rudiments of research methodology
DESCRIPTION
ÂTRANSCRIPT
RUDIMENTS OF
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
FOR WRITING
DISSERTATION AND PROJECT WORK
BY SIMON AMEGASHIE-VIGLO
SEPTEMBER 2008
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 RUDIMENTS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FOR WRITING DISSERTATION/PROJECT WORK
1.1 Reasons for Project Work/Dissertation
The rationale for including project work or dissertation in tertiary education is that it
provides for the development of intellectual skills that are not fully facilitated on the
other components of the teaching course.
The project work or dissertation requirement is in accord with the educational philosophy
that requires students to take responsibility for their own learning, specifying and
defining the task and the learning outcomes.
The aims and objectives for conducting a dissertation are therefore:
1. To provide the opportunity for students to undertake an independent piece of
demanding work.
2. To enable students to investigate, in depth, a subject in which they have a
particular interest and of their own selection.
3. To provide students with an opportunity to stretch their intellectual and
technical skills.
4. To encourage students to develop new forms of analysis, conclusions and
policies which may make an original contribution to knowledge in the field of
study concerned.
5. To encourage both clarity and depth of thought because project work involves
analysis of problem in depth and the development of a logical sequence of
ideas.
6. To provide students with an opportunity of learning how to acquire detailed
information on a particular issue, hence it involves sources of data such as
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Libraries, bibliographies, collection of new data through interviews, surveys and
archival research1
1.2 The Meaning of Research
Man from time immemorial has curiously sought to understand the universe and his
environment. This curiosity has given rise to different modes of thinking, different
attitudes of the universe, different convictions or conceptions of the nature of the
universe.
Hence there exist magical, religious, mystical and the scientific approaches to seeking
knowledge and explaining the world. All the approaches have one thing in common, that
is a search for the truth, knowledge and understanding – but they differ in their:
Methods of seeking and validating results of their search.
The finality and fallibility or infallibility of their results, that is, the degree to
which their results can stand the test of time and criticism.
The role played by ultimate ends and prior assumptions in arriving at results
1.2.1 Research
The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines research as “Careful search or inquiry; endeavour
to discover new or collate old facts etc, by scientific study of a subject; course of critical
investigation”.
Research is searching for an unknown event or fact. It is a painstaking search carried out
systematically in an attempt to:
Find an answer to new problems
Or understand existing ones or
Simply delve into the unknown as a result of mere curiosity or
1 Naoum, SG (Dr.) Dissertation Research and Writing for Construction Students
Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd 1998. (Oxford) pp 1-2.
3
As a result of the thirst for new knowledge or a pressing problem needing
solution.
1.2.2 Social Research
Social research is research applied to the investigation of social phenomenon. It tries to
understand the attitudes of people about whom facts are collected and to account for the
resultant opinion or differences in opinion. In short social research is the study of social
processes.
Social research social is therefore a critical inquiry, investigation, or probe into a social
phenomenon.
1.3 Selection of Topic and Writing of Project/Dissertation Proposal
The first step of research process involves selecting a research topic and writing your
project/dissertation proposal. A great deal of reading and clear thinking are necessary to
identify the problem and your area of interest.
Perhaps the most difficult aspect of conducting a research is the choosing of a
researchable topic and the identification and statement of the problem (that is the
questions and issues you want to address)
In addition:
The main issues: to be considered when faced with the task of choosing a topic and
proposal is the what, why, how, where when and how much approach.
WHAT: What do you want to do?
That is, the topic of investigation/probe.
WHY : Why do you want to investigate or probe this topic?
That is, statement of the problem or definition of the problem.
This should include your purpose and aims and objectives for doing the
research and the hypothesis or assumption underlying the study.
HOW: How are you going to do the research?
That is, the methodology of the research.
4
That is, methods of data collection, sources of materials, sampling
techniques, sample size, procedures and methods of analysis data, testing
of hypothesis etc.
WHERE: Where are you going to do the research?
That is, the Study Area and in what locality? Why is this particular area of
interest to you as a researcher as compared to other area?
WHEN: When are you going to do the research?
That is, the Time Frame.
HOW MUCH: How much would the research cost you? That is providing a budget for
the project
Consult the library catalogue and inquire about theses, dissertations, project
works, articles in academic journals reports, books, etc.
Talk about problems and possible topics with your colleagues and /or with
your lecturers who are experts in the field.
Arrange an informal interview with professionals in industry and discuss what
you should emphasis and what the possible outcomes are likely to be.
There are a number of important issues to be considered when deciding on your research
topic. These may be summarised as follows:
1. A dissertation topic should be realistic: You need to identify a problem
(supported by published materials) investigate the causes and possible solutions.
2. Your topic should be specific and narrow: your topic should not be too general
since this would make collection of data difficult and analysis of data
problematic.
3. Your topic should show individuality : Your personal contribution to the study:
what is new about your investigation? What are we going to know which we did
not previously know? This can take the form of case studies, a series of
interviews, postal questionnaire or analysis of archival data.
4. Accessibility of Information : Your topic should be in an area that you can have
access to the necessary data for the successful completion of the study.
5
5. Personal Ability : The subject and extent of the research should be within your
intellectual competence and physical resources.
6. Personal Interest : The topic or subject area should be of interest to you since this
would motive you to complete the project.
7. Relevance and National/Professional Interest: Your topic should be of relevance
to national aspirations and of interest to others. It should fill a void and contribute
to career goals.
A Diagram showing the narrowing down of the research topic2
2 Ibid p 13
6
Initial Idea of the Topic
Narrowing through thinking and reading
Final focus of Research Topic
1.4 Format for Project/Dissertation Proposal after Deciding on a Topic for
Research
There is hardly any single format or approach for carrying out research that is universally
accepted among social scientists. Formats therefore vary according to the subject or
discipline and the type of research to be conducted or the orientation of the supervisor.
But for the purposes of project work and other academic work we may consider the
following format, which is blend of the Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches.
1. Working Title
2. Introduction (Background)
3. Statement of the Problem (Formulation or Definition of the Problem)
4. Aims and Objectives of the Study (that is Purpose of the study)
5. Hypothesis of the Study
6. Methodology and Scope
7. Significance of the Study
8. Limitations of the Research/Study
9. Organisation of the Study (Proposed contents of the Study)
In other types of Proposals, the following may be included:
Duration of the Study
Budget (Cost) of the Study
Initial References (Reviews of Relevant Literature).
1.4.1 Other formats:
In some books, the two different approaches are clearly stated and depending on the type
of project one is pursuing or undertaking he may use the Quantitative or the Qualitative
Format.
1.4.2 Quantitative Format
The format for quantitative study conforms to standards in journal, articles, and research
studies. The form generally follows the model of an introduction of a literature review,
methods, results and discussion.
7
In planning a quantitative study and designing dissertation proposals, consider the
following three-part format:
1. Introduction
2. Statement of the problem Aims and Objectives of the Study (that is Purpose of
the Study)
3. Hypothesis or Research Questions
4. Theoretical Perspective or Framework
5. Definition of Concepts or Terms
6. Delimitation and Limitations of the Study
7. Significance of the Study
8. Review of Relevant Literature
9. Methodology
Research Design
Sample, Population or Subjects
Instrumentation and materials
Variables in the Study
Data Analysis (Discussion of Findings, Conclusion and
Recommendations)
10. Appendices
11. Bibliography
1.4.3 Qualitative Format
1. Statement of the Problem
2. Purpose of the Study (Aims and Objectives)
3. The Grand Tour Question and sub-questions (that is Hypothesis and Research
Questions)
4. Definitions
5. Delimitations and Limitations
6. Significance of the Study
7. Procedure (Methodology)
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Data Collection Procedures
Data Analysis Procedures
Methods for Verification
Outcome of the Study and its relation to theory and literature.
8. Appendices
9. Bibliography
1.5 Statement of Problem
A problem might be defined as the issues that exist in the literature, theory, or practice
that lead to a need for the study. By asking oneself, what is the rationale for the study?
What questions do we want to find answers to? After this, the problem begins to become
clearer.
Statement of the problem is by far the most difficult aspect of a research to most students.
Hence it is necessary to keep the following essential points in mind, as the “problem” is
being presented, stated or composed.
1. Write an opening sentence that stimulates interest as well as conveys an issue to
which a broad readership can relate.
2. Specify the problem (dilemma, issue) leading to the study. What issue establishes
a strong rationale or need for the research?
3. Indicate why the problem is important
4. Focus the problem statement on the key concept being tested quantitatively or
explored qualitatively (In a quantitative study this concept is the dependent
variable and central phenomenon of interest)
5. Render the issue of investigation or probe in rhetoric questions to stir the
imagination and interest of readers and make a solid impact about what their
expectations should be3.
3 Creswell John W. Research Design: Qualitative & Quantitative Approaches
SAGE Publication (London) 1994. p 50.
9
1.6 Aims and Objectives
Identify between three and five single sentence objectives. These statements indicate
what the researcher seeks to achieve through the study.
Objectives must be stated clearly so as to identify the issues or questions to be addressed.
The statement of objectives takes a number of forms, but the most common forms are the
following:
(i) Formulation of objectives with the topic verb in the infinitive: for example;
To examine the attitude of female students to proposals for marriage from their
male colleagues
To analyse the various survival strategies adopted by students on campus.
To identify the major factors affecting the supervision of project work. Etc.
(ii) The gerund/a noun phrase/clause formation. For example:
The study aims at:
Examining the extent to which ………………………………………………..
Identifying the major factors…………………………………………………...
Analyzing the various survival strategies… …………………………………..
1.7 Hypothesis
A hypothesis simply put, is the main assumption (or assumptions) underlying the study.
If your research is designed to rest or validate a hypothesis or a conceptual theory, then a
single-sentence hypothesis needs to be established. It should be clearly and specifically
stated indicating the position or arguments for the study4.
A hypothesis is thus a tentative proposition which is a subject of verification through
your investigation. Your conclusion will either support or reject your proposed
hypothesis or support part and reject others. Hypothesis can be formulated as “If …
4 Naoum, SG (Dr.) Dissertation Research, p 15.
10
then” or conditional statements. Your hypothesis should be sharp and specific. A good
hypothesis contains an independent variable and a dependent variable.
1.8 Types of Hypothesis
1.8.1 The Null Hypothesis
As earlier stated, a good hypothesis has an independent variable and a dependent
variable. Conducting research is like a court trial. To prevent the bias of the judge, the
suspect/accused is regarded or presumed innocent until his guilt is proved by evidence
beyond reasonable doubt.
The Null Hypothesis or the No relationship hypothesis is akin to this principle in court
trial. Null = Zero + no effect. The Null hypothesis is therefore a way of approaching
social issues in a non-bias manner. It is a tool for minimising bias or insulating the
researcher from the investigation process5.
The null hypothesis is therefore stated in the negative:
For example:
1. Female students who do not perm their hair are not necessary poor.
2. There is no relation between a person’s social status and his place of
residence.
3. Smoking has no relationship with lung cancer.
4. Broken homes bear no relationship with juvenile delinquency6.
1.8.2 The Alternate Hypothesis
An Alternate Hypothesis states an opposite or contrary proposition to the null hypothesis,
in an “if ….. then” or comparative manner.
For example:
1. Female students, who do not perm their hair, are poorer than those who do.
5 Tom K.B. Kumekpor Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research, Son Life Printing Press & Services, Adenta Accra. p 61.
6 Ibid p 61
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2. Those who smoke have a greater risk of developing cancer than those who do
not.
3. A well-educated person will have a greater capacity to analyse issues than an
illiterate.
1.8.3 The Operational Hypothesis
The operational hypothesis is also called Working Hypothesis. In this type of hypothesis,
a working or operational definition is clearly formulate in terms of indicators to allow for
empirical interpretation and verification that is, reputation, confirmation or modification.
Procedures for observing and measuring variables in an operational hypothesis are
usually explicit or known.
Example of Operational Hypothesis:
1. There is a direct relationship between smoking and cancer.
2. Broken home produce delinquent youth.
3. The more educated a person, the greater his capacity to analyse issues.
1.8.4 Testing of Hypothesis
The most important role of a hypothesis in a social research is to guide the researcher to
focus the study more sharply by identifying variables that are directly relevant to the
research problem.
