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Running head: SPORTS AND ACADEMICS

UNIVERSITY OF LA VERNE

LA VERNE, CALIFORNIA

Correlation between Physical Activity and Sports Participation and Academic

Performance

A Paper Prepared for EDUC 596

In Partial Fulfillment of

The Requirements for the Degree

Master of Education

August 2010

Christina Schneider


ABSTRACT

This paper takes a comprehensive look at various research studies that evaluate the

relationship between sports participation and academic achievement. Research presented

in this paper show a positive relationship between the two. Students who play sports in

high school are shown to have better grades in school, higher standardized test score,

higher education, and a decreased chance of dropping out than their peers who do not

participate in school sports. While sports participation and academic achievement are

positively linked, high school sports participation does have negative consequences as

well. Students who participate in school sports are more likely to have incidents of

misconduct, including underage drinking and shoplifting.


Section 1: The Problem

Introduction

School districts across the nation are feeling the implications of today‟s economic

recession. Class sizes are increasing, teachers are losing their jobs, schools are decreasing

the length of the school year, and schools are cutting back on expenses. One such

expense that some schools are cutting, or are considering cutting, is athletics. Whether

schools are eliminating some sports altogether, cutting the freshman and/or junior varsity

teams, or simply just minimizing their budgets for athletics, these cuts will have a

detrimental affect to the students.

Statement of the Problem

School districts that decide to cut athletic programs do so because athletics are not

directly related to the core academic subjects. With the focus of education today on math,

science, and scoring well on standardized tests, it is easy to see how making cuts to

athletics programs seems like a quick fix. The problem with this logic, however, is that

athletic performance and academic performance are strongly related to each other, and by

making drastic cuts to schools‟ athletic programs, the students will ultimately suffer the

consequences.

Purpose of the Literature Review

The purpose of this literature review is to take an in-depth look at how

participation in school sport and students‟ academic performance are related. By doing

so, the data presented in this literature review will serve as evidence as to why school


districts across the nation should not eliminate school athletic programs in an effort to

save money.

Importance of the Literature Review

The data compiled in this literature review are critically important right now

because schools across the nation are experiencing difficult times financially. In the

downturn of today‟s economy, schools are receiving less funding. As a result of this,

schools are losing teachers and programs, among other valuable resources, due to steep

budget cuts. While the decision as to which programs stay and which ones get cut must

be a very difficult decision to make, some schools across the nation are opting to cut

interscholastic sports in order to save money. These schools cite that interscholastic

sports do not benefit all of the students and that they are costly to maintain. This literature

review serves as a significant resource as to why it is imperative that interscholastic

sports are not cut from education because of the strong ties that school sports

participation has to academic achievement. The information found in this literature

review will prove that school sports are a valuable asset for high school students.

Scope of the Literature Review

The scope of this literature review includes studies and research papers that

explore the links between school sport participation and academic achievement. The

positive relationships between sports participation and academic achievement is noted in

several areas, including standardized test scores, student grade point average (GPA), and

achievement of higher education. The literature review also examines studies that look at


sports participation as an intervention or a deterrent for students at risk of dropping out of

school. There is also research connecting the benefits of adolescent physical activity and

academic performance in this literature review as well.

Section 2: Literature Review

Introduction

There is a lot of research available today about the impact that participation in

school sponsored activities has on a student‟s academic achievement. Included in this

research is how both high school sports participation and academic performance are

related. This literature review will examine such studies and explain the data that

positively relate sports participation and academic achievement.

Many of the research studies presented in this literature review use data gathered

from the same research studies. These two research studies are the High School and

Beyond Study (HS&B) and the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988

(NELS:88). Both of these longitudinal studies included large sample sizes that

represented a diverse population and assessed a broad variety of topics and subjects

relating to high school students. In addition to these two studies, many of the data and

researchers presented in this literature review refer to an initial research study first

published in 1961 by James Coleman. His research, published in a book entitled, The

Adolescent Society, provided some of the first information about sports participation and

academic performance to scholars, educators, psychologists, sociologists, and the general

public.


The Adolescent Society

In 1961, James Coleman published The Adolescent Society, a book which

contains the data and analyses yielded from a research study he conducted. Coleman first

developed the ideas of the comprehensive high school study in the spring of 1955,

“before the competition with Russia in science brought the current spate of interest in

educational matters” (Coleman, 1961). Coleman (1961) designed the study to evaluate

whether certain high school activities are linked to status on campus and how the activity

relates to a student‟s achievement. For this study, Coleman selected 10 high schools in

northern Illinois that were diverse; to obtain data, questionnaires were distributed to each

student at each school in the Fall of 1957 and the Spring of 1958, informal interviews

were conducted with students from each school, and researchers collected information

from every student (grades, attendance, etc.) using the school records (Coleman, 1961).

The analysis from the data includes information about the adolescent culture,

value climates of each school, who the leaders at each school are, psychological effects of

the social system, sports participation, and more (Coleman, 1961). Through Coleman‟s

(1961) analysis of the data, he concluded that participation in school sports, or other

scholastic activities, negatively impacts academic achievement because it requires the use

of time that could otherwise be used for scholastic and academic purposes. This if often

referred to as Coleman‟s zero-sum thesis (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1992). Many of the

research studies in this literature review cite Coleman‟s research and provide data that

contradicts his zero-sum thesis. Since Coleman first wrote about the lives of adolescents

in The Adolescent Society, adolescents have maintained their enthusiasm for sports and

school sports are still the most popular school-sponsored extra-curricular activity (Eccles


& Barber, 1999). In the four decades since The Adolescent Society was published, many

more researchers began to take a more in-depth look at how school sports and academic

performance are related.

High School and Beyond

Several research studies cited in this literature review utilized data gathered by

HS&B study performed by the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES). In this

study, two separate groups were studied; the 1980 senior class and the 1980 sophomore

class (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2010). Data for this longitudinal

study was gathered from a questionnaire survey that was given to the participants in the

initial year, 1980, and every two years following until 1986; the sophomore class of 1980

was again surveyed in 1992 (NCES, 2010). In 1980, the study began with “students from

approximately 1,100 public and private high schools across the nation with at least 36

respondents from each school” (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1992, p. 510).

Data collected in the HS&B study covers a broad range of topics. The study

gathered data relating to educational attainment, employment outcomes, family

formation, family status, postsecondary expectations, and voting behavior; the study also

gathered data about the 1980 sophomore group‟s school activities (NCES, 2010).

According to NCES (2010), HS&B was just one of three longitudinal studies performed

by the National Education Longitudinal Studies (NELS) program, which is a part of

NCES. In addition to HS&B, NELS also completed the Longitudinal Study of the High

School Class of 1972 and NELS:88


NELS:88

Many of the research studies cited in this literature review relied heavily on data

gathered by NCES in a national longitudinal study that took place from 1988 to 2000.

NELS:88 began in 1988 as the most ambitious longitudinal study ever attempted by

NCES (NCES, 2010). According to NCES (2010), the study began in the 1987-1988

school year with almost 25,000 eighth graders; the goal for the study was to examine

students‟ transition from middle and junior high school to high school and beyond. To

gather data, the NCES had the students respond to questionnaires which included

information on, “school, work, and home experiences; educational resources and support;

the role in education of their parents and peers; neighborhood characteristics; educational

and occupational aspirations; and other student perceptions” (NCES, 2010). After the

initial questionnaire was given in 1987-1988 school year, NCES researchers followed the

same group of students throughout the rest of their high school careers and beyond with

four follow-up surveys in 1990, 1992, 1994, and 2000 (NCES, 2010).

The information gathered about the students when they were in school (as eighth-

graders in 1988, sophomores in 1990, and seniors in 1992) was more school achievement

based. The NCES collected “achievement tests in reading, social studies, mathematics

and science were also administered” (NCES, 2010). The NCES also surveyed school

teachers, school administrators and parents to get more data (NCES, 2010). Once the

students left high school, the NCES was more interested in gathering data relating to

post-secondary education, education history, employment, work experience history,

income, and marriage and family formation. The NCES also obtained all high school and

postsecondary education transcripts to include in the reports‟ findings (NCES, 2010).


Literature Review

Sports and Academics

When James Coleman, a sociological theorist, conducted research for his book

The Adolescent Society, he took an in-depth look at adolescents and how their activities

in high school affect their overall outcome. One particular area of interest for Coleman

was how status affects high school students; he even noted how participation in scholastic

activities, including sports, helped to increase one‟s status on campus (Coleman, 1961).

