,includingAGRA,addtothedefinitiontheuseofsyntheticfertilisers,hybrid

andcertifiedseedsandherbicides.TheresearchclearlyshowsamixofpracticesencompassingbothGRinputsandagro-ecologicalpractices,althoughthisisunevenacrossfarminghouseholds.

Morethan8outof10householdspractisedintercroppingwithhybridmaize/beans,andtobacco/pumpkinbeingthemaintwointercrops.Tobaccocompaniesdiscouragethetobacco/pumpkinintercropbecausetheplantscomefromthesamefamilyandtheintercropincreasesthethreatofdiseasesspreading.Overallnearlythree-quarters(73%)ofrespondentspractisedatleasttwoofthethreeCAbasepractices.Almost9outof10farminghouseholdsappliedsomekindoforganiccontenttothesoil,intheformofcropresidues,animalmanure,compostorgreenmanure.Thisindicatesthatagro-ecologyisnotsomethingnewthatmustbeintroducedbutispartofexistingpractice.GRinputsrelyonthisfundamentalpracticalbasefortheirsuccess.IfGRinputsunderminethisbaseovertime,itcouldleadtothecollapseoftheagriculturalsystemasawhole,includingtheGR.Theexistingbaseofpracticesoffersaverystrongfoundationtoadoptandadvanceagro-ecologicalmethods,sincethesepracticesdonotneedtobeintroducedbyexternalagents.

Giventhecombinationofproductionpracticesitisnotpossibleatthisearlystagetomakeanydefinitivecommentsontherelationshipbetweentheadoptionofproductionpracticesandhouseholdfoodsecurity.Theresearchresultsareabaselinethatcanbemeasuredandcomparedovertime.Generally,thesurveyindicatedapositivecorrelationbetweenhouseholdspracticingagro-ecologicalpractices(definedforthesepurposesasthethreeCAbasepracticesplustheadditionoforganiccontenttothesoil)andhouseholdfoodsecurity.However,manyofthesehouseholdsalsousedvariousGRtechnologies.Inanycase,correlationdoesnotimplycausationandfurtherworkmustbedonetounderstandtherelationshipbetweentheadoptionofproductionpracticesandhouseholdnutrition.Syntheticfertilisersarewidelyandintensivelyusedinthestudysitesandareprocuredfromavarietyofsources(TableB).UreaandNPKwerethemostwidelyusedsyntheticfertilisers,with81%ofrespondenthouseholdsusing

Page 14: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi xiii

ureatopdressingand68%usingNPK(mostly23:21:0)basal.Therewassomeunevennessinuseacrossthesites—over90%ofrespondentsinChamamausedbothNPKandureawhileonly47%ofrespondentsinNambumausedNPK.Thetobaccofertilisers,CANandSuperDorDcompound,wereusedbyone-fifthtoaquarterofhouseholds.Meanapplicationratesacrossallhouseholdsthatconfirmedusinganykindofsyntheticfertiliserwasanextremelyhigh341.5kgoncultivatedlandthat,onaverage,wasaround2ha(seeabove).Fertiliseruseondifferentpiecesoflandwas

notfullyinvestigated,buttheresearchshowsthatsyntheticfertiliseruseisconcentratedonmaizeandtobaccoplots.Thismeanssyntheticfertiliseruseisevenmoreintensivethanthismeasure,whichdividesfertiliserusebytheentirelandowned.Thehighcostoffertiliserwasidentifiedasa‘serious’problembyeveryrespondentexceptone.

TheaverageamountspentonfertilisersacrossallhouseholdswasMK95,000(US$226.19),morethanthemarketvalueof1.5tonsofmaizeatMK60/kg(US$210.00)inlocalmarkets.At

Table B: Mean amount of fertiliser applied, costs and sources in the past year

Type of fertiliser Mean payment (MK) by

respondents using fertiliser

Mean payment

in US$

Mean kg applied by respondents using fertiliser

Major sources of fertiliser

Ureabase 19,204.55 45.73 75 Agro-dealer(44%),FISP(37%),tobacco

company(15%)