Such hypotheses are not necessarily tested, but analysis of information collected will
either confirm, modify or refute them.
What is important is to clearly specify, at the appropriate stages in the analysis, the extent
to which such a hypothesis has been corroborated, modified or refuted by the information
collected and analysed7.
1.9 Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Research Strategy may be defined as the way in which the research objectives can be
questioned. There are two types of research strategies namely “quantitative research”
7 Ibid p. 61
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Placement of Theory
and “qualitative research”. Deciding on which type of research to follow, depends on
the purpose of the study and the type and availability of information requested.
1.9.1 Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research sees reality as “objective” and that it can be identified and
measured empirically and independently from the research9. Quantitative Approach
holds that the researcher should remain distant from what he is investigating. Examples
of the Quantitative Approach are Experiments and Surveys in which the researcher tries
to control bias, selects a systematic sample and is objective.
Quantitative Research is therefore “Objective” in nature. It is defined as an inquiry into a
social or human problem, based on testing a hypothesis or a theory composed of
9 Ibid p 4.
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Research Strategy
Field Work
Collection of Secondary Data
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Objective Measurement
Attitudinal Research
Exploring Research
Placement of Theory
The Case Study Approach
The Survey Approach
The Problem-solving Approach (Action Research
Statistical Format
Descriptive Documents
variables, measured with numbers and analysed with statistical procedures, in order to
determine whether the hypothesis or the theory holds true.
Quantitative Data is therefore not abstract, they are hard and reliable, they are measurable
and tangible.
Quantitative Research is selected under the following circumstances:
1. When you want to find facts about a concept, a question or an attribute.
2. When you want to collect factual evidence and study the relationship between
these facts in order to test a particular theory or hypothesis.
1.9.2 Qualitative Research
For the qualitative researcher, the only reality is that constructed by the individuals
involved in the research situation. Thus to the qualitative researcher, multiple realities
exist in any given situation. That is the researcher, the individuals being investigated, the
reader or the audience interpreting a study. All the qualitative researcher needs to do is to
report as faithfully as possible these realities through reliable on the voices of informants
and his interpretation. Examples of qualitative research are Exploratory Research and
Attitudinal Research, which may be case studies, phenomenon log, ethnography and
historical or legal researches.
Exploratory Research is used to have a limited amount of knowledge about a topic. Here
interview technique is usually selected as a method of data collection. The purpose of
exploratory research is intertwined with the need for a clear and precise statement of the
recognised problem. Researchers conduct exploratory research for three interrelated
purposes:
1. Diagnosing a situation
2. Screening alternatives
3. To discover new ideas
Attitudinal Research is used to “subjectively” evaluate the opinion ‘view’ or perception
or a person towards a particular object or problem.
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Combination of both Quantitative and Qualitative
Designs in Research
By 1978, Densin used the term triangulation, a term borrowed from navigation and
military strategy, to argue for the combination of methodologies in the study of the same
phenomenon. The concept of triangulation is based on the assumption that any bias
inherent in a particular source of data, investigator, or method, would be neutralized
when used in conjunction with other data sources, investigators and methods.
A combined method study is therefore one in which the researcher uses multiple methods
of data collection and analysis. *It is a advantageous to a researcher to combine methods
to better understand a concept being tested or explored.
1.10 Action Research (The Problem-Solving Approach)
Action Research may be seen as a kind of on-the-spot procedure designed to deal with a
concrete problem located in an immediate situation. This means that the step-by-step
process is constantly monitored over varying periods of time and by a variety of
mechanisms (questionnaires, dairies, interview, case studies, observations, personal
experiences principal informants etc) so that the ensuing feedback may be translated into
modifications, adjustments, directional changes, redefinitions etc so as to bring about
lasting benefit to the ongoing process itself.
The main aim of Action Research is to understand the nature of a particular problem at an
early stage so as to get the needed feedback for formulating remedial policies to solve the
problem. The essentially practical, problem-solving nature of action research makes it an
attractive approach to practitioner-researchers and social workers.
Action Research needs to be planned in same systematic way as any other type of
research, and the methods selected for gathering information will depend on the nature of
the information required.
1.11 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) Approach
Closely related to Action Research, is the Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) Approach which
was developed by rural development workers. Like Action Research, the Rapid Rural
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Appraisal Approach seeks answers to practical problems. However, as the name
suggests, Rapid Rural Appraisal aims at doing this quickly, flexibly and cheaply.
A multi-disciplinary team of experts would spend one or two weeks learning from local
people about the major problems of an area. The aim is to get sufficient knowledge,
without too much unnecessary detail, in order to identify priorities and offer general
practical proposals.
Rapid Rural Appraisal deliberately uses several different methods of gathering
information up a picture of a local situation. It may include direct observation, semi-
structured interviews, and the use of key informants, group discussions and workshops.
Rapid Rural Appraisal normally avoids formal survey, questionnaires, large samples and
statistical analysis because they are time-consuming and costly, but makes full use of
existing written material, including any previous surveys.
1.12 The Case Study Approach
The Case Study Approach has been described as “an umbrella term for a family of
research methods having in common the decision to focus inquiry on an instance. The
Case Study Approach is appropriate for individual research because it gives an
opportunity for one aspect of a problem to be studied in some depth within a limited time.
As in all researches the study is methodically planned, evidence is collected
systematically, and the relationship between variables is carefully studied. Though
observation and interviews are mostly used in case study, no method of data collection is
excluded. Methods of strength of the case study method is that it allows the researcher
to concentrated on a specific instance or situation and to identify or attempt to identify,
the various interactive processes at work. These processes may remain hidden in a large-
scale survey but may be crucial to the success or failure of systems or organisation.
Case Studies may be carried out to follow up and to put flesh on the bones of a survey.
They can precede a survey and be used as a means of identifying key issues which merit
further investigation.
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The majority of case studies are, however, carried out as free-standing exercises. Where
a single researcher is gathering all the information, selection has to be made. The
researcher selects the area for study and decides which material to present in the final
report. It is difficult to cross-check information and so there is always the danger of
distortion. Critics of the case study approach draw attention to this and other problems.
The supporters of the case study approach however maintain that if case studies are
carried out systematically and critically, their findings extend to the boundaries of
existing knowledge.
1.13 The Ethnography Style
The Ethnography Style of fieldwork, research was developed by anthropologist to study a
society or some aspects of a society, culture or group in depth. They developed an
approach that depended heavily on observation and in some cases it involved complete or
partial integration into the society being studied.
This form of participant observation enabled the researchers, as far as possible, and so to
understand better why they acted in the way they did. This approach is no longer lim9ted
to anthropological studies because it has been effectively used in a good many social
studies.
1.14 The Survey Approach
The over-ridding aim of a survey is to obtain information that can be analysed and
patterns extracted for comparison. The census is an example of survey in which the
same questions are asked for the selected population. Not all surveys are like a census.
In most cases, a survey will aim at obtaining information from a representative selection
of the population and the sample, presents findings that are representative of the
population.
Great care has to be taken to ensure that the sample size is truly representative of the
population being studied.
17
In a survey, information can be gathered by means of self-completion questionnaires or
by means of questionnaires, schedules or checklists administered by interviewer.
Whichever method of information gathering is selected, the aim is to obtain answers to
same questions from a large number of individuals to enable the researcher to describe
and compare variables in existing relationships. Surveys can provide answers to issues
concerning what? Where? When? And how?
The main emphasis is on fact-finding and if a survey is well structured and piloted, it can
be a relatively cheap and quick way of obtaining information.
1.15 The Experimental Style
The Experimental style or Approach to research is relatively easy to plan and it deals
with measurable phenomenon.
In experimental style, two identical groups are selected, one of which (the experimental
group) is given special treatment and the other (the control group) is not given special
treatment. Differences between the two groups are carefully observed and measured. At
the end of the experimental period, any differences observed between the two groups are
attributed to the difference in treatment. A causal relationship is therefore establishes,,
which may be fairly straightforward to test and repeat.
The Experimental Style therefore allows conclusions to be drawn about cause and effect,
though controlled experiments.
1.16 Content Analysis: Review of Relevant Literature
For purposes of literature review note-taking is very important in building a good
research. The student has to distinguish relevant literature from the irrelevant literature
before proceeding to do his review.
The principle of structuring the literature file/notebook is the same:
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1. Subdivide your file into a number of topical areas.
Reference details
Author(s)
Title of Publication
Year of Publication
Volume and issue Number (Journals)
Place of publication (books)
Publisher (Books)
Page number
In reviewing any piece of relevant literature, the following should be noted:
What are the main issues raised by the author?
What are the main arguments?
What research methods did he employ?
What are his findings and main conclusions?
1.17 Critical Approach of Literature Review
After you have compiled the sources of information you should proceed to critically
appraise the information. A critical appraisal is analytical in nature.
It critically examines the contribution of other peoples’ work with the view to identifying
the following:
Similarities in the statements made by previous writers on the topic
Common issue(s) raised by previous writers
Differences or contradiction of statements made by previous writers
Criticism made by previous writers.
The literature review is one of the earliest stages in the research process and it amount to
a significant proportion of a dissertation content. The review basically searches for
material that is relevant to the subject of your dissertation with the intention of describing
and analyzing what has been written on the topic or subject you are investigating. It can
take some time before you get all this. Hence, it is advisable to allow sufficient time to
cover the activities involved in undertaking a literature review. These activities are:
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Knowing the sources of your information for example individuals in positions
of authority, tradition, expert opinion, personal experience, principal
informants and documentation19.
Understanding how the library works (for example cataloguing etc)
Organising Literature Review
Appraising and writing up the literature review20.
1 9 Emmanuel Asante Research and writing – A Brief Guide. Africa Christian Press. Achimota, Accra. 2000 p10.2 0 Noaum S G. Dissertation Research…. P 33
20
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH
2.1 Observation
Observation as a research technique is used by researchers to acquire first hand
knowledge on a particular phenomenon. Observation brings the researcher into direct
contact with the phenomenon being studied. Scientific observation is governed by a
code of objectivity, which forms the basis for selecting what to observe and how the
observation is to be carried out13.
Observation is a scientific technique to the extent that:
It serves a formulated research purpose.
It is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly
It is systematically recoded and related to more general and propositions rather
than presented as a set of interesting curiosity
It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity, reliability and
precision.
2.2 Controlled Observation
Controlled Observation takes two main forms in social research, depending on the type of
phenomenon being investigated.
(a) Examination and extraction of recorded information on the problem to be
investigated. That is Content Analysis (Literature Review)
(b) Direct Observation in the Field:
Field Work:
Direct observation in the Field that is fieldwork is the involvement of the
researcher or his assistants in direct observation and recording of the
phenomenon under investigation. This type of observation requires skill,
training in field methods and a mastery of techniques of social research
1 3 Tom K.B. Kumekpor, Research Methods, p 63
21
modified or specifically devised to meet the demands and challenges of the
African field research situation.
2.3 Participant Observation
Participant Observation involves the idea of being both a spectator and an actor at the
same time, when observing and recording information. The observer must find a means
of integrating himself into the group and observe and record form within the group. This
method was popular among European Anthropologists such as Malinowski, Radcliff-
Brown, Meyer Fortes, Evans-Pritchard, etc.
Participant Observation may take one of the following two forms:
(i) Active Participant Observation
(ii) Passive Participant Observation
2.4 Active Participant Observer Approach
Under Active Participant Observer Approach, the researcher attempts to integrate in the
group (socially personally and spatially), which he is studying. He is an active actor as
well as a spectator of the affairs of the group he is observing. He is in a position to freely
observe minute details of the situation and is able to participate in the activities, rituals
and ceremonies of the group. Even where his accorded status in the group prevents him
form participating in specific ceremonies, rituals etc, he can observe from near enough
positions within the groups16.
2.5 Passive Participant Observer Approach
Here, the observer is personally and spatially integrated into and accepted by the group
he is observing. He, however, remains socially isolated. His presence, as much as
possible is unnoticed and un-imposed on the members of the group being studied. The
observer remains as much as possible, a spectator rather than an actor. He refrains from
entering into conversation with other members of the group, but rather carefully notes
and records those aspects of the life of group that interest him17.