After the publication of his research, researchers began to look at the relationships

between athletics and academics among society‟s adolescents.

Barber, Eccles and Stone (2001) used data from the Michigan Study of

Adolescent Life Traditions (MSALT) to take an in-depth look at the post high school

outcomes of various high school identities. The MSALT collected data from 900

participants in 10th grade, 12

th grade, two years after high school, and six years after high

school (Barber et al., 2001). Subsequently, according to Barber et al. (2001), the movie

“The Breakfast Club” was a prominent film when the participants were in 10th grade, so

the researchers had each respondent identify with one of the high school identities from

the film (the Princess, the Jock, the Brain, the Basket Case, and the Criminal). MSALT

participants were told to ignore the gender of the character from the film and select their

identity primarily on the “type of person each character was” (Barber et al., 2001, p. 432).

Utilizing the data yielded from MSALT, Barber et al. (2001) were able to conclude that

there are long term benefits of high school activities and identities, especially in regards

to sports participation. Also using data collected from MSALT, it was found that data


from the MSALT reveal that participation in sports has positive academic consequences

(Eccles & Barber, 1999). This data is supported by Otto and Alvin‟s (1977) previous

findings from a longitudinal study indicating that sports has a positive effect on academic

achievements and occupational aspirations. This is most likely because playing sports is

associated with a positive correlation with academic outcomes because there is a pattern

of maintenance. Furthermore supporting this positive link, results from a research study

examining the relationship between sports participation and scholastic achievement

“provide preliminary evidence that the type of sport motivation exhibited by high school

student-athletes has a meaningful impact on their behavior and attitudes within the

academic context” (Ryska & Vestal, 2004, p. 112).

Supporting the positive relationship between sports participation and academic

achievement, data from NELS:88 reveals that both male and female student-athletes

consider themselves academically invested (Sokol-Katz, Braddock, II, & Basinger-

Fleischman, 2003). A study of high school students and post graduate plans which was

conducted in 1964 also affirms the positive relationship between participation in school

sports and doing well academically. In this study, 1,750 high school males completed

questionnaires which yielded data concluding that academic achievement and educational

aspiration is associated with athletic involvement (Lueptow & Kayser, 1974).

The positive link between participation in school sports and academic

achievement is further supported in more research studies. Using data from 1980 and

1982 from the HS&B study, Snyder and Spreitzer found that “in general, the relationship

between athletic participation and academic achievement is positive at the high school

level. That is, athletes tend to perform better academically than nonathletes” (Snyder &


Spreitzer, 1992, p. 507). In addition, extracurricular activity participation, including the

participation on school sports teams, is:

Favorably associated with social self-concept, academic self-concept, taking

advanced courses, time spent on homework, postsecondary educational

aspirations, GPA, parental involvement, absenteeism, senior-year educational

aspirations, being in the academic track, college attendance, parental aspirations,

and senior occupational aspirations. (Marsh, 1992, p. 557)

In many studies, similar information is found linking the positive relationship between

athletics participation and academic achievement.

In his presentation to the LA84 Foundation, a private nonprofit organization

dedicated to the development of youth sport, Douglass Hartman, a professor in the

Department of Sociology at the University of Minnesota confirmed the positive

relationship between sports and academics. Hartman (2008) found that there is a strong

and positive correlation between high school sports participation and academic

achievement. Information presented to the LA84 Foundation also stated that athletic

involvement is believed to directly produce academic success that is measurable and

assessable (Hartmann, 2008) .

Explaining the Relationship

Countless research ascertains that interscholastic sport participation positively

affects students‟ academic achievement (Barber et al., 2001; Eccles & Barber, 1999;

Lueptow & Kayser, 1974; Marsh 1992, 1993; Otto & Alvin, 1977; Snyder & Spreitzer,

1992). By analyzing the data gathered from NELS:88, Broh (2002) provides three distinct


explanations that link participation in sports and scholastic achievement: the

developmental model, the leading-crowd hypothesis, and the social capital model.

The Developmental Model

The first explanation that links the positive correlations between athletic

participation and academic achievement is identified as the Developmental Model. As

Broh (2002) describes, this model supports the long held belief that sports participation

socializes adolescents and prepares them for educational success. It is believed that

teaching characteristics that are commonly found in athletics and acquired through sports

participation, including respect for authority, perseverance, dedication, and a strong work

ethic, are constant with educational principles and that these characteristics that children

acquire through sports help them achieve academically (Coleman 1961; Miracle and Rees

1994). According to Broh (2002), participation in sports significantly improves self-

esteem, locus of control, and time spent on homework. “These results offer empirical

evidence that sports participation does help „build character,‟ which, in turn, directly aids

students‟ academic achievement” (Broh, 2002, p. 78).

In a case study examining 12 male student-athletes and a head coach from one

high school soccer team, researchers used interviews and fieldwork research over the

course of a single season understand if adolescents can learn life skills through

involvement in high school sports. Supporting Broh‟s developmental explanation, Holt,

Tink, Mandigo, and Fox (2008) found that all 12 high school athletes in this case study

reported that through their involvement in high school sports, they learned about

teamwork and leadership. Furthermore, the researchers found that “high school coaches


create a structure for youth to display qualities such as taking personal responsibility and

working hard to achieve goals, rather than directly teaching these qualities” (Holt et al.,

2008, p. 294).

Research comparing the positive effects of team sport participation and individual

sport participation further supports Broh‟s developmental explanation linking the positive

relationships between sports participation and academic achievement. Participation in

team sports socializes adolescents, teaches them perseverance and dedication, and

provides them with a strong work ethic (Broh, 2002; Coleman, 1961; Miracle and Rees,

1994). Individual sports, however, often lack team unity and a team goal due to the

emphasis placed on the individual. Using data gathered from NELS:88, Marsh and

Kleitman (2003) found that overall team athletic participation has slightly more positive

effects for adolescents in regards to academic achievement rather than participation in

individual sports. Furthermore, by examining the information provided in NELS:88, it

was revealed that “the team-vs.-individual analysis indicated that team athletic

participation was more beneficial for seven activities (internal locus of control, self-

esteem, parental and education aspirations in grade 12, intensity and duration of

university enrollment, and highest level of post-secondary education attained)” (Marsh &

Kleitman, 2003, p. 220).

Included in the developmental explanation that links the positive relationship

between academic achievement and sports participation is the theory that participation in

team sports socializes students and prepares students for other aspects of life (Broh,

2002). This theory is supported through findings from a comprehensive review of

literature, Bailey, Armour, Kirk, Jess, Pickup, Sanford, & BERA (2009) found that


physical education and participation in school sports improve a child‟s mental alertness,

academic performance, readiness to learn, and enthusiasm for learning. It was also found

through data collected in a research study that participants in high school sports learn

how to get along with their peers in a highly-structured, goal-oriented, and competitive

environment (Otto & Alvin, 1977). These data completely support Broh‟s Developmental

Model explanation which link the positive associations between high school sports

participation and academic achievement.

High school sports participation has also been found to play a healthy role in

adolescents‟ development. In a research study examining how sports participation affects

the mental health of teenagers, researchers gathered data through a series of

questionnaires and personal surveys. Researchers found that “adolescents who participate

in sports differed from their peers in that they reported fewer Mental and General health

Problems and Eating and Dietary Problems” (Steiner, McQuivey, Pavelski, Pitts, &

Kraemer, 2000, p. 164). This data is further supported by data from another research

study examining mental health and sports participation. Data from this study show that

high school sports participation mediates a lower risk for suicide, because high school

student-athletes enjoy more popularity and higher self-esteem than their peers who do not

participate in interscholastic sports (Taliaferro, Rienzo, Miller, Pigg, & Dodd, 2008).

Sports participation has a positive affect on students‟ academic achievement as well as

their overall developmental health.

Leading Crowd Hypothesis


The second explanation linking sports participation and educational achievement

is the Leading Crowd Hypothesis. This explanation, according to Broh (2002) ascertains

that participation in athletics builds character, and that student-athletes hold a higher peer

status, which places them in “the leading crowd.” Students gain access into the leading

crowd, which consists of students who have educated parents and students who believe

that college is the natural progression after high school, by participating in sports and by

being considered an athletic star on campus (Miracle & Rees, 1994). The leading crowd

is further defined by Crosnoe (2002) who identifies the leading crowd as an elite peer

crowd. Through his research, he found that this crowd is characterized by higher

achievements and because of this, student athletes tend to do better in school (Crosnoe,

2002, p. 332).