Ureatop 27,544.52 65.58 131.7

NPKbase 31,780.09 75.67 150.2 Agro-dealer(44%),FISP(25%),tobacco

company(16%)

NPKtop 2,766.67 6.59 31.7

CANbase 32,800.00 78.10 116.7 Agro-dealer(39%),tobaccocompany

(31%),ADMARC(8%)

CANtop 36,077.78 85.90 154.8

SuperD/Dcompound 65,516.67 155.99 230.6 Agro-dealer(28%),tobaccocompany

(50%),andfarmer/villager(17%)

Total(synthetic) 215,726.28 513.63 341.5

Animalmanure 1,134.62 2.70 2,569.5 Ownproduction(97%)

Greenmanure 777.78 1.85 1,456.4 Ownproduction(100%)

Howmuchontotalfertiliserapplicationswherebreakdownbetweentypesinunknown

307,641.25 732.48

Averageexpenditureonallfertiliser

95,415.70 227.18

Page 15: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

xiv A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y

thesametime,thecombinationofhybridseedandsyntheticfertiliserapplicationincreasesyieldsbyaround500kg,sothisisaverybigexpenseforarelativelylimitedreward.Fortypercentofrespondentsidentifiedlatefertiliserdeliveryasaseriousproblem,withanotherquarterofhouseholdscallingita‘moderate’problem.Purchasesfromagro-dealersandvouchersfromFISPaccountedfor70–80%ofureaandNPKacquisitions,whiletobaccocompaniesandagro-dealerswerethemainsourcesofCANandSuperDorDcompound.

Animalmanurepresentsapotentiallycheaperandmorereadilyavailablesourceofsoilnutrients,and58%offarmersreportedusingitinthepreviousseason.Averageapplicationratesforthoseusinganimalmanurewasaround2.5tonsinthepastseason.Ninety-sevenpercentofthoseapplyinganimalmanuresaidtheydidsofromtheirownsources.Wedidnotgathersurveyinformationonlivestockownershipbutthiswillbeinvestigatedinthefollowupstudies.Nevertheless,infocusgroupswomenindicatedtheyhadafewsmallstock(goats,pigsandchickens),butnotenoughtoequaltheamountsofmanurerespondentssaidtheyapplied.Accordingtothechairofoneofthelocalfarmercommittees,therehasbeenageneraldeclineinanimalownershipasgovernmentextensionserviceshavedwindledandfarmers,moreinneedofreadyaccesstocashsinceliberalisation,areoftencompelledtoselltheirlivestock.Wewillneedtoinvestigatefurtherthesourceofanimalmanure,giventheapparentlylimitedownershipoflargelivestock.

Therewasnostatisticallysignificantrelationshipbetweenrespondentsindicatingsoilinfertilityasaseriousissueandtheamountoffertiliserused.Thereappearstohavebeenlittleornosoiltestingconductedhistoricallyintheareassurveyed,withsomefarmersnotevenawarethatsoilcouldbetested.IndependentsoiltestingconductedbyChitedzeResearchStationaspartoftheresearchindicateddegradedsoilsacrossthesiteswithlimitednutrientcontentandrelativelyhighacidity;thelatterfavourstobaccooverfoodcrops.RecommendedremediesarelimingtoincreasepHandtheadditionoforganiccontenttothesoiltoimprovenutrientcontent.

Forsoilfertility,weestablishedthebaselinerelationshipbetweenuseoffertiliser(synthetic,animalorgreenmanure)andthefoodsecurityproxiesindicatedabove.Therewasapositivecorrelationbetweenincreasedlevelsofbothsyntheticandorganicfertiliseruseandthefoodsecurityproxymeasures.However,considerationmustbegiventotherelativewealth(orpurchasingpower)ofhouseholdsinthefirstplace;householdsthatcanpurchaselargeramountsoffertiliserarealsomorelikelytoaffordalargerandmorevariedfoodbasket.WemustalsoconsiderthebroadereffectsofanettransferofincomeawayfromfarminghouseholdsemployingGRtechnologies,andtheimpactofthisonhouseholdfoodsecurity.EvidencedirectlycontradictstheGRargumentthattheadoptionofthesetechnologieswillgenerategreaterincomesandhencefoodsecurityforfarminghouseholds.