1 6 Ibid p 72.1 7 Ibid p 73.
22
2.6 Some Features of Participant Observation
The participant observer can watch and record events from within he context in which
they occur. It allows observation of minute details, which might evade the casual
observer.
The degree of participation of the observer is influenced by such factors as:
The physical difference between the observer and the observed groups as
reflected in easily noticeable characteristics as colour, facial marks and some
specific practical demands of specific social situation. For example, no matter
how long a white man stays with a group, he still remain yevu, obroni, baturi etc
in the eyes of West Africans.
Sometimes, traditional hospitality to stranger may easily mislead people who are
new to the culture and physically distinct in colour, language etc, to misstate
friendship for acceptance.
Sometimes unnecessary concern by strangers for an imputed suffering of local
population may mislead the stranger to in his observations. Sometimes the
indigenous people may exaggerate some aspects of their life or may dramatise
certain aspects of their life to please the stranger-observer or to play on his
emotions.
2.7 Problems of Participant Observation
1. Experience has shown that not all people can stand the strain of isolation in
often uncomfortable and seemingly unhygienic, unhealthy and culturally
harsh and hostile conditions.
2. It is not all people who can reduce themselves to the status of a “native” to
think, feel and behave as a native3.
3 3 Creswell John W. Research Design: Qualitative & Quantitative Approaches
SAGE Publication (London) 1994. p 50.
23
3. It is difficult to eliminate one’s personality from one’s work. The probability
of bias, improper comprehension of a situation and implicit moral judgment
may be high, especially in cases where the researcher has strong personal
feelings or hostilities.
4. The problem of mastering the local language by the researcher to facilitate his
job.
5. Participation in a community’s activities and identification with one’s objects
of observation has its danger of over-commitment, over involvement, over-
assimilation with their attendant consequences.
6. Some rituals or activities cannot be studied through participant observation,
for example, the sexual life of couples, and the activities of certain secret
societies. Like lodges etc; because non-members are not allowed
participation.
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 THE CONCEPTS OF POPULATION/UNIVERSE AND SAMPLE
The population or universe of an investigation may be considered as the total number
of all units of the phenomenon or process to be investigated that exists in the area of
investigation.
For example; the universe/population of Roman Catholic students at Ho Polytechnic;
lecturers with masters degree; or the universe of workers in Ghana.
A sample, on the other hand, is that portion/proportion of a particular universe, which
is selected for investigation. Sampling therefore, involves the examination of a
carefully selected proportion of the units contained in a universe or population, in
order to help extend knowledge gained from the study of the part to cover the whole
population. The population/universe remains the same at a particular time, but the
number of samples that can be obtained from it vary. For example in a population of
600 units, 10 different samples of 60 members can be obtained.
We use samples everyday in our daily lives without being conscious of it. For
example a woman preparing soup tastes a little for its seasoning in salt or pepper,
after stirring the whole soup. She does not drink the whole soup to ascertain
seasoning.
This leads us to the problem of representativeness of samples. For example, how do
you manage the selection process without bias? How do you estimate the accuracy of
the sample you select? How do you guarantee its representativeness or the degree to
which the portion selected adequately represents the whole universe?
An important requirement of most sampling procedures therefore is that the selection
process should be based on/subjected to the law of chance rather than the use of
subjective judgment. Hence the concept of randomness of selecting samples. A
random sample is therefore a sample whose selection is determined purely by the law
of chance. For example, the winner of a lottery.
25
TYPES OF SAMPLING/SAMPLES
3.1 Probability and Non-Probability Samples
Where the law of chance or the element of randomness governs the selection process, the
sample is referred to as a probability sample.
Non-probability sample on the other hand is a sample in which there is no way of
guaranteeing/estimating the chances of each unit of the universe being included. Such a
sample lacks randomness in the selection and is therefore called non-probability or non-
random sample.
Despite the absence of representativeness, non-probability samples are used because:
They are convenient to use
They are relatively lower in cost per unit studied.
They provide quick results, but these results are indicative, rather than
accurate and realistic22.
For our purposes we shall discuss three types of non-probability samples:
1. The Accidental Sampling
2. The Purposive Sampling
2 2 Ibid p 132
26
S A M P L I N G
Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster /Area Sampling
Accidental Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
3. The Quota Sampling
3.2 Accidental Sampling
The selection of units of the universe in the Accidental Sample is not governed by
randomness or the law of chance. The units are selected purely by accident. It is by
accident or chance that both the interviewer and the particular respondent happened to
meet23
In accidental sampling, the investigator places himself in a strategic point, where he can
easily have access to the units of the universe as they move pass him or move around.
The main interest is that each unit contacted satisfied the characteristics of the
phenomenon being investigated. For example age, sex, occupation, opinion on an issue24
etc. For example blind dating in schools.
The problem about the method of sampling is that:
Selecting is the discretion of the investigator
The units are not pre-determined
The researcher may miss other qualified respondents whilst interviewing
others.
3.3 Purposive Sampling
In The Purposive Sampling, the units of the samples are selected not by a random
procedure, but they are intentionally picked for study because of their characteristics or
because they satisfy certain qualities which are not randomly distributed in the universe.
But they are typical or they exhibit most of the characteristics of interest to the study25.
for example choice of a marriage partner or a friend or if we want to study the attitude of
Moslems to a particular issue in Accra, we cannot use random sampling of the Moslem
communities and the Zongos.
3.4 Quota Sampling
A quota means, “a share assigned to a group or each member of a group”. It is the
maximum number or proportion acceptable or admissible for a specific group.
2 3 Ibid p 1332 4 Ibid p 1342 5 Ibid p 135
27
In quota sampling, a quota is assigned to each group in the universe. Once the quota for
each sub-division of the universe is fixed, the actual selection of the units to be studied is
left to those engaged in the actual interviewing. For example in a study of divorces, the
following quotas may be assigned:
1. Divorces with no children 50
2. Divorces with 1 but less than 3 children 25
3. Divorces with 3 or more children 25
Total Sample Size 100
3.5 The Random or Probability Sample
The Simple Random Sample is selected in such a way that each unit in the universe
stands an equal chance or probability of being included or excluded in the final sample.
The simple Random sample is also referred to as a probability sample.
Random sampling concentrates on both the individual units and the group of units that
constitute a particular sample. For example in a class of 60 students, 10 sample units,
each comprising 6 students could be derived. Serial numbering of the units is done and
corresponding numbers are written out and picked at random to form the sample size.
3.6 Stratified Sampling
In cases where a particular universe is known to vary significantly according to certain
characteristics for example, age, sex, literacy, ethnic group, necessary to take this
variation into account in drawing a sample26. The universe is divided into layers of
components or strata, and each stratum is sampled separately according to the proportion
in which the various strata are present in the universe.
In such case, simple random sampling will not adequately reflect or ensure the actual
distribution of the various components of the universe. Stratification provides and
additional degree of accuracy to he results27.
2 6 Ibid 1462 7 Ibid 146
28
An additional advantage of stratification is that each stratum of the population is more
homogeneous with reference to the characteristics under investigation as compared to the
total universe. This means that sampling units within each stratum have more in common
and are less variable as compared to units in the population as a whole.
This makes estimates for each stratum more accurate and more realistic than estimates
based on simple random sampling. For example in a class of students we can stratify
them into 6 strata 28. For example
Catholic Female students
Catholic Male students
Protestant Female students
Protestant Male students
Charismatic Female students
Charismatic Male students etc.
Or
SSS entrants
Mature students
“A” Level holders
DBS candidates
RSA II & III
Degree holders
Or
Stratification of teachers at Ho Polytechnic
HND Holders, First Degree Holders, Master Degree Holders, PhD holders, professors
Why do students perm their hair?
Issues:
Lack of self-confidence or to boost self-confidence?
Keeping oneself attractive as a marketing strategy or compelled to do so because
of pressure.
Cover up for economic constraints or as a manifestation wealth?
2 8 Ibid 146
29
Do ladies from really rich homes care about the hair? Or it is just a matter for the
average?
3.7 Cluster Sampling or Area Sampling
Sometimes the units of investigation may exist in clusters. A simple random selection of
a cluster or group of clusters will simplify the investigation and reduce cost, and at the
same time, retaining almost the same degree of accuracy as a random sample29.
In cluster sampling, the units of ivestigation are group into a number of larger units or
clusters from which a number of clusters, are selected. The selected clusters constitute
the sample for investigation. In most cluster sampling, every unit in the selected clusters
is subjected to investigation30.
When cluster sampling is considered as a particular tyupe of a two-stage sampling, then
units of the selected cluster may be ranomly selected for investigation. For examples of
clster sampling are the sampling of university Halls, of Residence, by Blocks, Hospitals
by wards, etc.
Cluster sampling is referred to as Area Sampling because it is, in fact, a random
samplingof areas or clusters as for example the census Enumeration Areas, the Regions
of a Country, the Electoral Constituencies, District Assembleslies, etc.
In community sttudies, wemay think of clusters of localities. We may group all localities
of the samepopulation size together and treat treat each village as a cluster and thenselect
a number of villages (clusters) at random for study31.
3.8 Standard Error of Sample
In a perfectly representative sample the maen of the individual units comprising the same
sampling should be equal to the mean of the units comprisising the universe from which
the sample was selected. This, however, is hardly the case in reality or practice. There is
normally always a diffeerecne between the mean of thee sample units and the mean of the
units of the origanal universe. Consequently, if a number of samples is taken from the
2 9 Tom K.B. Kumekpor Research Methods, p 147.3 0 Ibid, p 147.3 1 Ibid, p 147.
30
same universe, each sample is likely to have a different sample mean. The reliabilty of
the mean of a sample depends upo:
i) the size of the sample
ii) the variability (degree of homogeneity or heterogeinity) of the units of the
sample.
iii) The degree of bias in the selection process.
In general, the larger the sampole size, the less the variability of the sample units and the
nearer of the universe.
The estimate how much a sample result is likely to differ from the universe from which it
was selected is known as the Standard Error of the sample. It is simply the Standard
Deviation of the sample means from the universe.
3.9 How to Calculate Standard Error of A Sample
The Standard Error of a sample can be calculated in two ways:
i) Selecting a number of samples from the universe, calculating the mean of
each of these samples and then calculating the Standard Deviation of these
samples or
ii) Selecting one sample, calculating the Standard Deviation and dividing it by
the sqare root of the sample size minus 1
3
S.E.M. = N – 1
Eg. Sample size = 145
Standard Deviation = 3
3
Standard Error E.m . = 144
= 3/12
= 1/4
= 0.25
31
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 THE INTERVIEW AS A METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION IN
RESEARCH
Interviewing as a method of data collection involves mostly a face-to-face interaction
between the researcher and the informant or respondent. This is often in an atmosphere
of devoid of fear, suspicion threat, compulsion or self-interest in the information sought.
Proceedings can be written down, tape recorded or video –taped. The most common
means is by writing/taking notes of the information given. No behaviour on the part of
the interviewer should disturb the free flow of information. To achieve this, the
interviewer should not under any circumstances lose his temper, show signs of arrogance
or superiority.
Interviewing requires skill, tolerance, fact and training especially in human relations and
perseverance to succeed.
The interview techniques suitable under the following circumstances:
1. When the people being interviewed are homogenous and share the same
characteristics.
2. When you know enough about your interviewee and ask only what is
important in the appropriate manner.
3. When interpersonal contact is essential to explain and described the
questions.
4. When two case study needs to be investigated in detail asking questions
such as how and why things had happened the way they did.
5. When the research requires an explanation as why the respondents are
answering or feeling the way they do, that is requires more than a Yes or
No, or Agree or Disagree answers32.
3 2 S.G. Naoum: Dissertation Research and Writing, p 56.
32
4.1 Types of Interview
Interview can take three forms that is Unstructured, Structured and Semi-Structured.
Some researches may require one form of interview whiles others may require a
combination of the three forms. There are some other terms in use to distinguish between
the structured and the unstructured interviews.
For example, formal and informal, Inflexible and flexible, standardised and
unstandardised, controlled and uncontrolled interviews.