The leading crowd hypothesis that relates participation in high school sports to

academic success is found in many studies. One such study is Richard Rehberg‟s 1969

study which adds to this explanation by concluding that the leading-crowd is made up of

the most popular high school students, which consists of college-oriented, high achieving

students. Rehberg found that participation in high school athletics significantly bolstered

social status and provided students with access to an academically-oriented peer group

which helps facilitate higher academic performance (as cited in Broh, 2002). In an

attempt to further understand the connection between athletic involvement and

educational goals as they relate to school status and the leading crowd, Spreitzer and

Pugh published a study in 1973 that replicated Rehberg‟s 1969 study. Spreitzer and Pugh

(1973) found the relationship between athletic participation and perceived peer status is

very strong.


Confirming the existence of the leading crowd and its impact on academic

achievement and sport participation, Miracle and Rees (1994) discovered through their

research that students who participate in high school athletics enjoy a higher social status

than students who do not. Students who participate in school sports also are perceived as

having a higher social status than students who excel primarily in academics, music, or

art (Miracle & Rees, 1994). This evidence supports that access to the leading crowd is

granted through sports participation within a school.

Early research conducted in the 1960s further confirms the existence of the

leading-crowd‟s existence within a high school‟s social setting and its benefits. In 1964,

1,750 high school males from the Midwest completed a questionnaire asking about years

of participation in school activities, athletic and non athletic. In addition to the

questionnaire, researchers also obtained the participants‟ grades. Through the data

collected in this study, it was found that students who are perceived by their peers as

athletic stars are more successful than students who are not perceived as athletic stars

(Lueptow & Kayser, 1974, p. 29).

The Social Capital Model

The final explanation for the positive relationship linking participation in athletics

and academic achievement as identified by Broh (2002) is the Social Capital Model. Data

collected from NELS:88, show that “participation in interscholastic sports in high school

has developmental and social benefits that at least partially explain the educational

advantages of participating [in school spots]” (Broh, 2002, p. 81). As Portes (1998)

explains, social capital is most usually recognized as the ability to utilize benefits that are


granted through particular memberships in social networks. For high school student-

athletes, the membership in social networks is the leading-crowd.

Supporting the social capital explanation that positively links sports participation

and academic achievement, Eccles and Barber (1999) analyzed data collected by the

MSALT and discovered that participation in school sports creates a school-based activity

identity which encourages students to do well in school. This is further explained by Broh

(2002), who analyzed data from NELS:88 and found that high school students who

participate in sports during their 10th

and 12th grade years have significantly increased

social ties to the school. These social ties are “between the students and parents, students

and the school, parents and the school, and parents and parents” (Broh, 2002, p. 78). This

explanation was also confirmed by data collected from a longitudinal study conducted in

California and Wisconsin. Student athletes have more ties to the school than nonathletes

do and “athletes are high achievers, in line with expectations derived from social bond

theory that athletic participation promotes academic achievement by integrating students

into school” (Crosnoe, 2002, p. 331).

In addition to the immediate effects that the social capital explanation provides

high school student-athletes, there also are long term benefits as well. Participation in

team sports provides students with a sense of belonging and it also provides them with

the opportunity to be mentored by a caring adult; these attributes are proven to have

positive, long-term benefits for adolescents (Tyre, 2008). Hanks and Eckland (1976)

analyzed data from the 1970 Explorations of Equality of Opportunity study that measured

scholastic ability and included a questionnaire that provided information about family

background, college plans, peer and teacher relationships, academic performance and


curriculum placement. It was found that students who plan to go to college, who routinely

associate with other college-oriented peers, and who discuss their future career and

academic plans with teachers are more likely to be active participants in school sponsored

sports (Hanks & Eckland).

Standardized Test Scores and Grades

As standardized tests are becoming more important and more frequent in today‟s

society, researchers are looking at the relationships that exist between sports participation

and standardized test scores. In contrast with the zero-sum model, Dumais (2008) found

that time spent on school-sponsored activities, which includes participation on school

athletic teams, benefitted students‟ math scores on standardized tests. In a longitudinal

study that collected data about people eight years after high school, Carlson and Scott

(2005) found that a greater percentage of students who had high test scores in high school

reported athletic participation, whereas people who earned middle or low score on

standardized tests did not report as much sports participation.

In 2005, the California Dpartment of Education published a study that examined

the relationships between students‟ performance on two state tests in 2004, the Physical

Fitness Test (PFT) and the California Standards Tests (CSTs). Physical fitness in high

school is often associated with athletic participation. This study revealed that as students‟

overall physical fitness tests scores increased, so did their mean CST score for English-

language arts (California Department of Education [CDE], 2005). The CDE also found

that same correlation between physical fitness and performance on the CSTs for the math

section. Based on the findings in this study, the California Department of Education


concluded that there is a strong and positive relationship between a student‟s physical

fitness and their academic achievement (CDE, 2005). With evidence explaining that

participation in school athletics is positively related to standardized test scores, Marsh

and Kleitman found that sports may be more of a benefit to a certain group of students. In

a study designed to examine the effects athletic performance has on a student‟s growth

and the amount he or she changes in high school, data revealed “total athletic

participation is more beneficial for students with lower standardized test scores” (Marsh

& Kleitman, 2003, p. 217). This information suggests that the positive effect sport

participation has in regards to academic performance is most beneficial for students who

are less academically inclined. While there are data that connect the positive relationships

between sports participation and standardized test performance, the findings of Marsh

and Kleitman‟s (2003) study state different. The data yielded suggest that sports

participation provides no real benefit for standardized tests, but that there is a direct

benefit for GPA (Marsh & Kleitman, 2003).

In addition to higher standardized test scores, participation in high school sports is

also linked with higher GPAs. In fact, one study designed to further understand the

positive relationship between academic performance and adolescent physical activity

levels discovered “for high school boys and girls, sport team participation was

significantly associated with a higher mean GPA” (Fox, Barr-Anderson, Neumark-

Sztainer, & Wall, 2010, p. 34). Fox‟s research (2010) also conveyed that students‟ mean

GPAs increased with the amount of sports they participated in. High school and middle

school students participating in three or more sports reported having the highest mean

GPAs. Using data collected from NELS:88, Marsh and Kleitman (2003) found students


who participated more in sports had higher grades than students who did not participate

in sport. Furthermore, after controlling variables, including socioeconomic status, race,

and gender, Eccles and Barber found that students who participated in school athletics

achieved higher than expected grades than their peers who did not participate in school

athletics.

Achieving Higher Education

Participation in school sports has a much broader academic benefit for students

than increased standardized test scores and higher GPAs. In fact, research shows that the

benefits of high school athletic involvement extend beyond students‟ high school years;

high school sports participation is also linked to higher education achievement for student

athletes. Participation in athletics has a positive effect on educational aspirations and

attainments in the present and in the future for high school student athletes (Otto & Alvin,

1977). Student athletes are more likely to aspire to complete at least two years of college

following their high school graduation, and a considerable amount of high school athletes

aspire to complete at least four years of college (Schaefer & Rehberg, 1970). This

information is supported by Lueptow and Kayser (1974) who found that student athletic

involvement is more likely to be associated with academic achievement and educational

aspirations.

While participation in sports increases a student‟s likelihood of attending

institutions of higher education (Lueptow & Kayser, 1974; Otto & Alvin, 1977; Schaefer

& Rehberg, 1970), this positive relationship will be more beneficial for certain students.

In looking at the myths that surround high school sports participation, Miracle and Rees


(1994) reviewed research linking student sport participation and higher educational

achievement. While they found that participation in sports does increase a student‟s

change of attending college after high school, they noted that this positive effect was

most evident for students who have lower cognitive development (Miracle & Rees,

1994). These students, according to Miracle and Rees (1994) are students that might not

have otherwise attended post secondary education if it was not for their participation in

high school athletics.

Carlson and Scott (2005) utilized the results from NELS:88 to examine the status

of former high school student athletes in the eight years after their high school graduation

in regards to employment status, earnings, and highest level of education achieved.