Therewasanalmostuniversalconsensusamongrespondentsthatfarmingisimpossiblewithoutfertiliser.Farminghouseholdsappeartobecaughtinacycleofincreasingrelianceonsyntheticfertilisertosqueezeproductionfromthegroundonaseasonbyseasonbasis.Syntheticfertilisersgeneratemajorecologicalproblemsincludingsoilinfertilityanddamagetowatersources.Infertilesoilbecomesaninertcarrierfortemporarynutrientsthatmustbepumpedintopropupproduction.ThesoiltestsconductedbyChitedzeResearchStationrevealsoilsthataretechnicallyinfertile,withverylowlevelsofkeynutrientsandnutrientholdingcapacity,despiteyearsofsyntheticfertiliserapplications.Thisgivesthelietotheargument

Page 16: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi xv

thattheadditionofsyntheticfertiliserisnecessaryforlong-termimprovementsinsoilfertility.Indeed,theoppositeisthecase.Soilrenewal,basedonincreasingorganiccontenttofeedsoillifeasthebasisforlong-termimprovementsinplantqualityandnutrientuptake,takesabackseattotheshort-termsolutionofsyntheticfertiliserapplicationforimmediategain.Intheiranalysisoftheresearchsites,Chitedzesoilscientistsrecommendanincreaseinorganicmatterasakeyinterventiontoimprovethequalityofthesesoilsovertime.

The Farm Input Subsidy Programme (FISP)

Threemajorgovernmentinputsubsidyprogrammesfrom1998werecombinedin2005toformtheFISP,withafocusonprovidingsubsidisedmaizeandlegumeseedandfertilisertofarmers.Thesubsidywaswithdrawnfromcottonandtobaccofarmersin2009.HouseholdsbenefitingfromfertilisersubsidiesneedpayonlyMK500/50kgbag(US$1.19)whichhasamarketvalueofMK17,000(US$40.48),althoughtheyoftendonotreceiveenoughandpurchaseadditionalbagsatthefullcost.InputdistributionunderFISPoperatesonatendersystem.In2014twoparastatals,theAgriculturalDevelopmentandMarketingCorporation(ADMARC)andtheSmallholderFarmerFertiliserRevolvingFundofMalawi(SFFRFM)wonthetenderstodistributetheinputs.Theprivatesectorbenefitsfromincreasedmarketdemandandguaranteedmarkets.Keybeneficiariesarethemajorseedcompanies:SeedCo,Pannar,MonsantoandDemeterSeed,especiallywithincreaseddemandfortheirmaizehybrids.ThemajorcompaniesprovidingfertiliserinMalawiareFarmersWorld(whichalsoownsDemeterSeed),Yara,TransGlobe,OmniaandRabProcessors(whichownstheKulimaGoldagro-dealerdistributionnetwork).Forty-fourpercentofrespondentsindicatedtheyhadaccesstoFISPinputsinthepastseason.ThiswasslightlylowerinChamamathaninChipalaandNabuma.InthelattertwositesmorethanhalftherespondentshadreceivedFISPinputsinthepastseason.However,respondentswereconcernedthattherewaslittleconsistencyandparticipationmayonlybeforasingleseason.Farminghouseholdstendtosharetheinputs

withothers.Theresultissmallerquantitiesofinputsfromtheprogrammeperhousehold,butawiderdiffusionofthetechnology.ThesurveyresultsindicatethatFISPinthesesitesprovidesaccesstofertilisermorethantoseed.Inthepastseasononly11%offarmersaccessedhybridmaizethroughFISP.Itispossiblethatrespondentswhoindicatedtheyreceivedseedfromagro-dealersusedFISPvouchersasacontribution.FISPcertainlyhascontributedtothehigheruseofhybridmaizeseed.PriortotheintroductionofFISPapproximately43%offarmersinMalawiusedhybridmaize.Bythe2009–2010seasonthishadrisento65%.Oursurveyindicatesthat73%ofhouseholdsusedhybridseedinthelastseason.