4.2 Unstructured Interview
This form of interview uses “open-ended” or “open” questions and the questionnaire
covers very general issues. It is usually conducted during qualitative research or in
exploratory interviews when the researcher knows very little about the subject area.
The researcher can pursue certain questions further than other, and not necessarily in the
sequence of questions. In the unstructured interview thee interviewer exercises more
flexibility and greater discretion. Normally, there is intense use of notebooks, tape
recorders, video cameras etc rather than questionnaires. The method is employed when
numbers are involved; and was mostly used by anthropologists.
4.3 Semi-unstructured Interviews
This is more formal than the unstructured interview in that there are a number of specific
topics around which to build the interview. This form of interview may use both open-
ended and close-ended questions, but they are not asked in a specific order and no
schedule is used. In the semi-structured interview the researcher tries to discover as much
as possible about the specific issues related to the subject area. Another term for the
semi-structured interview is the focused interview.
The distinguishing characteristics of the semi-structured interview are as follows:
1. It takes place with respondents known to have been involved in a particular
experience.
2. It refers to situations that have been analysed prior to the interview.
3. It proceeds on the basis of an interview guide specifying topics related to the
research hypothesis.
33
4. It is focused on the respondents’ experiences regarding the situation under study33.
In the semi-structured interview the researcher has a great deal of freedom to probe
various areas and to raise specific questions/queries during the course of the interview.
4.4 The Structured Interview
In the structured interview, questions are presented in the same order and with the same
wording for all interviewees. The interviewer has full control over the questionnaire
through the entire process of the interview.
There are three assumptions underlying the use of the structured interview:
1. That for any research objective, the respondents have a sufficiently common
vocabulary so that it is possible to formulate questions which have the same
meaning for each of them
2. That it is possible to phrase all questions in a form that is equally meaningful
to each respondent.
3. That if the meaning of each question is to be identical for each respondent, its
context and sequence must be identical34.
Structured interviews are normally resorted to when the number of respondents is large or
where a large number of interviewers is employed. This ensures systematic and uniform
interviewing procedures.
The structured interview also compels the interviewer to go straight to the subject matter
and to discuss only issues related to the subject under investigation. This saves time and
presents information collected from all respondents in the same form and order.
The interviewer should make initial contacts with opinion leaders like the chief, assembly
member, the headteacher, catechist etc or any other individuals of influence in the
community to introduce himself/herself as well as the purpose of the interview.
3 3 Ibid, p 58.3 4 Ibid, p 58
34
Thereafter, the following guidelines for conducting interviews in the rural community
should be used.
1. Knock before you enter houses.
2. Great the people in the customary way (shake hands with them if it is
acceptable to do so)
3. You must look cheerful.
4. Contact an elder in the house and explain to him briefly the reason for your
visit35.
For example:
“Good morning Sir/madam. I am an interviewer form Ho Polytechnic. My work is to
collect information on health and sanitation problems in this community for DANIDA.
The information you give me would be treated as strictly confidential and will not be
disclosed to anybody who is not a worker from DANIDA. This information is needed by
DANIDA to help the Government and the District Assembly to improve the health and
sanitation situation in your community. The interview may take a little bit of your time,
but if you are too busy now, I can go and come back later”.
It is important to conduct the interview in language that he respondents/informants
understand. The attire of the interviewer counts a great deal in the interviewing. This is
because the interviewer must not do anything to frighten the respondents whose co-
operation his is seeking.
An interviewer should therefore not dress like a policeman, soldier or a tax collector. The
reason is that these uniforms provoke stampede and generate suspicion among rural
people.
Dos and Don’ts for Interviewer
1. Attire should be simple and compatible with what obtains in the community
under investigation.
3 5 T.K. Nsiah “Data Collection in Survey Researches in Ghana” Greenhill Journal of Administration
Vol. 3. No. 1 & 2, April-Sept. 1976. p 120
35
2. As far as possible only adults should be interviewed.
3. Always carry your identification card and your interview manual with you
during interviewing.
4. Study your manual thoroughly in order to work efficiently.
5. Discuss all your problems and uncertainties with your supervisor.
6. Visit house again and again until interview is completed and you must be
patient, tolerant and courteous at all times when dealing with respondents.
7. Conduct the interview in such a way that respondents get the feeling of
confidentiality.
8. Do not delegate your work as an interviewer to another person nor interview
somebody’s wife at home in the husband’s absence in the rural areas.
9. Avoid the discussion of religion and politics unless they are what the research
is about.
10. Do not drink or smoke when conducting and interview36.
3 6 Ibid p 121
36
CHAPTER FIVE
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN CONSTRUCTION AND ADMINISTRATION
The main types of questionnaire are the self-administered questionnaire (either through
personal distribution or through posting or the mails) and the Personal Interview
Questionnaire. No matter the type of questionnaire you choose, questionnaire design and
construction involve the translation of your research objectives into specific questions.
Consequently, while thinking about what questions to include in your questionnaire, you
should ask yourself the following:
1. Which objective is the question related to?
2. Is the question relevant to th4e aim of the study?
3. Is the question relevant to the research hypothesis?
4. Can the answer be obtained from other sources37?
5.1 How to Construct a Questionnaire
There are three fundamental stages in constructing questionnaire.
1. Identifying the first thought questions.
2. Formulating the final questionnaire
3. Wording of questions
5.1.1 Identifying the First Thought Questions
Before constructing a questionnaire, you should go back to your research proposal
and the literature review and start formulating the “first thought” list of questions that
is questions directly relevant to the objectives of the study. Study the research
objectives carefully and ask a series of questions under each objective. This would
help you get answers to achieve your objective of designing your questionnaire.
5.1.2 Formulating the Final Questionnaire
3 7 S.G. Naoum: Dissertation Research and Writing, p 65.
37
After identifying your first thought questions, proceed to construct your
questionnaire. Break the questionnaire into sections or categories with the first
thought question (that is objectives of the study) as the heading or title for each
section. For example: A study on drug abuse among the youth with the following
objectives:
i) To identify causes of drug abuse.
ii) To discover the source of drug abuse
iii) To assess the problems created by drug abuse.
iv) To design a questionnaire based on the above-mentioned objectives the
questionnaire may be divided into the following sub-headings
SECTION A
General information or Personal Data of Respondents.
SECTION B
Causes of Drug Abuse among the youth.
SECTION C
Sources of Drug Supply.
SECTION D
Problems Created by Drug Abuse
SECTION E
Possible Solutions to Drug Abuse.
Under each sub-heading a series of questions are asked to probe the issues at stage.
5.1.3 Wording of Questions
In wording your questionnaire you should be guided by the following:
38
1. Your questions/questionnaire should be short but comprehensive.
2. Avoid leading questions. E.g. Do you not agree that; is it not possible that; etc.
3. Avoid double questions
4. Avoid presuming questions.
5. Avoid hypothetical questions.
6. The questions must not be ambiguous.
7. The question should be logical in their sequence.
8. The questionnaire must be attractive in appearance38
It is important to examine other questionnaires to guide you in constructing yours. This
means you should look at questions or questionnaires in books, journals, dissertations;
theses etc and try to adopt some ideas form them. Remember authors of previous works
have given their research work a great deal of thought and you can benefit from their
thinking when designing your questionnaire. Never forget to acknowledge other people’s
work you consulted.
5.2 Types of Questions
Questions on a questionnaire are classified into two types:
i) The open-ended or the unrestricted type of questions
ii) The close-ended or restricted type of questions.
i) The Open-Ended or the Unrestricted Type of Questions
Open-ended or the unrestricted type of questions seek to encourage the respondent to
provide free responses. For example; “what in your opinion is the best” way to motivate
workers to give off their best”. Is an open-ended question, designed to study opinion.
Advantages of Open-ended Questions
1. The respondent is given the opportunity his views. Once the respondent
understands the theme of the investigation, he can let his thoughts roam freely
unrestricted by predetermined answers.3 8 Ibid, p 69-70
39
2. Open-ended questions are easy to ask during field work.
3. During the interview, the interviewer has a great deal of freedom to probe
various areas and to raise specific queries.
4. They are useful to adopt when sensitive information is required39.
Disadvantages of the Open-ended Questions
1. The Open-ended question offers no clues to respondents.
2. They are more difficult to tabulate, analyse and interpret.
3. Some of the richness of the responses received is lost during classification and
iterpretation40.
4. Responses tend to stray far away since they are not focused.
Close-Ended Type of Questions
Close-ended type of questions often require short responses in the form of Yes or No;
Agree or Disagree important or Not important etc.
Advantages of Close-ended Questions
1. They are easy to ask and quick to answer.
2. They require little or no writing by either the respondent or the interviewer
3. Analysis of the close-ended question is straightforward41.
Disadvantages of Close-ended Questions
3 9 Ibid pp, 70-71.4 0 Ibid pp, 714 1 Ibid, p. 71
40
1. They may introduce bias, either by forcing the respondent to choose from
given alternative.
2. They denied the respondent the freedom to express his opinion.
3. They prevent respondents from thinking about other alternatives.
5.3 Format for Designing and Asking Questions
Factual questions are mostly designed to collect information related to the following:
Most questionnaires, whether for descriptive or analytical purposes, almost certainly
begin with factual questions relating to the background of an individual or organisation.
For example:
i) Sex, (male/female)
ii) Age of the respondent
iii) Educational level of the respondent
iv) Position of the respondent in the organisation
v) How long the respondent has been working with the organisation. Etc.
Secondly, factual questions may collect facts related to events, or projects. In such cases
the researcher’s aim might be to investigate the difference in performance of projects or
events.
5.4 Opinion Questions (Subjective Measurement or Scaling Of Questions)
There are several formats in which opinion type of questions can be asked; in order to
measure the responses:
1. Checklist
2. Grid
3. Rating Scales
4. Likert Scales
5. Numerical Rating Scale
6. Ranking Scale
7. Semantic Differential Scales
5.4.1 Checklist Format
41
The checklist type of question is essentially a list of items, about individuals, issues o
interest, an organisation or an event. All the respondent has to do is to mark or tick the
answers.
The checklist is a straightforward means of collecting information and the data can be
analysed easily. The checklist questions are specially designed for a group of
respondents who have accurate information on the issues at state and can answer the
question in the midst of a high degree of certainty.
For example:
Principal or the Dean of Engineering of Ho Polytechnic may be asked. “Over the next
five years or so, do you expect the admission of female students to Engineering
Programmes to:
1. Increase drastically?
2. Increase a little?
3. Have no change?
4. Decrease a little?
5. Decrease drastically?
The checklist format is a quick format but can be rigid.
5.4.2 Grid Format
A grid is an elaboration of the checklist format, except that it provides answers to two or
more questions at the same time.
For example:
A grid format may be used to collect information from different religious bodies on
issues like divorce, blood transfusion, herbal medicine, polygamy etc.
42
RELIGIOUS GROUP ISSUES OF INTEREST
Divorce
Blood
Transfusion
Herbal
Medicine Polygamy
Roman Catholic X √ √ XProtestants √ √ √ XTraditional Religion √ √ √ √Jehovah’s Witness X X X XCharismatic Churches X √ X XMoslems √ √ √ √
KEY:
It is possible for respondents to tick under the columns provided whether the practices in
question are permitted in their respective religious bodies.
5.4.3 Rating Scales
The rating scale format of setting questions is one of the most common. Like the grid,
rating scales can be regarded as an elaboration of the checklist format except the
respondent has the choice to express his/her degree of agreement or disagreement on a
particular scale42.
The response categories of such questions are called quantifiers: they reflect the intensity
of the particular judgement involved. The following are some common sets of response
categories.
4 2 Ibid, p. 76
43
X
√
1. Strongly agree 2. Very satisfied
Agree Fairly satisfied
Neither/Nor Fairly dissatisfied
Disagree Very dissatisfied
Strongly Disagree It would depend
Very good
3. Of great importance 4. Very bad
Of some importance Bad
Of no importance Would not matter
Do no know Fairly Good
5. Very favourable 6. Too little
Favourable About right
Not favourable Too much
The rating scales stated above can be used to rank responses to specific questions.