Carlson and Scott primarily used the last wave of information gathered in NELS:88,

which profiled the students eight years after high school graduation and compared it to

the students‟ information during high school. Data from NELS:88 show that students

who participated in varsity athletics during high school were more likely than nonathltes

to have earned a bachelor‟s degree by the year 2000 (Carlson & Scott, 2005). However,

this only applied to students who participated at the varsity level. Carlson and Scott

(2005) found that participation in sports at the junior varsity level did not have the same

impact as students who participated at the varsity level. Regardless of participation at

either the varsity or junior varsity level, in a longitudinal study Marsh and Kleitman

(2003) found that in the two years after high school, students who reported higher levels

of athletic participation within their schools were more likely to be enrolled in a

university.


Barron, Ewing, and Waddell (2000) have a different theory for why student

athletes are more likely to attend institutions of higher educations. In their research

examining why certain individuals decide to participate in sports, they found:

Students who participate in athletics are different in ability and have a different

work ethic. These differences between student athletes and nonathletes are

reflected in subsequent higher educational attainment, higher wages for a given

level of education, and placement in positions in which wages are more likely to

be linked to individual job performance. (Barron et al., 2000, p. 418)

The distinction between student athletes and non athletes, according to Barron et al.

(2000) is not due to participation in sports, rather than the type of individual to begin

with. Given the information found in the study, “athletic participation is associated with a

greater postsecondary level of education for a given level of ability and high school rank”

(Barron et al., 2000, p. 413).

Preventing Dropouts

While athletic involvement has many positive consequences in regards to a

student‟s academic achievement, it also is a vehicle for keeping students in school.

Participation in sports is the leading extracurricular activity that serves as an “effective

deterrent for preventing students from dropping out of school” (McNeal, 1995, p. 74).

McNeal‟s (1995) research study used a single-activity model that differentiated the type

of impact certain activities have on whether or not a student drops out of school. By

isolating volunteer activities (extracurricular activities), McNeal (1995) found that in

terms of extracurricular activities, only athletic participation has a strong correlation in


preventing students from dropping out. This is most likely because athletic participation

requires the largest time commitment compared to other academic or vocational

extracurricular activities; the larger time commitment results in less time in a possibly

dangerous situation and more time surrounded by goal- and academically-oriented peers

and positive role models (McNeal, 1995). This research is consistent with Eccles and

Barber‟s (1999) review of extracurricular activities where it was documented that

participation in school sports, compared to other extracurricular activities, was associated

with fewer student dropouts.

Consistent with McNeal‟s research, Mahoney and Cairns (1997) found that

participation in school sports is linked to decreasing rates of early school dropout in both

males and females. While both males and females experience these benefits, students

who are considered “at-risk” benefit the most from sports participation as a deterrent to

early school dropout (Mahoney & Cairns, 1997). According to Eitle‟s (2005) research

that examined data from the longitudinal NCES in an attempt to determine if gender and

race matter in explaining the relationship between sports participation and academic

achievement, she found that disadvantaged and minority male students were most likely

to participate in the three most popular sports: baseball, basketball, and football. This is

supported by evidence that these most popular sports provide students with an

opportunity to go to college and become a professional athlete (Eitle, 2005). When male

students participated in sports in the ninth grade, especially in basketball, it reduced the

chances that a male student would drop out of high school between his 10th and 12

th grade

years (Eitle, 2005). When students are given the opportunity to play basketball in high

school, it may keep some disadvantaged males in school (Eitle, 2005).


A successful example of participation in organized athletics as a deterrent to

dropping out of school is the non-profit program Students Run L.A. (SRLA). Located in

the greater Los Angeles area, SRLA challenges at risk high school students to train for

and complete the Los Angeles Marathon. (Students Run L.A. [SRLA], 2010). Through

the course of training for the marathon, which is held annually in March, students receive

the athletic equipment necessary for the task, as well as training, guidance, mentoring,

and a safe environment away from the dangerous streets of Los Angeles. Aligned with

Broh‟s social capital explanation linking the positive relationship between sports

participation and academic achievement, students involved in the SRLA program are

surrounded by positive social capital including academically-oriented peers, goal-

oriented peers, and positive role models (Broh, 2002).

The program unofficially started in 1986 when a continuation high school teacher

ran the Los Angeles Marathon and felt transformed by the experience (SRLA, 2010).

After completing the marathon, the continuation high school teacher did something

drastic.

He then challenged his students, who were in trouble or headed for it, to train with

him for the next Marathon and change their lives as well. These young people,

labeled misfits and under-achievers, not only finished the LA Marathon the

following year, but also finished high school and went to college and jobs.

(SRLA, 2010)

To date, the SRLA program is still operating and changing the lives of many at-risk

youth. “Since 1989, more than 39,000 students have been served by SRLA” (SRLA,

2010). The organization also notes that as the organization continues to grow, so does its


success. According to SRLA, “more than 95% of the students who start the marathon

finish the full 26.2 mile course,” and “more than 95% of the seniors who run the

marathon graduate from high school” (SRLA, 2010). Of the graduating seniors who run

the course, more than 90% of them have plans to attend college (SRLA, 2010).

Negative Consequences

Participating in school sports provides many positive benefits to high school

students, many researchers have found negative consequences associated with

participating in high school sports. Through their analysis of the data provided from the

MSALT, Eccles and Barber (1998) found that while participating in team sports is related

to an increased GPA and an increased probability of achieving higher education, they

also found that male high school sport participation is related to an increase in risky

behaviors such as drinking alcohol. Crosnoe‟s longitudinal study including high school

students from California and Michigan supports this claim that participating in sports

increases risky behavior. Data from the longitudinal study yielded information showing

that sports participation is problematic for both males and females in terms of increased

alcohol consumption (Crosnoe, 2002).

In addition to drinking alcohol, participating in school athletics is also linked to

other risky behaviors among high school students. Data from the Project on Human

Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) study reveals that male students who

participate in organized sports have a higher delinquency rate than male students who

participate in nonathletic activities associated with school (Gardner, Roth, & Brooks-

Gunn, 2009). While these data support the claim that participation in school sports leads


to bad behaviors, data from PHDCN also show that “the odds for delinquency for boys

who participate in sports may not be higher compared to boys who do not participate in

any organized activities” (Gardner, Roth, & Brooks-Gunn, 2009, p. 350). While

participation in sports may have a negative effect on students, it also serves as a deterrent

against misconduct when compared to students who do not participate in any sort of

school activity.

Despite the negative consequences of participation in athletics, Landers (1978)

found that participation in athletics is a source of satisfaction within a school and that

since it is voluntary activity, students may not want to jeopardize their participation by

engaging in unlawful activity. Miller et al. (2005) also report similar data from their 1986

to 1996 longitudinal study. Research shows that “male athletes engaged in less

misconduct than male nonathletes” (Miller et al., 2005, p. 178). These findings suggest

that high school student athletes may not engage in risky behaviors, such as smoking and

drinking, because they do not want to harm their chances at playing a particular sport.

Furthermore, this research is supported by data gathered from NELS:88, which concludes

that varsity athletes are less likely to be daily smokers than were non athletes (Carson &

Scott, 2005).

Confirming this research, Hartman and Massoglia (2007) conducted a

longitudinal study including 1,000 male and female adolescents from Minnesota. The

participants in this study completed questionnaires in the class room and at home; data

analyzed from this study shows that there is a relationship between high school sports

participation and deviance, including increased levels of drunken driving and shoplifting

(Hartmann & Massoglia, 2007). Furthermore, (Hartman and Massoglia (2007) found that


each additional year of high school sports that an adolescent participated in increased the

likelihood of drinking and driving.

Based on this research, it is shown that participating in school sports is associated

with negative behaviors such as increased under-age consumption of alcohol, drunken

driving, and shoplifting (Carson & Scott, 2005; Hartman & Massoglia, 2007; Miller et

al., 2007).

The Zero-Sum Thesis

Data yielded from Coleman‟s late 1950s study about adolescents, status, and high

school activities showed that sports participation has a negative impact on academic

achievement because the time spent participating in sports takes away from time that

could potentially be used for academic endeavors (Coleman, 1961). This data is

commonly referred to as Coleman‟s zero-sum thesis.