ThereiswidespreadrecognitionthatFISPisnotanoptimalsolution.Commentsfromfarmers,farmersupportorganisations,extensionworkersandotherkeyinformantsincludedthefollowingstatements:FISPispoliticallymotivated;itisnotgoodforagriculturedespiteincreasedyields;costsandoutputsofFISPdonotmatch;thereareserioustargetingissues;andheavydependenceoftheagriculturalsystemonrainmeansthatinputsubsidiesareawastedinvestmentiftherainsdonotcome.Inaddition,FISPhasbeencriticisedforitsexpenditureremainingbiasedinfavourofprivategoodsbenefitingindividualfarmers,suchasfertiliserandseed,ratherthaninvestmentsinpublicgoods,suchasresearch,ruralinfrastructureandextensionthatcanbeneftfarminghouseholdscollectively.Despitehigheryields,mostMalawiansremainmiredinpovertywhichsuggeststhattheGRpackageisnotdeliveringmeaningfulimprovementsforfarmers.

Market access

Morethan80%ofrespondentscitedalackofmarketsasaseriouschallenge.Thissuggeststhatfarmersarekeentoincreasesales.Yet,inpractice,yieldsarerelativelylowandmosthouseholdsdonotproduceenoughtomeeteventheirownyearlyconsumptionneeds.Marketaccessmaymeanphysicalaccesstodistributionandsalespoints;itcanalsomeanproductpricesthatenablefarmerstoprofitfromsellingtheiroutputs.Theresearchindicatesthatthelatterisofgreater

Page 17: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

xvi A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y

importancethantheformer.Whiletransportinfrastructurewasnotgoodinthesiteswevisited,farmershadanumberofpossibleoutletsforthesaleofproduce.Theseincludedlocalmarkets,vendorswhocametothefarmgatetobuy,aswellasNASFAMandothercommercialenterpriseswhowerewillingandabletopurchaseproductsfromfarmers.

Essentially,tofarmersmarketaccessmeansprice.Vendorsarewidelyseenasexploitative,offeringlowpricesandcheatingfarmers,butbecausefarmersareforcedintodistresssalestoacquiresomecashtheyaccepttheseprices.NASFAM,ADMARCandothersofferedslightlybetterpricesforsomeproducts,someofthetime,butthemainconcernamongfarmerswasthatthesemarketoutletswereinconsistent;also,whenthebuyersranoutofmoneytheyclosedthechannel,leavingfarmerswithnooptionbuttosellforcheaperelsewhere.Respondentsobservedthatmarketoutletsbasedonvaluechainfinancingaredisbandedassoonasorganisershaveboughtenoughproducetorecovertheloansgiventofarmers.Onefarmerobservedthat“thesemarketsoperateaslongasthefarmershavenotfinishedrepayingtheirloans,anddisappearalmostimmediatelyafterwards”.

Lackofappropriatestoragefacilitiesmeansthatfarmershavetosellassoonastheproductisreadyforharvest.Generallythisisatthesametimethateveryoneelseisselling,sothereisatemporaryglutinthemarketjustwhenfarmersaretryingtosell.Opportunitiesforimprovedproducerpricesthroughqualitypremiumsorvalueadditionarelimitedatpresent.ADMARCistheonlyorganisationthatoffersqualitypremiumsbutitsmarketingarmisconsiderednotasefficientasitoncewas;anditcurrentlypurchasesmoreproducefromvendorsthandirectlyfromfarmers.

TheGRdependsonprofitableoutputmarketsthatenablefarmerstopurchaseinputsthatbenefittheinputsuppliers,butmostparticipatingfarmerswerenotsellingsignificantamountsofproduceatall.Tobaccoistheonlymajorcashcropinthethreestudysitesandthetermsoftradeareagainstfarmers,asindicatedabove.Apartfromtobacco,soyawastheonlycropwheremore

thanhalfoftheproductionquantitywassold,buttheseweresmallamountsandthisappliedtorelativelyfewfarminghouseholds.