44
For example:Table 1.
FACTORS INFLUENCING PRODUCTIVITY AT WORK
OF GREAT IMPORTANCE
OF SOME IMPORTANCE
OF NO IMPORTANCE
1. Head Office Factors Delegation of responsibilities Integration of project information Project Planning Scheduling of Project activities Level of Authority Supervision of subordinates Communication Decision-making process
2. Resource Management Procurement of materials Accuracy of Technical Information Knowledge of Project Technology Management Interference on work
3. Motivational Factors Promotion of Employees Incentives Schemes
Work Environment Management Response to - Grievances
4. Education and Training Experience of Employees Contract Administration Skills Training in New Technology
Source of Table 1. (Example)
Noaum S.G. Dissertation Research writing for Construction Students Butter Worth-Heinemann. Oxford (1999) p. 78.
In the example above, respondents were asked to rate various factors they consider
important. This type of rating is also called “Matrix Rating”
45
5.4.4 Likert Scales Format
The Likert scales Format is similar to the rating scales, except the questions consist of
attitudinal statements on the survey object, for example, attitude to job satisfaction,
ranging from one extreme of favourableness to the other.
Table 2. The following statements are related to job satisfaction at work. Please indicate
your reaction to each statement by ticking the appropriate cell.
Job satisfaction factors Strongly Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1. Special wage increases should be given to workers who work
hard.2. Better job description to enable
workers know what is exactly expected of them.
4. Every job can be made interesting and challenging
5. Management can show interest by sponsoring social events
6. Incentive would improve performance
7. Job security is important to employees
8. Good information relationship is important
9. Pride in one’s work is an important reward.
10. Retirement benefits are
important
5.4.5 Numerical Rating Scale
The numerical rating scale is another common questionnaire format. In this format,
respondents are asked to give scores on an analogy, a service or an event. The rating may
be out of 100, out of 10, or out of 5 etc. Examination marking is a typical example of a
numerical rating scale.
46
Students in a class may be asked to assess the performance of a particular lecturer using
the numerical rating scale
For example:
Table 3.
CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING THE PERFORMANCE OF LECTURERS
RATING
OUT OF 10
1. Punctuality to class
2. Regularity in class
3. Command over subject
4. Delivery Methods and Skills (eye contact, feedback mannerisms,
language etc)
5. Relationship with students
6. Ability to control class
7. Assignments to students
8. Self-esteem of lecturer
9. Attitude towards Examinations
10. General opinion about the lecturer
5.4.6 The Ranking Format
The ranking format is used when respondents are asked to place a set of attitudes or
objects in ranking order indicating their importance, priority or preferences. For
example, in survey on the level of job satisfaction, respondents may be asked to rank the
various dimensions they consider important.
47
Table 4.
Please indicate, in priority order, which of the following factors you find important in
being satisfied with your job. Please indicate which factor is first, second, third, fourth,
etc in order of importance by encircling the appropriate figure on the right hand side of
the questionnaire.
1. A well paid job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2. A prosperous job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3. An important job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4. A secure job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5. Good Relationship at work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
6. Job interest 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8. Working condition 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9. Retirement benefits 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.4.7 Semantic Differential Scales
Diagrammatic rating scale is another means of measuring intensity of judgement and the
semantic differential is the most popular form of this type of scaling. The technique was
developed by Osgood to investigate the perceived meaning of various concepts. In this
methods, the respondents is asked to indicate his/her position on a seven-point bipolar
scale defined with contrasting adjectives at each end. It can best be applied when the
perceptions of different groups on a particular matter need to be compared43. Examples
could be good/bad; strong/weak; satisfied/dissatisfied; etc.
T
he seven-point bipolar scale can be presented in numerical dimensions such as:4 3 Ibid, p.82.
48
Good Bad
3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3
Another example is presented in Table 5.
Think of your leader and describe him/her buy completing the following scale. Place an
X in one of the either spaces according to how well the adjective fits your leader. Look at
the words at both ends of the line before placing you “X”.
Adjective Semantic Difference Scale Adjective
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Pleasant - - - - - - - -
Friendly - - - - - - - - Unfriendly
Helpful - - - - - - - - Frustrating
Rejecting - - - - - - - - Accepting
Unenthusiastic - - - - - - - - Enthusiastic
Tense - - - - - - - - Relaxed
Distant - - - - - - - - Close
Cold - - - - - - - - Warm
Co-operative - - - - - - - - Unco-operative
Supportive - - - - - - - - Hostile
Boring - - - - - - - - Interesting
Quarrelsome - - - - - - - - Harmonious
Self-assured - - - - - - - - Hesitant
Efficient - - - - - - - - Efficient
Gloomy - - - - - - - - Cheerful
Open - - - - - - - - Guarded
49
5.4.8 Criteria for Constructing a Questionnaire
The characteristic of a good questionnaire can be summarised as follows:
1. It must deal with a topic of some significance that is important enough to the
respondent to merit a response.
2. It must seek information not obtainable from other sources. You should not
ask people to do your data gathering for you especially when the data is
readily available elsewhere.
3. Where it contains directions they must be clear and complete.
4. In sequencing, questions should run form he general to the specific, from
simple to complex, etc.
5. The questionnaire must provide for ease of tabulation or interpretation44.
Finally, when trying to design a questionnaire, you need to ask yourself the
following questions:
1. Are you using quantitative or qualitative measures or a combination of both?
2. Is the study a comparative or a singular investigation?
3. If it is a comparative study, how many survey groups are you investigating?
4. How many groups differ in their characteristics?
5. What is the depth of the investigation? Is it a specific problem or a
generalized one?
5.4.9 A Pilot Study
It is advisable to complete a pilot study before you collect the final data for the study. A
pilot study provides a trial run for the questionnaire, which involves:
i) Testing the techniques that you would use to collect data.
ii) Measuring the effectiveness of your standard invitation to respondents.
iii) Enable you to re-word questions appropriately.
iv) Provides you the opportunity to remove any un ambiguities in the
questions.
4 4 Ibid, p. 76
50
v) Important questions omitted could be inserted after the preliminary
analysis of the pilot study.
5.4.10. An Introduction or Covering Letter
A questionnaire must have an introduction or covering letter. This introduction or letter
should explain the purpose of the survey in order to encourage a high response.
Appropriation should also be expressed to respondents for their co-operation.
For example:
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am a final year HND student at Ho Polytechnic, pursuing HND Accountancy.
In fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the HND, I am required to undertake a
research and produce a dissertation.
My topic for this research is ………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
I would be very grateful if you could complete this questionnaire for me. Information
provided would be treated as confidential.
Accept my gratitude for your co-operation.
Yours faithfully,
Prof. Ibrahim de Graft Ananse
(Researcher)
51
CHAPTER SIX
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND FOOT-NOTING TECHNIQUES
6.1 Introduction
The findings of a research have to be presented in a report. The report is normally
arranged as follows.
1. Title page.
The title page contains the name of the sponsor, the title of the research organisation and
the date of publication.
2. Abstract.
This is usually a one page summary containing the final outline of the paper including the
basic purpose of the paper and its findings.
3. Table of contents.
4. Preface stating the terms of reference and acknowledgements where appropriate.
5. Statement of purpose.
This generally consists of an elaboration of the terms of reference contained in the
preface. It should outline the general nature of the problem to be investigated, the scope
of the investigation and the specific hypothesis on which the research is based.
6. Literature review.
This section should outline information and data gathered from secondary sources of data
which are peripheral to the researcher’s main line of enquiry. It should indicate the
precise nature of supplementary data to be obtained from primary sources of data.
If a quotation is used, it should be copied exactly and enclosed in quotation marks. A
quotation that is more than five (5) lines long should be indented 5 spaces and single-
spaced, with no quotation marks. If a part of a quotation is omitted, it should be indicated
by an ellipsis (............) in place of the part left out. If the researcher needs to add words
of his own to make the meaning of the quotation clear, those words should be enclosed in
brackets [ ].
52
Quotations and facts or figures that a reader might have cause to question must be
footnoted. The footnotes can be given at the foot of the page on which the quotation or
fact or figure(s) are printed or all of them can be sent to a page titled "Notes". The foot
note should provide information on the author, title and page.
[author, title, page].
7. Methodology.
This section should outline the stages through which the project has passed, step by step,
and include a statement of the definitions adopted, the research techniques employed, the
sources of data used details of sample size and composition, a description of the methods
of analysis employed and explanatory observations deemed necessary by the researcher.
8. The findings and analysis of the findings.
This section consists of an abstract of the data considered relevant to the problem under
investigation.
9. Conclusions drawn from the findings.
10. Recommendations based on the conclusions.
11. Notes
If footnotes are not given on the pages where they occur, all should then be listed on this
page in consecutive order.
12 The bibliography.
13 The appendices.
These should include a detailed account of the sample design and its theoretical
reliability, a copy of the questionnaire and instructions to interviewers if not done
personally; details of any tests of reliability; theoretical proofs etc.
6.2 The Final Copy
You are now ready to prepare your final copy.
1. Type or print out your report on high-quality typing paper using one side only.
2. Leave a margin of one to one and a half inches on the left and one inch on the right,
top and bottom of the paper. However start the outline pages two inches from the top.
3. Double-space the text.
53
4. Indent paragraphs five spaces. If you choose not to indent paragraphs, then leave a
space between them.
5. Single-space the outline, but double-space between the main headings.
6. Indent the first line of a footnote five spaces and put the second and following lines
flush with the left margin. Single-space the lines within a footnote, but double-space
between foot notes.
7 Begin each bibliography entry at the left margin and indent the second and the
following lines five spaces. Single-space within each entry, but double-space between
entries.
8. Single-space quotations that are indented rather than run them in with the text.
9. Number all pages except the title page. Use lower-case Roman numerals (i,ii,iii.....)
for the outline pages. Use Arabic numeral for all other pages. Centre the number at the
bottom of the page.
10. Prepare a title page, which contains the title, your name and the date of completion.
You may include also the name of the supervisor and class.
6.3 Types of Footnotes
There are three basic methods of footnoting, which are;
1. Putting the footnotes below every page on which they occur after they had been
indicated with numbers in the passage itself.
2. The second method involves sending all the footnotes to the end of every chapter in
which they occur.
3. The third method involves packing all the footnotes to the very end of the dissertation
or report on a page titled "Notes".
For purposes of student research, it is advisable to use the second type i.e. the chapter by
chapter presentation. This method has the advantage of making it easier for the examiner
to quickly check the footnotes at a glance chapter by chapter.
54
6.4 Footnoting Techniques
In footnoting there are certain abbreviations and Latin phrases which are employed to
guarantee uniformity:
A. ibid. which is the shortened form of the Latin word ibidem meaning "in the same
place" and it is used to repeat as many times as possible a reference in the note
immediately preceding.
e.g. Ayee, J R A; " A New Look at Funding Local Government in
Ghana": Research Review vol. 2. No. 1 1986. I.A.S, University of
Ghana, Legon. p 3.
A second reference to the same book or article by the same author would only have to be
indicated by the use of the Latin word ibid. plus the page being referred to e.g. ibid. p. 5.
or ibid. pp. 6 - 10. Note that double "p" is used to indicate reference to more than one
page, whilst one "p" refers to a single page.
B. Another Latin phrase used for footnoting is op. cit. which is the shortened form of the
Latin phrase "opere citato" which means "in the work cited". This phrase is used to refer
to one of several titles cited in a note immediately preceding or to a title in an earlier
note. The use of op. cit. as a method of footnoting is, however, increasingly becoming
outdated and hardly used in serious academic expositions these days.
6.5 Bibliographical Arrangement
In footnoting or citing bibliography i.e. books, articles, pamphlets and official
publications, unpublished material, newspapers and periodicals, the following techniques
are used.
1. Books. In footnoting or citing the bibliography of a book, the citation is done in this
order,
a. Author’s Name, starting with the surname then a comma
followed by the other names.
b. Title of the book, underlined.
55
c. Place of publication
d. Name of publishers and
e. Date of publication.
e.g. Apter, David; Ghana in Transition (Revised Edition). New
York, Athenaeum, 1960.