Contrary to Coleman‟s zero-sum thesis, Snyder and Spreitzer (1992) found that

the roles of scholar and athletes are actually complementary for many students and that a

student‟s participation in sports does not take away from his or her academics. In fact,

when evaluating four types of students over a two year period, scholar-athletes, pure

scholars, pure athletes, and nonscholar-nonathletes, data revealed that out of the four

types of students, scholar athletes are the most integrated into their school through

academic and athletic roles and they are more likely to hold leadership roles within the

school (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1992). Also contrary to Coleman‟s zero-sum thesis, data

analyzed from NELS:88 showed “students who participated more in sports spent more


time on homework, applied to more universities, and experienced higher parental

expectations” (Marsh & Kleitman, 2003, p. 215).

Further information concluded from research studies also refutes Coleman‟s zero-

sum thesis. Marsh (1993) analyzed data from HS&B in an attempt to better understand

the relationship between sports participation and academic achievement during the last

two years of high school. Data yielded from HS&B also debunks the zero-sum thesis

because it was found that in contrast to Coleman‟s thesis, participating in high school

sports does not take away time, energy, or commitment to academic pursuits (Marsh,

1993). Supporting the contradiction to the thesis, multiple research studies were

evaluated and reviewed and it is shown that increased levels school sport do not interfere

with students‟ achievement in academic subjects (Bailey, Armour, Kirk, Jess, Pickup,

Sanford, & BERA, 2009) .

In contrast to Coleman‟s zero-sum thesis, Marsh (1992) came up with his own

hypothesis based on data he analyzed from HS&B. This hypothesis, “the commitment-to-

school hypothesis predicts that [extracurricular activity participation] enhances academic

self-concept and that improved academic self-concept mediates positive effects on other

educationally relevant outcomes” (Marsh, 1992, p. 560). Marsh (1992, 1993) believes

that participation in high school sports actually increases students‟ commitment to school

and propels them to do well academically. Additionally, the opposite of Coleman‟s thesis

was found to be true in a review of research than spanned from 1974 to 2007. Trudeau

and Shephard (2008) found that adding time to academic designated curriculum by taking

away time from physical education and participation and sports does not increase grades

in the academic subjects. It was also noted that eliminating or reducing physical


education and scholastic athletics may be detrimental to adolescents‟ health (Trudeau &

Shephard, 2008).

In line with Coleman‟s zero-sum thesis, Coleman also found data from his study

that shows participation in school sports takes away opportunities for employment and

earning higher wages (Coleman, 1961). The reason Coleman (1961) believed this to be

true is because time spent playing sports in high school could be for employment instead;

by participating in sports, students lose valuable opportunities to gain work experience

and earn a salary. This was proved wrong by data collected in the National Longitudinal

Study of the High School Class of 1972. Utilizing data from this study, it was found that

“the time devoted to athletics does not result in the acquisition of less human capital and

lower subsequent wages” (Barron, Ewing, & Waddell, 2000, p. 420).

Contrasting Research

Despite numerous research studies that clearly identify a positive relationship

between sports participation and academic achievement, there are a few studies that do

not support this association. Utilizing data from NELS:88, Eitle (2005) found that sports

participation may not always be positively related to academic achievement. Based on the

data gathered from NELS:88, participation in certain sports, including baseball, softball,

football and basketball does not have any association with academic outcomes, but

participation is also not associated with poorer academic outcomes (Eitle, 2005). In

regards to students‟ relationships with their parents, students involved in sports did not

have any difference in quality relationships with the parents (Sanders, Field, Diego, &

Kaplan, 2000). Sanders et al. (2000) also found that athletic participation did not affect


students‟ grade point average. Supporting the data presented by Sanders et al., Melnick,

Sabo, and Vanfossen (1992) analyzed data gathered in the HS&B study and found that

sport participation is not related to grades and standardized tests scores for African-

Americans and Hispanics.

While many studies directly examine the relationship between an individual‟s

academic achievement and participation in sports, some research studies also evaluate

how high school athletic programs affect students who are not associated with school

athletics. One such study was conducted in the late 1990s in the state of Texas because

“Texas is well known as a state that is fanatical about athletics in general and football in

particular (Meier, Eller, Marchbanks III, Robinson, Polinard, & Wrinkle, 2004). By

analyzing data collected in this study, Meier et al. (2004) found that athletic programs

may have a negative impact on the academic skills of the entire school if students‟ loyalty

to athletics competes with the school‟s academic agenda. Furthermore, it was also found

that while school athletics are “positive for the individuals who participate, [they] may

have negative consequences for those who do not” (Meier et al., 2004, p. 805).

Sports Participation and Race

While there are many studies that link the positive relationship between athletic

participation and academic achievement, not too many focus on how participating in

sports affects minorities. Two research studies, one published in 1992 and one published

in 1993, examine the role that race plays in the positive relationship between participation

in interscholastic sports and academic achievement. Utilizing data from HS&B, Melnick,

Sabo, and Vanfossen (1992) analyzed the degree to which athletic participation affects


academic achievement for high school students in regards to race and gender. By

analyzing the data, it was found that athletic participation is more related to educational

mobility on the basis of race and ethnicity than it is to gender (Sabo et al., 1993).

Furthermore, it was found that race greatly impacts the relationship between athletic

participation and academic achievement; “white males, who are at the top of both the

racial/ethnic and gender hierarchies in the large society, experienced the greatest social

mobility gains through their participation in sports” (Sabo et al., 1993, p. 51). Data

collected from HS&B show that high school athletic participation is positively related to

postsecondary educational progress for white males from both suburban and rural schools

(Sabo et al., 2993)

In regards to participation in sports and minority high school student, Melnick,

Sabo, and Vanfossen (1992) found that high school athletic participation enhances

popularity for Hispanic and African-American youth and that it also contributes to more

involvement in extracurricular activities. Furthermore, participating in school sports

serves as a social resource for African-American and Hispanic youth (Melnick et al.,

1992).

The “Jock Complex”

Numerous studies show a clear link for the positive relationship between high

school students‟ participation in school sports and their academic performance (Barber et

al., 2001; Crosnoe, 2002; Eccles & Barber, 1999; Fox et al., 2010, Lueptow & Kayser,

1974; Marsh 1992, 1993; Marsh & Kleitman, 2003; Miracle & Rees, 1994; Otto & Alvin,

1977; Snyder & Spreitzer, 1992). However, this positive link is only measured by


documented sports participation, and not by self-identified labels. It is common

knowledge that many student-athletes are referred to, or self-identify, as a jock.

According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, a jock is an athlete, especially a

school or college athlete. The term jock may have a negative or positive connotation

depending on the person.

A longitudinal educational study that took place in New York from 1989 to 1996

examined the roles that gender and race played in regards to participation in school sports

and academic achievement. This study incorporated dependent variables of whether or

not students identified themselves as “jocks” into the data. By analyzing the data, it was

discovered that “self -identification as a jock was markedly more prevalent among

Whites (37%) than among Blacks (22%)” (Miller, Melnick, Barnes, Farrell, & Sabo,

2005, p. 183). Data from this study also revealed that students who claim the jock label,

or believe themselves to be jocks, have more incidents of misconduct than student-

athletes who do not identify themselves as jocks (Miller et al., 2005). More specifically,

“jocks also reported significantly more misconduct (including skipping school, cutting

classes, having someone from home called to the school for disciplinary purposes, and

being sent to the principal‟s office) than did non-jocks” (Miller et al., 2005, p. 178). In

regards to academic performance, data from this study also showed that female student-

athletes and African-American student-athletes who identify as jocks have lower grades

than students who do not (Miller et al., 2005).

Eccles & Barber‟s 1999 study also distinguished the difference between a student-

athlete who self-identifies as a jock and a student-athlete who does not self-identify as a

jock. Similar to research from the Miller et al. study, Eccles and Barber (1999) also found


more negative associations for students who identify themselves as jocks; in the study,

students who identified as jocks had higher rates of drinking than student-athletes who do

not identify as jocks. Furthermore, “jocks reported relatively higher levels of alcohol use

at Grade 12” (Eccles & Barber, 1999, p. 35).

Based on the research that separates pure sports participation and student-athletes

who identify as jocks, it is shown that the jock identity is associated with negative

behaviors more than it is associated with positive academic consequences.