Averagemaizesalescametojust222kg,withthevastmajoritysellingunder1tonofmaize.Between62%(hybrid)and70%(local)ofrespondentssold50kgofmaizeorless.50kgofmaizecanbesoldforMK3,000(US$7.14)atlocalmarketprices.Thisindicatesthatmaizeisacropprimarilyforownuse,withdistresssalesofsmallquantitiestoacquiresomecash.Wealreadymentionedearlierthattheaverageexpenditureonfertiliserinputsalone,amongsttherespondenthouseholds,wasequivalenttothelocalmarketvalueof1.5tonsofmaize.Recoupingthesecostsrequiressalesofanequivalentamount,asidefromproductionretainedforownconsumption.TheGRproposestoturnfarmersintocommodityproducerswhoearncashfromthesaleoftheirproductsandthenbuytheirfoodneedsonthemarket—butthisisnothowitisworkinginpractice.

Conclusion and recommendations

GreenRevolutioninterventions,ofwhichAGRAisaleadingexample,arefundamentallypremisedontheideathatincreasedcostsofcertifiedseedandsyntheticfertilisercanbemetbyincreasingyields.Thiswillallowforincreasedsalesthatcangenerateincomeforinputpurchaseinthenextyear,aswellastheexpansionoffarmingasabusiness—tothebenefitofproducers.Howeverthis‘endlessvirtuouscycle’doesnotappeartohavetakenrootinMalawi.FarminghouseholdsarepurchasingsomeGRinputs,butrealisingpotentialyieldsrequiresidealconditionsandthesearepresentnowhereinMalawi.Whetherthelimitingfactorsarelackofrainfall,weaksoils,lackofappropriateproductionsupport,chronicill-health,lackofaccesstocleanwaterorotherfactors,GRtechnologieswillalwaysperformsub-optimally.Thismeansthatyieldswillbelowerthanpotentialyieldsinidealcircumstances.Inturn,thismeansthathouseholdsmustuseagreatershareoftheirproducefortheirownconsumption.Finally,thismeanslessavailableproduceforsaleandthuslowerincomesthanareanticipatedintheGRtheory.

Page 18: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi xvii

Thisisborneoutintheresearch:thevastmajorityofhouseholdsappeartobecaughtinarelationshipofdependencyonGRinputs,inparticularsyntheticfertiliser.Itisapparentthatfertiliserandseedpricesareveryhighandareamajorconcernforfarminghouseholds.Atthesametime,householdsfeeltheneedtousetheseinputsjusttostayinthesameplace.Theremaybesomeyieldincreases,especiallywithmaize,butthemaintenanceoftheseyieldsrequiresacontinualrelianceonandexpansionofexternalinputs,atalong-termecologicalcost.Insteadofavirtuouscycleofincreasingprosperityforfarmers,weseeanegativecyclebasedonshort-termyieldimprovements,creatingadependencyontheseinputswhilegeneratinglong-termyieldstagnationanddecliningsoilfertility.ThesenegativeoutcomesallreinforcedependencyontheGRtechnologiesthatcontributedtotheprobleminthefirstplace.

EvenifmaizeyieldsarehigherusingGRtechnologies,thediversityofnutritionandtheall-yearproductionofagro-ecologicalsystemsgivethelattermuchgreaterdepth.Malawistillhasaregularhungryseasondespiteproductivityincreasesinmaize.Thisisrelatedtotheproductionandharvestofasinglecropeveryyear.4Supportforcropdiversificationanddifferentiatedyearroundproductioncanextendtherangeofnutrientsavailabletofarminghouseholds.

TobaccocompanyvaluechainfinancingandFISParekeymechanismsforproppingupthissystemofproduction.Inthetobaccovaluechainprimaryproducersarereliantontobaccoproductionasacashcrop.Butproducersareclearlyinaweakposition,relyingonbuyerstoprovideinputswhilecarryingtheproductionriskandreceivingonlyasmallportionofvalueadded.Tobaccomultinationalsaretheprimarybeneficiariesofthissystem.Themultinationalcorporations(MNCs)arepoliticallyverypowerfulandtheMalawiangovernmentisreliantontheindustryforalargeportionofitsforeignexchangeearnings.However,tobaccoasacropispoisonous—itdamagesthesoil,contributestodeforestationwhichinturn

leadstosoildegradationandincreasingCO2emissions,andlocksfarmersintoproductionsystemsthatarenotintheirlongterminterests.Inessence,tobaccoisananti-socialcropandMalawiandotherproducingcountriesintheregionshouldconsidersociallyandecologicallyjustalternativecropsandproductionsystemstoreplacetobacco.