Remember that whilst footnotes are indicated and explained as they occur, bibliography
is done according to the alphabetical order of the names of their author’s surnames.
2. Articles: In citing articles in bibliography or indicating them in footnotes the
following should apply.
a. The author’s name should come first;
b. Then the title of the article should be written and put into
quotation marks;
c. This is followed by the name of the book, journal, magazine or
periodical etc. in which the article appeared and underlined.
If it is a book, the place of publication, name of publishers and date of publication should
be indicated. If it is a journal or magazine, state the series, the volume, the number and
the date of publication.
E.g. an article in a book;
Ayee, J.R.A.,"The Emergence of a Responsible Government at the Grass-root Level" in
Ninsin, K.A. and Drah, F.K.(eds) The Search for Democracy in Ghana: (Accra: Asempa
Publishers, 1987).
E.g. an article in a journal;
Callaway, Barbara; "Local Politics in Ho and Aba". Canadian Journal of African
Studies. vol. 4. No. 1 (1970) pp. 121 - 144.
3. Official Pamphlets And Publications.
i. With respect to footnoting official publications or citing them in a bibliography, the
name of he country comes first, followed by the title of the publication, which should be
underlined.
ii. This is followed by place of publication, publishers and date of publication.
E.g. Ghana, Local Government Act (Act 54) 1961, Accra, Government Printer 1961.
4. Unpublished Material.
56
In the case of unpublished material like theses, dissertations, reports etc. the citation
should be the same as that of a book, except that in the place of publication and
publishers, you simply write the name of the institution that accepted the dissertation or
thesis or the organisation to which the report was presented.
E.g. Amegashie-Viglo, Simon; Decentralisation and Socio-Economic Development in
Ghana, 1989 - 1992. Unpublished M.Phil. Thesis. University of Ghana, Legon. Sept.
1993.
5. Newspapers And Periodicals.
With regard to the citation of Newspapers in bibliography and footnotes, you simply
write the name of the Newspaper or the periodical, the place of publication and date of
publication. NB Note that the name of the newspaper is NOT underlined in a West
Africa, London, 1960 - 1990. The date should reflect all the dates of copies consulted
during the study.
In a footnote it should be West Africa, London, 13 - 19 July 1992. The title is underlined
here because reference is being made to a particular issue of the newspaper.
6. Interviews.
Interviews constitute an interesting and a controversial aspect of a research. It therefore
behoves on the researcher to acknowledge sources of ideas and opinions as well as facts
and figures obtained through interviews in footnotes and a bibliography. This is to
enable other researchers to cross-check when they consider them questionable; as well as
to give credit to the originators or sources of the ideas or opinions expressed.
For purposes of citing interviews in footnotes and bibliography the following should
apply.
i. The name of the interviewee must come first.
ii. This is followed by the status/rank of the interviewee,
iii. Then the place of the interview and
iv. The date of the interview.
E.g Afeti, George M. (Dr.) The Principal, Ho Polytechnic, Ho, Feb. 20, 2002.
Remember that nothing is underlined in the citation of interviews in both footnote and
bibliography.
57
NOTES
1Hardman Mceldowney Waite, Pollution Ecology and Biotreatment (Longman Group UK
Limited, 1993) p.xiv
2Ibid. p. xiv
3Ibid. p. xiv
References
1. Naoum, SG (Dr.) Dissertation Research and Writing for Construction Students
Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd 1998. (Oxford) pp 1-2.
2. Ibid p 13.
3. Creswell John W. Research Design: Qualitative & Quantitative Approaches
SAGE Publication (London) 1994. p 50.
4. Naoum, SG (Dr.) Dissertation Research, p 15.
5. Tom K.B. Kumekpor Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research, Son
Life Printing Press & Services, Adenta Accra. p 61.
6. Ibid p 61.
7. Ibid p 62
8. Creswell John W. Research Design Definition p 81.
9. Ibid p 4.
10. Ibid p 7.
11. Naoum, SG (Dr.) Dissertation Research, p 41.
12. Creswell John W. Research Design Definition, p 174.
13. Tom K.B. Kumekpor Research Methods, p 63.
14. Ibid p 64.
15. Ibid p 71
16. Ibid p 72
17. Ibid p 73
58
18. Ibid p 74
19. Emmanuel Asante Research and Writing – a Brief guide African Christian Press.
Achimota, Accra. 2000 p 10.
20. Naoum, SG (Dr.) Dissertation Research… p 133.
21. Tom K.B. Kumekpor Research Methods, p 129.
22. Ibid p 132
23. Ibid p 133
24. Ibid p 134
25. Ibid p 135
26. Ibid p 146
27. Ibid p 146
Ibid p 146
59
Format for the Presentation of Project Report
Title Page
Declaration………………………………………………………………………………. i
Dedication ……………………………………………………………………………… ii
Abstract (Executive Summary)…………………………………………………………iii
(Insert Table of Contents here)
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………….iv
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………….v
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study……………………………………………………….
1.2 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………….
1.3 Aims and Objectives……………………………………………………………
1.4 Hypothesis …………………………………………………………………….
1.5 Methodology and Scope ………………………………………………………
1.6 Significance of the study………………………………………………………
1.7 Limitations of the Study………………………………………………………
1.8 Organisation of the study………………………………………………………
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………
2.2 Literature Review…………………………………………………………..
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………
3.2 ………………………………………………………………………………….
60
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………..
4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data…………………………………………
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary of Findings ……………………………………………………..
5.2 Conclusions………………………………………………………………..
5.3 Recommendations…………………………………………………………..
Appendices
Bibliography
61
PROJECT PROPOSAL ON INDUSTRIAL UNREST
BY SITSOFE ACKUAKU (HND SEC III) 1999/2000. HO POLYTECHNIC
1.1 IntroductionAn industry is established in order to make available goods and services required by the
customer. Labour of the workforce in particular is concerned with the provision of goods
and services and it is the central part of a manufacturing process.
In order to improve productivity of manpower, improve working methods, increase
production, achieve industrial peace within the organisation and also, to promote
understanding and co-operation between management and labour, there should be good
industrial relation in the organisation.
“Man was either cursed or blessed by God to live by the sweat of his brow. Since that
time, man has never ceased to work. Whether we like it or nor, man has to work in
association with others and it is here that knowledge about industrial relations comes into
play”1. “Without good industrial relations and other procedures properly laid down and
followed by all concerned, unrest or disputes are bound to arise at various working places
and this may reduce the normal output or normal rate of work” 2.
“Unrest is protest by workers made on poor conditions of service and lack of
motivational factors in an organisation”3. The increase in industrial unrest and illegal
strikes in the country in recent times has been attributed to the outmoded and outdated
Industrial Relations Act of 1958 that still governs the labour sector.
“Protest can also be caused by lack of information or misinformation, lack of
transparency, decisions taken by management alone, lack of respect for staff leaders and
poor communication”4.
62
Industrial Unrest can be minimised if there are sound industrial relations and for that
matter industrial peace and industrial harmony, there would be a conducive atmosphere
for investors to do business in Ghana and also, create an atmosphere for increased
productivity. The reason being that, the industrial relations system or practice is regarded
as a body of rules created to govern the workers at various working places”5.
Three parties involved in the production process bring about the state of cordial relations
between workers. The three parties are usually referred to as the social partners because
they work hand in hand to ensure peace at the work place for the benefit of the society.
These partners are the government, employers of management, and workers or unions.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
There is no doubt that unrest or disputes go a long way to hinder the progress of a
nation as a whole and an organisation in particular, in achieving its goals and
objectives. Sound industrial relations practice is the corner stone for the
achievement of corporate goals.
Critical observation reveals that lack of information, misinformation, lack of
transparency, lack of respect for senior staff and poor communication by
supervisors are the causes of recent strikes in the country.
This is why the researcher deemed it necessary to find out whether industrial
unrest has got some impacts on productivity in an organisation or not.
The study therefore is to find answers to the following questions to the problems
of industrial unrest to help eliminate such problems.
(1) What is the present Industrial Relations atmosphere in Ghana with specific
reference to the Ministry of Health and Ghana Education Service?
(2) Are the existing Industrial Laws achieving the purposes for which there were set
up?
(3) What are the reasons for the recent industrial unrest and strike actions among
Ghanaian workers?
63
(4) How can the factors that cause unrest be eliminated?
1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study
The research is about the Impact of Industrial Unrest on Productivity in an
Organisation and the main aims and objectives are:
(1) To ascertain the importance of the Industrial Relations Act and the Labour Law.
(2) To identify the factors that lead to industrial unrest.
(3) To examine various forms that industrial unrest takes.
(4) To assess the effects of industrial unrest on productivity.
(5) To suggest ways of preventing unrest in organisations.
1.4 Hypothesis
Poor conditions of service and inadequate motivation in an organisation are the main
factors of Industrial Unrest.
1.5 Methodology and Scope of the Study
Under this, population for the study, sample size, research instrument and
procedures for the collection and analysis of data were dealt with. To be able to
ascertain facts that reflect a real life situation, the researcher adopted both primary
and secondary data.
(a) Population
The population area for the study was Ho Ministry of health and Ghana Education
Service, Ho. This consists of both junior and senior staffs.
(b) Sample Size
A total number of forty (40) questionnaires were -
(c) Sampling Techniques
Random sampling was used for the research or study and workers were selected
from different divisions or units of the organisation. The questionnaires were
64
administered randomly because the researcher wanted to know the various
problems each division or unit encounters in terms of industrial unrest.
(d) Analysis of Data
The questionnaire designed by the researcher was the main instrument for data collection.
It was made up of questions that demanded facts. This explained whether
industrial unrest actually affects productivity or not. Also personal observations
helped the researcher to obtain confirmation on answers given to the
questionnaires.
Furtherance to questionnaire, interviews, personal experiences, and library research were
the instruments use for data collection.
1.6 Significance of the Study
The management of an organisation with the help of this study would be able to minimise
and even eliminate the occurrences of unrest in the country in general and in
organisations in particular. It would help managers to have a clear mind about
every worker in terms of motivation and jog appraisal to reduce industrial unrest.
Secondly, it is expected that the study when completed would help solve some to the
problems relating to unrest and, it would assist management to update the
outmoded Industrial Relations Act of 1958 which is still use in some working
places. It would help employees to educate workers about the laws that bind them
as workers to fight for their right as they contribute to the increase of productivity.
And that is the industrial relations law.
Lastly, the report would serve as good material for the basis of any further researcher in
the future.
1.7 Limitations of the Study
65
The researcher encountered some difficulties when carrying out the research
work. These problems cannot be over emphasised since they served as a
challenge to the researcher.
The time given for writing the project work limited and as such things were done
in a rush. The questionnaire wasted the researchers time because workers of the
Ministry of Health and Ghana Education Service were always very busy and for
that matter, wasted the researcher’s time.
The researcher also faced financial problems because no funds were made
available for or allocated to students for the project and the researcher was
compelled to solicit for funds from elsewhere to produce this piece of work.
Though the researcher faced all these problems, she was able to produce this piece
of work with limitations not having too much effect on the validity of the work
produced.
1.8 Organisation of the Study
The study has been organised in four chapters. The first chapter covers the introduction
to the study, statement of the problems, aims and objectives of the study,
hypothesis, methodology and scope, significance of the study, limitations to the
study and organisation of the study. The second chapter covers the review of
literature. That is finding out what exactly others say about Industrial Unrest.
The third chapter deals with the analysis of the data and discussion of findings.
Last chapter, which is the fourth chapter, provides the summary, conclusions and
recommendations of the study.
NOTES1. Patrick Obeng-Fosu Industrial Relations in Ghana, The
Law and Practice 2nd Edition (Ghana
Universities Press 1999) p. 22. Ibid p.2
66
3. Longman Active Study Dictionary (Longman Singapore Publishers Pte
Ltd 1983) p. 661
4. Ghanaian Times Thursday September 9, 1999
5. Francis Dordor Industrial Relations (Lecture Notes)
Tuesday 2, 2000
67
PROPOSAL ON
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIETY:
A CASE STUDY OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE HO DISTRICT
JULIET AKUBIA (HND SEC . III) 1999/2000 HO POLYTECHNIC
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The world’s ever-growing population and its progressive adoption of an industrially
based lifestyle had inevitably led to an increased anthropogenic impact on the biosphere.