Boys

Traditionally, athletic participation has been a male dominated domain until

recently. Some of the data included in this literature review are from older research

studies where only male student athletes were included in the sample (Coleman, 1961;

Hanks & Eckland, 1976; Lueptow & Kayser, 1974; Otto & Alvin, 1977). Marsh and

Kleitman (2003) analyzed data from the nationally represented, longitudinal NELS data

base and found that participating in school sports has a different impact on males and

females. Data from the NELS database reveals that “boys benefit more than girls from

athletic participation in term of university enrollment and highest level and postsecondary

education” (Marsh & Kleitman, 2003, p. 217). Supporting this information, Ryska (2003)

examined a sample of 235 public high school students both male and female and found

that male students have greater academic and behavioral conduct competence than their

nonathlete and female athlete peers.

A research study including 4,746 students from Minnesota conducted during the

1998-1999 school year shows that male students‟ grades benefit when they participate in


school sports (Fox, Barr-Anderson, Neumark-Sztainer, & Wall, 2010). In fact, Fox et al.,

(2010) found that high school boys‟ GPAs have a positive relationship with the number

of sports that they participate in. Data from a questionnaire that asked the students how

many sports they participate in and what their GPA is show “high school boys

participating in 0, 1, 2, and 3 or more sports teams, their respective mean GPAs were

2.50, 2.69, 2.79, and 2.94” (Fox et al., 2020, p. 34). Further supporting evidence that high

school males greatly benefit from participating in sports is data gathered from the Task

and Ego orientation in Sports Questionnaire (TEOSQ). Ryska and Vestal (2004) analyzed

this data and assert that junior and senior male high school student-athletes make a

greater use of learning strategies, including information processing and time

management. Use of these learning strategies significantly helps students achieve

academic success in the classroom and beyond (Broh, 2002).

In regards to how teachers perceive student-athletes, Sokol-Katz, Braddock, and

Basinger-Fleischman (2003) analyzed data gathered from NELS:88 to examine how

teachers view students, particularly, teachers‟ academic perceptions of student-athletes.

Data from NELS:88 show that teachers view male student athletes as more academically

invested than male non-athletes; however teachers do not view female student-athletes

the same way, even though statistics from NELS:88 prove that female student-athletes

are as academically invested as male student athletes (Sokol-Katz et al., 2003). Sokol-

Katz et al. (2003) attribute this bias due to the fact that based on data gathered in

NELS:88, male student-athletes had a higher self-reported investment in academics and

with the school.


Girls

The passing of Title IX in 1972 paved the way for women to have an equal

opportunity to participate in sports as men. This law required schools to provide female

athletes the same opportunity to play sports as their male peers. “When [Title IX] was

made into law it was wonderful! It would – and did – change the face of women‟s sports”

(Switzer, 2007, p. 170). According to the Women‟s Sports Foundation, only one out of

every 27 high school girls played a varsity sport in 1970. Today, that figure has

significantly increased to one in every 2.5 students. Furthermore, participation in female

high school sports increased from 294,015 in 1971 to 2,472,042 in 1997 (Women‟s

Sports Foundation, 2005).

Women and sports have come a long way since Title IX. In the same decade of

its passing, Snyder and Spreitzer (1977) found that participation in sports, which is

traditionally viewed as a masculine activity, did not appear to have a negative impact on

the way in which high school girls are perceived on campus. In today‟s society,

participation in sports is still typically viewed as a more masculine activity and female

participation in sports counters traditional femininity, which allows girls to be more

competitive academically (Crissey, Pearson, & Riegle-Crumb, 2005). With female

student athletes competing on the field and in the classroom, female athletes report higher

grades than female non athletes (Miller et al., 2005). This connection between sports

participation and grades extends even further. In a research study consisting of 4,746

middle school and high school students, with equal participation from males and females

and a diverse range of ethnicity and socioeconomic status, Fox et al. (2010) examined

data collected data from a survey and found a relationship between the number of sports a


student athlete participates in and their grade point average (GPA). High school female

athletes who reported playing in 0, 1, 2, and 3 or more sports had mean GPAs of 2.73,

2.85, and 3.20 respectively (Fox et al., 2010).

While sports participation has been linked to positive academic achievement for

both males and females, the relationship between student fitness and achievement is

stronger for females than it is for males (California Department of Education [CDE],

2005). The CDE examined students‟ scores on the California Standardized Tests (CSTs)

and the Presidential Fitness Tests and found that students who are more physically fit

scored higher on both the English and mathematics sections of the CSTs (CDE, 2005). In

fact, “since girls tend to be more tied to the school order, and more focused on

conventional success, female athletes may be doubly advantaged academically” than

male student athletes (Crosnoe, 2002, p. 332). This advantage of female sport

participation is connected to more than just academic performance. In a longitudinal

study of 235 high school students, 128 males and 107 females from California and

Wisconsin, the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire was used to determine

the students‟ perceived feelings toward their success and competence in sports and

academics. Data revealed that female student athletes reported having higher levels of

social acceptance and physical appearance competence than male athletes and female non

athletes (Ryska, 2003).

As research notes, high school females who participate in school sports report

higher GPAs than females who do not participate in sports. This positive relationship

between athletic involvement and GPA is also seen with standardized test score. Female

athletes achieve higher standardized test scores in mathematics, science, and history than


female non-athletes do (Eitle, 2005). This positive relationship between participation in

school sports and academic achievement may be related to the intrinsic benefits that

sports offer young adults. A research study composed of 160 male student-athletes and

163 female student-athletes examined the relationship between the sports motivation

among the student athletes and their goal-directed perceptions within their high school

setting. This study revealed that “female student-athletes appreciate the benefits of

utilizing a strategic approach to achievement tasks and thus make greater use of such

strategies in the academic setting” (Ryska & Vestal, 2004, p. 113). This study also

revealed that female athletes that have more competitive experiences use time

management strategies more frequently and reported having higher educational goals and

self-efficacy in terms of academic achievement (Ryska & Vestal, 2004).

Participation in high school athletics for young women is found to have an

overwhelmingly positive correlation to academic performance in science, which is

traditionally a male-dominated field. Female athletes achieve higher standardized test

scores in science than female non-athletes do (Eitle, 2005). Hanson and Kraus (1998)

gathered data from sophomore participants from HS&B and found that the male domain

of sports is propelled by independence, competition, and aggression, which are the same

traits that are associated with women‟s success in the male dominated field of science.

Due to the similar traits which lead to success in both sports and science, sports

participation for women has a positive effect for young female athletes in the field of

science (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). Building off of this evidence, another study examined

the correlation between which type of sports female athletes participate in and how the

type of sport relates to academic achievement. Findings show female athletes who


participate in a sport that is considered more masculine are more likely to take physics,

which is historically a more masculine academic discipline, and do well (Crissey et al.

2005). Hanson and Kraus (1998) assert that the positive connection between female sport

participation and academic performance in science is due to the fact that there is less

gender stereotyping among women who play sports.

The academic benefits that sports provide females are also seen among minorities

and students in rural schools. In a study that explores “the impact of race and gender

differences on the social mobility of high school athletes” (Sabo, Melnick, & Vanfossen,

1993, p. 44), data show Hispanic females that are from both suburban and rural schools

experience educational mobility gains from their participation in school sponsored

athletics (Sabo, Melnick, & Vanfossen, 1993). Furthermore, Sabo (1993) found that high

school athletic participation for white females attending rural schools is related to

postsecondary educational progress. It is suggested that participation in school sports by

students attending rural schools is seen as a vehicle for being successful beyond the rural

area.

In regards to sports participation among female high school students and

misconduct, Gardner, Roth, and Brooks-Gunn (2009) did not find any associations

between female high school sports participation and violent or nonviolent delinquency or

misconduct compared with female high school students who did not participate in athletic

activities.

Physical Activity


Many research studies show the positive relationship between sports participation and

academic achievement among high school students (Barber et al., 2001; Crosnoe, 2002;

Eccles & Barber, 1999; Fox et al., 2010, Lueptow & Kayser, 1974; Marsh 1992, 1993;

Marsh & Kleitman, 2003; Miracle & Rees, 1994; Otto & Alvin, 1977; Snyder &

Spreitzer, 1992). Some research studies however, take a broader look at this relationship

and examine the benefits that general physical activity has on students‟ academic

achievement. In one study examining the effects that physical activity and sports team

participation has on students‟ academic achievements, Fox et al. (2010) found a positive

linear relationship between exercise and academic outcome. Results from this study

yielded a “significant linear association between performing more hours of [moderate to

vigorous physical activity] and a higher mean GPA” for boys and girls (Fox et al., 2010,

p. 34).