FISPisanessentialelementintheexpansionofGRtechnologiesinMalawi.TheprogrammehasincreasedeffectivedemandforhybridmaizeseedandsyntheticfertiliserandcreatedaguaranteedmarketforMNCsinwhichtoprofit.FISPhasincreasedtheamountofmoneycirculatinginandoutofthefarmingsystem,butfarmersareinmuchthesamepositionastheywerebeforetheadventofFISP.Mostlytheirgainsarelimitedtorelativelyminoryieldincreases,withconcurrentlong-termnegativeconsequencesontheecology.Tomakemattersworse,themoneycomesinfrompublicexpenditurethroughthesubsidies(developmentaidaswellasAfricangovernments)andoutthroughprivatechannels(seedandfertilisercompanies).Effectivelythisispublicinvestmentforcorporategain,withseedandfertilisermultinationalsastheprimarybeneficiariesofthesystem.

GreenRevolutiontechnologiesaremakinginroadsintosmall-scalefarmingsystemsin

4.Interview,KristofNordin,NeverEndingFarms,Lilongwe,5Feb2014.

Page 19: Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution … · Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in ... Dr Blessings Chinsinga

xviii A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y

MalawisupportfromthepublicandfromphilanthropicinstitutionsincludingAGRA.Butfarminghouseholdsareengagedinarangeofagro-ecologicalpracticesthatformthematerialbasiswithinwhichtheGRembedsitself.ConservationAgricultureandIntegratedSoilFertilityManagement(ISFM)aregoodexamplesofabaseofagro-ecologicalpracticebeingusedtoadvanceGRtechnologies.Theresearchindicatesthatagro-ecologicalpracticesarewidespreadandthisoffersanopportunityforsystematicsupporttorealiseamoresustainableandequitablepathofagriculturaldevelopment.

Currentlyfertiliserisallocatedwithoutanyknowledgeofsoilnutrientneeds.Highlevelsofsyntheticfertiliserarebeingusedandfarmersaretrappedonthetreadmillofdependency.Thebestsolutionforthisisagradualweaningprocess,basedontheevidencethatothermethodsofmaintainingandimprovingsoilfertilitycanbeeffective.EventheproponentsofGRrecognisethecriticalimportanceofaddingorganiccontenttothesoil,asafundamentalbasisforimprovingfertility,yettheyareunwillingtoinvestinenhancingandexpandingthesepractices.

InagreementwithOlivierdeSchutter,weproposethatinputsubsidiestargetedatindividualsshouldbephasedoutandreplaced

withpublicinvestmentinextension,farmer-basedR&Dandbulkinfrastructuresuchaswaterandroadswithcollectivebenefit.AkeypartofpublicinvestmentsinR&Dandextensioncaninclude:identifying,prioritisingandsupportingworkaroundparticipatoryplantbreeding;participatoryvarietyselection;farmer-managedseedcertificationandqualityassurancesystems;identifyingandsupportingthedevelopmentoflocallyimportantcropsonthebasisofdecentralisedparticipatoryR&D;farmertofarmerexchanges;identifyingandexpandingthemeansofincreasingorganiccontentinthesoil;anorientationtonurturingsoillifeasthebasisofsoilfertility,orsoilhealthprogrammes:andsupportforagro-ecologicalmethodsofsoilimprovementandwaterretention.Inaddition,workonnitrogenfixingtreesandfoodtreescouldadvancesoilfertilityandfoodsecurityagendas.

ThusfarresearchhasshownthatwhileAGRAprogrammesarehavingarelativelysmallimpactonthethreestudysitessofar,AGRAcontributessignificantlytothebroaderGRthrust.FollowupresearchwillfocusinmoredetailonNASFAM’spigeonpeaprogrammeandotherseedrelatedissues,ontheCNFA-supportedagro-dealernetworksandonmonitoringandanalysingtheinterventionsoftheSSTP.