The types and sources of pollutants are as diverse as their potential effects and fates
within the environment.1
Opportunities exist for the release of potentially environmentally hazardous compounds
at every stage of product manufacture, use and disposal. Pollutants may routinely enter
their environment as a result of agricultural practices, food processing and transport.
Some releases are intentional, such as the use of pesticides or discharges of waste effluent
produced during manufacturing process; others are unintentional, for example, releases
resulting from accidents.2
Historically, pollution with the resultant human mortalities and disruption to the
environment was largely confined to centres of resource extraction and products
manufacture. Such centres of industry were also invariably centres of population, which
further added to the environmental impact.
This is no longer the case. The potentially adverse effects of industrial development are
no longer confined within national borders; the impact of pollution is global.3
Global weather systems and the bio-geochemical cycling of elements means that
pollutants may rapidly dispersed across National Frontiers.
68
Solid wastes are probably the most visible forms of pollution in the environment. People
throw away billions of tons of solid materials each year. Much of this waste ends up
littering roadsides floating in lakes and streams, and collecting in ugly dumps.
In addition, as newly industrializing nations attempt to emulate the lifestyle and
economic wealth of the industrialized north, the number of manufacturing centres and
waste disposal sites have increased and will continue to increase.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Solid wastes are the most visible forms of pollution in the environment.
A critical observation of the environment indicates that people throw away billions of
tons of solid material each year; much of which ends up littering roadsides, floating in
lakes and streams, and choking gutters and drainage, sometimes leading to floods. It has
also been observed that much is not achieved inspite of public awareness about the
degradation of the environment.
The necessity to investigate the causes of inadequate disposal of solid waste has become
a matter of concern.
The main questions to be answered at the end of study are:
Why is solid waste management a problem?
Who bears responsibility for waste management?
What hazards does improper disposal of solid waste constitute?
In what ways can solid waste be better managed in Ho?
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main aims and objectives in carrying out this research are:
To outline the methods/techniques used in managing solid waste in Ho.
To examine people’s knowledge about the effects of solid waste to the society and
the environment.
To outline possible solutions to the problem.
69
1.4 HYPOTHESIS
Solid waste presents a serious problem because most of the methods used to dispose off it
result in some type of damage to the environment.
1.5 METHODOLOGY AND SCOPE
To be able to ascertain facts that reflect real life situations as far as solid waste
management is concerned, the researcher adopted both primary and secondary methods
of data collection.
(a) SAMPLE AREA
Materials for this dissertation were gathered from selected individuals in Ho, staff,
management and workers of solid waste management of the Ho District Assembly.
(b) SAMPLE SIZE
Forty (40) questionnaires were sent out to individuals, management, staff and workers of
solid waste management in Ho.
(c) DATA COLLECTION
The study of relevant literature on solid waste management was compared with solid
waste management practice in Ho.
(d) SOURCE OF DATA
Data for this study was gathered from textbooks, and journals. Also, observation,
interviews and questionnaires were used.
(e) SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sampling is the process of examining a representative number of the people or things out
of the whole population. The data collected from the cross section or sample represents
the rest of the population.
70
There are two main types of sampling techniques. These are probability sampling and
non-probability sampling. In probability sampling, each and every unit within the
population is given an equal chance of being selected. The various types of probability
sampling that can be identified include:
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Cluster Sampling
In non-probability sampling, the selected sample is not representative of the population
because the units in the population are not given the chance to be included in the sample
and this procedure does not call for any systematic sampling design. They include:
Quota Sampling
Accidental Sampling
Purposive Sampling
With regards to this study, Simple Random Sampling was used because it is the standard
for comparison where each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
(f)ANALYSIS OF DATA
Simple frequency tables and percentage variations were used to analyse the results of
questionnaires to be sent out to individuals, management, staff and workers of solid waste
management of Ho District Assembly.
1.6SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
At the end of the study, the dissertation to be submitted would serve as a pioneering work
on Solid Waste Management in Ho Polytechnic. It would also add to schools of thought
already existing in the area of study.
71
It is hoped that the rhetorical nature of the questions brought up in the statement of
problem would also guide and assist management at all levels to reinforce the
methods/techniques of Solid Waste Management; so as to prevent the degradation of the
environment.
1.7LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The researcher during the course of the study faced the following problems:
Due to the late start and financial problems, acquisition of stationery and printing of
the results of the study resulted in late submission of the research work.
Due to financial constraints, the researcher could not expand the scope to other units
in the region or outside the region.
The combination of the study with other academic work like tests, assignments and
examination on the part of the researcher was also a constraint to the study.
1.8 ORGANISATION OF STUDY
The dissertation is divided into four (4) chapters. Chapter two (2) consists of a review of
relevant literature to the study while data analysis and discussion of findings is found in
chapter three. Finally, chapter four (4) covers summary, conclusions and
recommendations.
72
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
BY OWUSU Y. MARY (HND III SECRETARYSHIP)
OFFICE EQUIPMENT AND ITS IMPACT ON PRODUCTIVITY –
A CASE STUDY OF REGIONAL EDUCATION OFFICE HO
1.1 INTRODUCTION
At every workplace, proper and efficient tools and equipment are badly needed to
enhance productivity however, competent or qualified an organization’s workforce may
be without the relevant equipment, the workers cannot produce anything so to say; ‘we
cannot produce anything out of nothing’.
For decades, Trade Unions, workers individuals and even stakeholders have shown and
express concern and continue to express their views for the provision of the necessary
equipment to boost productivity and production. It is clear at this point that any shortage
of equipment will invariable hamper productivity as well as production.
Workers would often be seen idling, complaining or gossiping most of the time (time of
waste), and in this situation of lack or inadequacy of equipment workers pretend to be
sympathizing with management whilst at the same time placing the blame at the door-
steps of the chief executive and management. It is evident that the scenario of ability or
inability to produce has a bearing on equipment.
73
It is the conviction of the writer that all other things being held equal, the provision and
availability of the necessary tools and equipment such as office pins, staplers, rulers,
cellotapes, chips, endorsing ink, ink-pad, rubber stump, stencils, duplicating machines,
typewriters (in absence of modern computers) stationery and telephones will lead to high
productivity and output in the Ghana Education Service.
This research is, therefore, timely and aimed at finding out the impact of equipment on
productivity and suggesting ways and means of improving productivity.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The research problem the writer has chosen is ‘Office Equipment and its Impact on
productivity’ in the Regional Education Office, Ho.
The Regional Education Office is one of the government establishments, and an umbrella
of the Ghana Education Service, has often been faced with inadequacy of office
equipment for staff use. The existing equipment in use such as manual typewriters,
telephone facilities, duplicating machine, filing cabinets staple machines have not seen
any changes or modifications. Some of them are still old and broken down beyond
repairs.
The researcher will therefore like to investigate the following questions. What types of
equipment are available at the Ghana Education Service Regional Office at Ho? What
are the effects of these equipment on productivity? How effectively are the equipment
available being used? Are the workers satisfied with the types of equipment? What
problems are associated with the use of these equipment? In what way can the problems
be solved to increase productivity and bring output to standard?
The researcher would attempt to find answers to these numerous questions in her case
study of the Regional Education Office of the Ghana Education Service, at Ho.
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
74
The aims and objectives of the study are as follows:
(a) To identify the type of equipment used in the case study;
(b) To examine the effect of the equipment on productivity;
(c) To examine whether the equipment available is used effectively;
(d) To find out whether workers are satisfied with these equipment; i.e. to find
out the problem connected with the use of these equipment.
(e) To examine whether the output of work is of the required standard.
1.4 HYPOTHESIS
The use of manual office equipment cannot enhance the efficiency, speed and
accuracy as well as neatness of office correspondence in a modern technological era.
1.5 METHODOLOGY
The researcher intends to send out three (3) questionnaires to Management and staffs
of Regional Education Office, Ho to enable her ascertain facts on Office equipment
and its impact on productivity as far as the use of manual office equipment is
concerned.
She also intends to gather/collect materials for the project work through the adoption
of both primary and secondary methods of data collection.
The researcher intends to gather information through:
a) The use of questionnaire and analysis of the results from questionnaires to be
sent out to management and staff of the Regional Education Office, Ho.
(Stratified random sampling will be adopted and thirty (30) questionnaires
will be distributed to the various categories ranging from top management to
junior staff level) The distributions are:
(i) Top management (10)
(ii) Middle level (10)
(iii) Junior level (10)
75
b) Personal interviews with individual workers and their opinions.
c) The review of literature on what types of equipment a modern office should
use.
The scope of the study is expected to embrace the concept of office
equipment with regards to the use of both modern and manual office
machines and the impact that both have on productivity.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Government of Ghana has been spending huge sums of money in the payment of salaries
to workers. It is therefore unfortunate that workers go to work and idle for most part of
the day for lack of equipment to work with.
It is in the light of this that the findings of the study will bring to light what actually is
responsible for workers inability to produce effectively.
Furthermore, the observations and recommendations arrived at in the study will serve as
guide to the problems faced in the use of existing office equipment and its impact on
productivity in the Regional Education Office, Ho.
It will also help management of the Ghana Education Service to find lasting solutions to
this problem and thus improve productivity. It would add to the volume of literature on
office equipment and their impact on productivity. Finally it would serve as reference
material for future researchers in the area.
1.7 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The area of my research is limited to the Volta Regional Education Office, Ho. The
following considerations have been taken into account:
(a) Time constraints
76
(b) Proximity and accessibility (the institution of the researcher is close to
the Regional Education Office, Ho).
(c) Financial constraints
These factors notwithstanding, it is hoped that the resultant findings of the
research would constitute a strong and reliable basis for generalization since the
Volta Regional Education Office is a good sample.
77
TOPIC: THE IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL UNREST ON PRODUCTIVITY
IN AN ORGANISATION
NAME: AKUAKU STEPHANIE SITSOFE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
An industry is established in order to make available goods and services required by the
customer. Labour or the workforce in particular is concerned with the provision of goods
and services and it is the central part of manufacturing process.
In order to improve productivity of manpower, improve working methods, increased
production, achieve industrial peace within the organization and also, to promote
understanding and co-operation between management and labour, there should be a good
industrial relations in the organization.
Man was either cursed or blessed by God to live by the sweat of his brow. Since that
time, man has never ceased to work. Whether we like or not, man has to work in
association with others and it is here that knowledge about industrial relations comes into
play1.
Without good industrial relations and other procedures not properly laid down and
followed by all concerned, unrest or disputes are bound to arise at various working places
and this may reduce the normal output or normal rate of work2.
Unrest is a protest by workers made on poor conditions of service and lack of
motivational factors in an organization3.
1 Patrick Obeng-Fosu, Industrial Relations in Ghana 2nd Editon (Ghana Universities Press1999) p.22 Ibid p.23 Ibid p.2
78
The increase in industrial unrest and illegal strikes in the country in recent times has been
attributed to the outmoded and outdated Industrial Relations Act of 1958 that still
governs the labour sector. Protest can also be caused by lack of information or
misinformation, lack of transparency, decision taken by management alone, lack of
respect for staff leaders and poor communication4.
Unrest can be minimized if there is sound Industrial Relations and for that matter
industrial peace and industrial harmony, there would be a conducive atmosphere for
investors to do business in Ghana and also creates an atmosphere for increased
productivity.
The state of cordial relations between workers is brought about by three parties are
usually referred to as the social partners because they work hand in hand to ensure peace
at the work-place for the benefit of society. These partners are the government,
employers or their associations and workers or their unions.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
There is no doubt that unrest or disputes go a long way to hinder the progress of a
nation as a whole and organization in particular in achieving its goal.
Sound industrial relations practice is the corner-stone for the achievements of
corporate goals
A critical observation reveals that lack of information or misinformation, lack of
transparency, respect for senior staff and poor communication by supervisors are the
causes of recent strikes in the country.