In one particular study, 89 high school students filled out a questionnaire that

collected information about their exercise habits. In this questionnaire, the respondents

provided information about exercise frequency, relationships with their peers and their

parents, sports involvement, academic performance, drug use, and depression (Field,

Diego & Sanders, 2001). Analysis from this study suggested adolescents in the high-

exercise group, which was determined based upon frequent and consistent physical

activity and exercise, had better relationships with their parents, reported higher quality

relationships with parents, and had more family support (Field et al., 2001). Field et al.

(2001) also found that adolescents categorized in the high-exercise group had a lower

level of drug use compared to participants classified in the low-exercise group, and also

engaged in sports more hours per week and reported higher GPAs. Results yielded from


the Fox et al. and the Diego et al. study prove that physical activity and exercise are

positively related with adolescents‟ academic achievement, especially in regards to

higher reported GPAs.

This link between physical activity, which also includes the participation in

school sports, and academic achievement leads some researchers to discover why these

two fields are positively related. In an effort to understand the influence that physical

fitness and exercise have on cognitive function in adolescents, Etnier, Salazar, Landers,

Pertruzzelo, Han, and Nowell (1997) analyzed 134 different studies and found that

exercise and fitness have a small positive effect on cognitive performance, which may

explain why physical activity and academic achievement are positively related. While

this positive effect is small, “it is an improvement that is significantly different from

zero” (Etnier et al., 1997, p. 257).

Data gathered from research studies also show that active participation in physical

activity and exercise has additional benefits for adolescents. Nash‟s study published in

1996 about the effects that serotonin has on the brain alludes that is it possible that higher

GPAs for adolescents who exercise frequently is related to an increase in

neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and endorphins, that are associated with exercise (as

cited in Field et al., 2001). Furthermore, it is found that adolescent physical activity and

exercise distracts from depressive thoughts and self-doubt, which may also explain the

positive relationship between physical activity and academic achievement (Kirkcaldy,

Shephard, & Siefen, 2002, p. 549).

Limitations


Despite all of the research supporting the positive relationship between

participation in school sports and academic achievement, there are some explanations and

limitations that need to be addressed. One common explanation that links sport

participation with higher academic performance is an academic standard that student

athletes must meet and maintain in order to become eligible. There is a positive

correlation between high school athletics and academic success because students must

pass classes in order to be eligible to participate in athletics (Meier, Eller, Marchbanks

III, Robinson, Polinard, & Wrinkle, 2004). This information is supported by information

gathered in the case study with the 12 high school soccer players. Throughout the case

study, Holt et al. (2008) learned that if the student-athletes receive poor grades, they can

be placed on athletic suspension and not be permitted to participate in interscholastic

sports. Furthermore, in support with Broh‟s social capital explanation, Crosnoe (2002)

found that athletes have a greater stake in their academic success not only because of the

eligibility requirements, but also due to closer ties with school personnel, including

teachers, administrators, and coaches.

While it may seem like common knowledge that schools set academic eligibility

requirements for students to participate in sports, it is not the norm. In fact, only 17 states

require academic eligibility to play high school sports (Tyre, 2008). Of those 17 states,

only three states have implemented rules that a student-athlete must be benched if he or

she receives an F grade in a class; those three states are Arizona, Iowa, and Ohio (Tyre,

2008). Even with only 17 states requiring academic eligibility, many schools set their

own academic eligibility requirements. Holt et al. (2008) noted that the school where they

conducted research at implemented its own eligibility requirements; high school soccer


players reported that they could be placed on academic suspension if they did not keep up

their grades. To further gain a comprehensive knowledge of how schools‟ eligibility

requirements affect students‟ academic achievement, more studies are needed that

directly compare those two variables.

A major threat to the validity of the research presented in this literature review is

sampling. In his presentation to the LA84 Foundation, Hartman (2008) noted that there

are quite a few limitations, including sampling, to keep in mind when analyzing data

from research studies that explore the link between sports participation and academic

achievement. As noted by Hartmann (2008) the studies that show the strongest

correlations almost always use sample sizes that are much too small to adequately

represent an entire population. Furthermore, some of the sample sizes are too localized,

for example, only taking place in one state such as the case with Michigan and the

MSALT (Hartmann, 2008).

Another sampling threat that threatens the validity of some of the data yielded

from these research lies in external factors associated with each student participant,

including socioeconomic status, parental education level, individual student

determination, parental and peer support, race, and gender. While some of these external

factors were singled out in some of the research studies, some studies did not include

such external factors.

Further limiting the reliability of the data presented in some of these research

studies is history. For instance, some of these studies, including Otto and Alvin‟s 1977

research study entitled, “Athletics, Aspirations, and Attainments” and Coleman‟s initial

research that sparked much of the interest between athletics and academics that was


published in 1961 include data that are outdated, especially with the passing of Title IX

and women‟s sports participation significantly increasing since the 1970s. For example,

in this study, only males who were seventeen years old were used in the sample (Otto &

Alvin, 1977). It is fallible to transfer the results yielded from these data to an entire

population of high school athletes today.

Another limitation found in the research for this literature review is the dependent

variable of high school student athletes self-identifying as a jock. Only a few of the

studies presented in this literature review examined the jock identity among high school

student-athletes and results from those studies indicate findings that are more conclusive

than studies that do not. Self-identification as a jock plays an integral role in determining

whether or not participation in high school sports has positive or negative consequences

in regards to academic achievement (Eccles & Barber, 1999; Miller et al, 2005). Given

the fact that there was a significant difference in results between studies where the jock

identity was isolated (Eccles & Barber, 1999; Miller et al, 2005) as a dependent variable

and studies where sports participation was calculated as a whole (Barber et al., 2001;

Crosnoe, 2002; Fox et al., 2010, Lueptow & Kayser, 1974; Marsh 1992, 1993; Marsh &

Kleitman, 2003; Miracle & Rees, 1994; Otto & Alvin, 1977; Snyder & Spreitzer, 1992),

more studies are needed to determine if the negative consequences associated with high

school sports participation are positively related to self-identification with the jock

identity. Additionally, more studies are needed to evaluate why the jock identity may

increase negative consequences among high school student-athletes.

Summary


In 1961, James Coleman‟s study The Adolescent Society, took an in-depth look at

adolescents and their school activities and academic performance. He found that while

there is a positive relationship between participating in school activities, including school

sports, and academics, participation in academics also takes time away from academics

(Coleman, 1961). The latter concept has become known as the Zero-Sum Model, or the

Zero-Sum thesis, which is attributed to Coleman (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1992). Since then,

the topic academic achievement and sports participation has been of great interest to

many researchers. In summary, several decades worth of data presented in this literature

review indicate that there is a strong, positive relationship between high school sports

participation and academic achievement (Barber et al., 2001; Broh, 2002; Carlson &

Scott, 2005; Crosnoe, 2002; Eccles & Barber, 1999; Lueptow & Kayser, 1974; Marsh

1992, 1993; Marsh & Kleitman, 2003; Otto & Alvin, 1977; Snyder & Spreitzer, 1992;

Spreitzer & Pugh, 1973).

The positive relationship between academic achievement and sports participation

is explained using three models: the Developmental Model, the Leading Crowd

Hypothesis, and the Social Capital Model (Broh, 2002). According to Broh (2002), these

explanations explain how sports help children and adolescents developmentally, how

participation in sports grants access to a superior social club, and how student-athletes

use their advantages to help them academically and socially.

The positive association linked between high school sports participation and

academic achievement is seen in many different facets. First, data collected shows that

student-athletes have higher standardized test scores and grades (Carlson & Scott, 2005;

CDE, 2005; Dumais, 2008; Fox et al., 2010; Marsh & Kleitman, 2003). Secondly,


student-athletes are more likely to achieve higher education and have more ambition

educational goal (Barron et al., 2000; Carlson & Scott, 2005; Lueptow & Kayser, 1974;

Miracle & Rees, 1994; Otto & Alvin, 1977; Schaefer & Rehberg, 1970). In addition to

higher standardized test score, higher GPAs, and an increased achievement of

postsecondary education, research also shows that adolescents who participate in school

sports are less likely to drop out of school (Eccles & Barber, Eitle, 2005; 1999; Mahoney

& Cairns, 1997; McNeal, 1995; SRLA, 2010). Despite all of the positive associations

between high school sports participation and academic achievement, there are also a few

negative consequences that are documented. Several studies produce data correlating

sports participation to underage drinking, drunken driving, misconduct, and shoplifting

(Crosnoe, 2002; Eccles & Barber, 1998; Gardner et al., 2009; Hartman & Massoglia,

2007).

Data presented in this literature review also examine the contrasting research.

Eitle (2005) found that sports participation may not always be positively related to

academic achievement. Additionally, Sanders et al. (2000) found that athletic

participation had no affect on a students‟ GPA. Supporting Eitle and Sanders et al.,

Melnick et al. (1992) reported that athletic participation was not related to grades or

standardized test scores for African-Americans and Hispanics. In addition to the

contrasting research presented, data regarding the impact of school athletics on

nonathletes was also reported. It was found that school athletic programs may have a

negative impact on nonathltes (Meier et al., 2004).

In addition to the research presented about the correlation between athletic

participation and academic achievement, data in this literature review also examine what


happens to student-athletes when they identify themselves as a jock. A jock is another

term for athlete and it may have a negative or positive connotation. Data presented show

that white student-athletes are more likely to self-identify as jocks than African-America

student athletes (Millet et al., 2005). Data also reveal that students who consider

themselves as jocks have significantly more incidents of misconduct, which includes

skipping school, being sent to the principal‟s office, drunken driving, teen drinking,

shoplifting, etc. (Eccles & Barber, 1999; Miller et al, 2005). Self-identification as a jock

is not the only factor that has an impact on how athletic participation and academic

achievement relate.

A substantial amount of research studies also show that gender and race play an

integral part in how athletic participation and academic achievement relate to each other.

White males, whom are traditionally viewed as being at the top of the ethnic and gender

hierarchies, experience the most gains through participation in athletics (Sabo et al.,

1993). Furthermore, male student-athletes have been found to benefit more than female

student-athletes in terms of university enrollment and postsecondary education (Marsh &

Kleitman, 2003). For minority students, athletic participation helps increase popularity

for Hispanic and African-American students and also plays a role in additional student

involvement in extracurricular activities (Melnick et al., 1992). In the classroom, teachers

also view male student-athletes more academically inclined and invested than female

student-athletes, even though both male and female student-athletes perceive themselves

as academically invested students (Sokol-Katz et al., 2003). Even though teachers do not

view female student-athletes as academically invested as their male peers, female sports

participation has benefits in the classroom. Female sports participation goes against


traditional femininity, which allows female students to me more competitive

academically (Crissey et al, 2005). For both male and female student-athletes however,

participation in school sports was positively linked with a higher GPA (Fox et al., 2010).

In addition to athletic participation, physical activity (including non-sport

exercise, dance, weight-lifting, etc.) is also positively related to academic achievement

(Etnier et al., 1997; Field et al., 2001; Fox et al., 2010; Kirkcaldy et al., 2002). More

specifically, both male and female students who perform more hours of moderate to

vigorous physical activity have a higher mean GPA (Fox et al., 2010). Furthermore, high

school students that reported frequent and consistent physical activity and exercise also

reporter having higher quality relationships with their parents (Field et al., 2001). Finally,

Etnier et al. (1997) found that while the cognitive benefit may be small for students who

are physically active, there is a benefit and it is significantly greater than zero.

Overall, research gathered for this literature review indicates that there is a

positive relationship between academic performance and sports participation for high

school students. This positive academic relationship is also seen with physical activity.

Section 3: Conclusion

Position of the Author

As a former student-athlete myself, I firmly believe that participating in school

sports is beneficial for adolescents academically, socially, and developmentally. Based

upon my first-hand experience with scholastic sports participation, I know that my own

participation in high school sports benefitted me in the classroom, helped my


relationships with my peers and teachers, and helped me grow into a more confident

individual that is able to successfully function in team settings.

In reviewing the literature on relationship between high school sports

participation and academic achievement, I found that I agreed with many of the

researchers‟ findings. I also found some of the data collected from these research studies

shocking or appalling. The most appalling data I found in my research were how high

school teachers do not view female student-athletes as academically invested as their

male student-athlete counterparts. This information is interesting; especially, despite the

fact that the same research study showed that female student-athletes view themselves

more academically invested than female student non athletes. What was most appalling

about this information, for me, was the fact that this was a rather recent research study

and that the data is less than twenty years old. For me, this information just proves that

even though female athletics have come a long way since the passing of Title IX, there

are still gender barriers that need to be broken so that women can continue to advance in

society. I would be very interested to see this information used in a research study today.

I would like to know if teachers‟ perceptions have changed over the past decade seeing as

how female participation in interscholastic sports is ever increasing.

In addition to high school female student-athletes not being viewed as

academically invested as their male counterparts, I was also shocked by the relationship

between sports participation and teenage alcohol consumption. It was alarming to see the

rate of teen drinking that is associated with sports participation. I firmly believe that this

is a big problem in our society and that it needs to be addressed. Given the information

discussed in this literature review, I speculate that teen drinking is most likely higher in


smaller cities where high school sporting events are a community event. In areas like that,

high school athletes are treated like Kings and parties celebrating such sporting events are

common place.

Data that I agreed most with were from the case study examining the high school

soccer players and their coach. As a former student-athletes myself, and as a child who

grew up playing many sports, including soccer, I know from first-hand experience that

playing sports provides you with a unique opportunity to learn how to work together as a

team. Also, by playing sports in my childhood and throughout my teenage years, I was

given many leadership opportunities by my coaches and teammates. I would say that I

had a similar experience playing sports as the soccer players did in terms of learning

about teamwork and leadership. Because of this, I completely agree with Broh and his

Developmental Model. Participation in team sports provides children with the

opportunity to grow and learn socially in a team environment where everyone must work

together to achieve a common goal.

In regards to the information presented about female participation in school

sports, it amazes me how far female athletics have come in the past fifty years. As a

former student-athlete myself, I am very fortunate that I attended school when I did

because I was given equal opportunity to participate in high school athletics. I also

believe that my constant participation in sports starting at the age of four provided me

with my solid work ethic, discipline, and commitment to academic excellence. The data

from the Women‟s Sports Association astonished me and I was elated to see just how

many female high school students participate in school athletics today. Participation has

grown exponentially since the 1970s and I hope that it still continues to grow.


I can personally relate to a lot of the information in these studies. While in high

school, I was a multi-sport student-athlete participating in cross country and track. I held

school in a positive regard, was involved in multiple extra-curricular activities, and was

highly competitive with my GPA. I was always competing against my friends to be in the

most Advanced Placement or honors classes and to have the highest grades in class. In

high school, I equated success with the types of courses I took and with earning As in my

classes. My GPA placed me in the top 5% of my graduating class. I also found that

between my sports participation, extra-curricular activities, and after school job my time

was limited. Just as Ryska and Vestal‟s findings show, I had to utilize my time wisely

and employ many academic and time management strategies to continue to do well in

school and my activities.

Snyder and Spreitzer‟s study about female athletic participation affecting stigma

in the 1970s made me recall some of my own high school experiences. When I was a

sophomore attending Centennial High School in Las Vegas, Nevada, a fellow female

student tried out for and made the Junior Varsity football team. Some people viewed her

participation in the male-dominated sport negatively and some people viewed it

positively. In reality though, other people‟s perceptions did not matter because only her

own thoughts of playing on the football team mattered. I recall her participation on the

football team was not dysfunctional to her stigma at all. In fact, I remember her relishing

in the attention she received because she was breaking gendered barriers.

The only study that I cannot personally relate to as a former high school athlete is

Hanson and Kraus‟ study about how female student-athletes perform better in male-

dominated classes, such as science. I remember hating chemistry. To be a little dramatic,


it was the bane of my existence during sophomore year. While I did pass the course with

a B, I considered my grade in the class a failure because everyday was a tremendous

struggle. I do however remember many of my female student-athlete friends taking

advanced science courses and doing well in them.

Overall, I am a big supporter of school athletic programs. I believe that sports

teach children and teenagers valuable lessons and valuable skills that simply cannot be

taught in the classroom. Athletic programs and school sports play an integral part in the

high school environment and in the development of society‟s youth.


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