4 Longman Active Study Dictionary (Longman Singapore Publishers Pte. Ltd. 1983) p. 661.
79
This is why the researcher deemed it necessary to find out whether Industrial Unrest
has got some impacts on productivity in an organization or not
The researcher is about therefore intends to find answers to the following questions:
(1) What is the present Industrial Relations atmosphere in Ghana with specific
references to Ministry of Health and GNAT?
(2) Are the existing industrial laws achieving the purposes for which these
were set up?
(3) What are the reasons for the recent industrial unrest and strike actions
among Ghanaian workers?
(4) How can the factors that cause unrest be eliminated?
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The research is about the impact of Industrial Unrest on Productivity in an organization
and the main aims and objectives are:
To ascertain the importance of the Industrial Relations Act 1958 and the Labour
Law.
To identify the factors that lead to industrial unrest.
To examine various forms that industrial unrest takes
To assess the effects of industrial unrest on productivity
To suggest ways of preventing unrest in organizations
1.4 HYPOTHESES
Organizations with stable industrial atmosphere have high level of productivity.
Poor conditions of service and inadequate motivation in an organization are the
main factors for industrial unrest.
80
1.5 METHODOLOGY AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Under this, the methods used in researching are outlined. The research will rely on, both
primary and secondary data.
Population
The population area for the study would be Ho Ministry of Health and Ghana National
Association of Teachers, Ho (GNAT). This would consist of both junior staff and senior
staff.
Sample Size
A total number of forty (40) questionnaires would be administered to the workers of both
Health and GNAT.
Sampling Techniques
Random sampling would be used for the research or study and workers would be selected
from different divisions or units. The questionnaire would be administered randomly
because the researcher wants to know the various problems each division encounters if
there is unrest.
Analysis of Data
The questionnaire designed for the workers would be the main instrument for data
collection. This will explain whether Industrial Unrest actually affects productivity in
organization or not.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The management of and organization with the help of this study would be able to
minimize and even eliminate the occurrences of unrest in the country in general and in
organizations in particular.
81
It would also help managers to have a clear mind about every worker in terms of
motivation and job appraisal to reduce unrest.
Secondly, it is expected that the study when completed would help solve some of the
problems relating to unrest and, it would assist management to update the outmoded
Industrial Relations Act of 1958 in the country.
Lastly, it may be beneficial to all organizations that might have it at their disposal to
effect the necessary changes in their staff evaluation.
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The time given to writing project work is too short and as such things may be done in a
rush.
Due to financial constraints the research cannot be expanded to other regions.
Also, the questionnaire may waste time since Ministry of Health and GNAT are always
very busy.
1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY
Chapter two would cover literature review. That is finding out what exactly others say
about Industrial Unrest.
Chapter three would deal with the analysis of data and discussion of findings.
The last chapter would provide a summary, conclusion and recommendations of the
study.
82
NAME: MS. GLADYS AGGREY-CARTHY
TOPIC: ASSESSMENT OF RECRUITMENT, SELECTION AND
PLACEMENT OF PERSONNEL PROCESS IN GHANA. –
A CASE STUDY OF GHANA PORTS AND HARBOURS AUTHORITY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
An organization should have an effective Human Resource Planning (HRP) system,
which will help determine its future people, requirements along its business objectives,
work systems and technology used1.
Recruitment is the activity that generates a pool of applicants, who have the desire to be
employed by the organization, from which those suitable can be selected2.
Selection is the activity in which an organization uses one or more methods to assess
individuals with a view to making a decision concerning their suitability to join the
organization, to perform tasks, which may or may not be specified3.
Placement is the assignment of individuals to jobs, it occurs after orientation4.
An organization must commit itself to the achievement of a number of critical success
factors in recruitment and selection, if the best person is to be selected.
Some of these factors are:
The process must be systematic, that is, carried out in a logical fashion and consistency in
line with the organization policies, systems, human resource plan and with business
objectives5.
1 Winfield, Bishop, Porter – Core Management for Human Resource Students and Practioners 2000 p.83.2 Ibid, 83.3 Ibid, 83.4 Cascio Wayne, Managing Human Resources, Third Edition p. 27.5 Winfield, Bishop, Porter – Core Management for Human Resource Students and Practioners 2000 p.83.
83
There should be efficiency, this implies using the resources of time, money reputation
and human resources to the best effect.
Another factor is effectiveness, that is, obtaining the right person for the organization and
the job, using the resources available must be paramount objective.
There should also be validity, this implies any technique or method used must provide the
employer with accurate results. There is no point in using an interview technique that
does not enable the employer to select the best candidate. Furthermore, there is no point
in paying for the use of expensive selection methods, such as tests, if they do not measure
the attributes or skills or competencies that you wish to measure in the candidate and
those, which are relevant to the job.
Reliability is also a factor in recruitment and selection. In this having found and used the
most efficient and effective methods and techniques, which are valid, the employer
should be able to use them consistently over time. This means that using them on more
than one occasion will provide the employer with results that are consistent and
comparable with the results arising out of use on the last occasion.
There should be fairness, this implies the way in which ethical and legal considerations
are with the recruitment and selection, says a lot about the organization and prospective
employees will be aware of the message conveyed by the way the process is managed.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The human Resource Management must exist to determine the human resource
requirement of an organization. If this department exists and performs its functions
efficiently, then there is little point in hiring someone using expensive selection
techniques, if the job is to be shortly changed or phased out.
The research questions are that,
84
If this were expected, could an internal transfer carry out the tasks in the
meantime?
Could someone be hired with a view to the job changing in the near future? Or
Rather than externally recruit, could an existing employee be transferred,
promoted or re-trained to undertake the work? Or
What analysis has been undertaken to identify the reason why the previous
post holder left?
Is there a high incidence of labour turnover in that organization?
This study is to research on the various questions that have been raised and suggest
solutions to them.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study has three main objectives.
(a) To examine the efficiency, effectiveness and fairness in the recruitment,
selection and placement process in Ghana Ports and Habours Authority.
(b) To identify the recruitment, selection and placement process.
(c) To explore selection methods such as interviewing and testing, and to
assess the suitability.
1.4 HYPOTHESIS
The recruitment, selection and placement process is subordinated to the advantage
of tribalist activities and preference.
1.5 METHODOLOGY
This dilates on the research methods and tools used in collecting and analyzing
data.
1.5.1 SAMPLE SIZE
The sample area of the study is Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority.
1.5.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
85
The sample size is made up of fifty (50) respondents in various departments at Ghana
Ports and Harbours Authority.
1.5.3 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
Data will be collected through interviews and questionnaires as primary source, while
existing literature will be reviewed as secondary source.
Interviews will be used for some of the employees who cannot express themselves
in clear English, whilst questionnaires will be used for employees who can
express themselves in writing.
1.5.4 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
Data that will be collected will be edited in order to eliminate irrelevant
responses. Presentation will be made by the use of pie charts and frequency
tables to depict the situation at Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority.
1.5.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study will be limited to the recruitment, selection and placement of middle
and lower levels of management employed within the last eight (8) years.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
It is hoped that the study will,
Assess the efficiency and effectiveness or otherwise in recruitment, selection
and placement process that war embarked upon by organizations.
Specifically, it is to assess the time, money an space spent to select persons
into positions within Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority.
Also, it is to bring to light how wrong methods and selection techniques are
applied to achieve inaccurate results.
Finally, it is to serve as a guideline to managers of human resource in the
planning of their resources.
86
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
There would be some difficulties, which will be encountered in this research. Some
are:
Financial problems
Academic interruptions
Language barriers during interviewing
Confidential policies, that is, some employees would not be prepared to give
out the right information out and others are just tired of always giving out
information to students, which they always consider as a regular routine.
1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY
In terms of organization of the study, the whole work will be divided into four (4)
chapters.
In chapter two, literature that is related to the topic will be reviewed; that is, it will
consider previous work written on the topic.
In chapter three, analysis of data will concentrate on the main results obtained on
the findings of the research undertaken into consideration and original
contribution to knowledge.
Chapter four covers the entire study. It will be summarized, conclusion drawn
form suggested opinions and solutions to the problem identified and
recommended s made on the assessment of recruitment, selection and placement
of personnel process in Ghana.
87
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIETY;
A CASE STUDY OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE
This questionnaire is designed to gather information for an academic research on
opinions and awareness on environmental degradation, and solid waste management.
Information given will be treated as private and confidential. Your maximum co-
operation would be highly appreciated.
You are requested to give independent and accurate information. Please tick () where
applicable.
A PERSONAL DATA
1 Sex Male ( ) Female( )
2 Age 20-29 ( ) 30-39 ( ) 40-49 ( ) 50 and above ( )
3 EDUCATION BACKGROUND(a) Middle School/J.S.S. ( ) (b) S.S.S. ( ) (c) Certificate ‘A’ ( )
(d) Polytechnic ( ) (e) GCE ‘O’/ ‘A’ level. ( ) (f) Technical Sch. ( )
(g) Commercial College ( ) ( h) University ( )
3 Marital status(a) Single ( ) (b) Married ( ) (c) Divorced ( )
(d) Widower ( ) (e) Widow ( )
4 Occupation………………………………………………………………………
GENERAL ISSUES
1 What do you think are the major problems facing Ho? Provide possible answers
yourself.
(a)…………………………..................
………………………………………………………
88
(b)
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
(c)
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
2 What are the major environmental problems of your area of residence/suburb?
a) Indiscriminate solid waste disposal.
b) Indiscriminate disposal of human excreta.
c) Indiscriminate disposal of wastewater.
d) All the above.
e) Others (Specify)………………………………………………………………………
3. What has been done in an attempt to solve them?
…………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
….
4 Would you say the measures have been successful in its attempt to solve the
problems?
YES ( ) NO ( ) If NO state why they failed………………….
……………………………………………………………….
5 What are some of the common diseases of this community?
a) Malaria
b) Diarrhoea
c) Skin Rashes
d) Tuberculosis
e) Others…………………………………………………………………………
6 Do you know whether environmental degradation is a problem in Ghana?
YES ( ) NO ( )
7 What are the serious environmental problems in Ghana?
(a) Pollution
(b) Soil Erosion
(c) Choked Gutters
89
(d) Rapid Sedimentation of dams
(e) All the above
(f) Others (Specify)…………………………………………………………… ………
Do you have knowledge about any legislation on environmental
degradation in Ghana?YES ( ) NO ( )
If YES state………………………………………………………………………….
Are there any diseases caused by environmental pollution? YES ( ) NO ( )
Which department is responsible for organising public campaigns to create awareness of
environmental degradation?
……………………………………………………………
Has such awareness been created from time to time in your community?
YES( ) NO ( )
C KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE ON WASTE DISPOSAL
1 Where do you believe more waste is generated?
(a) Village
(b) Cities and Towns
2 Which type of waste do you normally generate at home?
TYPES OF WASTE AND EXAMPLES
(a) Solid - wastepaper, rubber bags
(b) Liquid -faeces, wastewater
(c) Domestic -cassava peels, soapy water from bathroom and kitchen waste
(d) Industrial - saw dust, waste dye
(e) Agricultural - cornhusk, cocoa pod and coconut husk
3 Which of the following will not easily decompose?
(a) Paper
(b) Metals
(c) Plastic
(d) Leaves
(e) Human Excreta
90
4 Name three methods by which solid waste should be disposed off.
(a) Disposal at collection point
(b) Burning
(c) Burying
(d) Land Filling
(e) Throwing into the Forest
(f) Throwing into Gutters
5 Which of the methods above do you think are appropriate for Ho?
…………………………………………………………
D WASTE DISPOSAL/MANAGEMENT
1 Who is in charge of waste disposal at home?
(a) Children
(b) Parents
(c) Maid Servants
(d) Labourers
2 How often do you dispose of waste?
(a) Daily
(b) Weekly
(c) Twice a Week
(d) Others (Specify)……………………………………………………..
3 Where do you/your children dispose off your waste?
(a) Beside the house
(b) In a nearby bush
(c) At the approved disposal point
(d) In a pit
(e) Along the stream
(f) Others (Specify)
………………………………………………………………………….
4 Do you have approved disposal point(s) in the community? YES ( ) NO ( )
5 Is the container adequate? YES ( ) NO ( )
91
6 Is it regularly collected? YES ( ) NO ( )
7 Do you think waste should always be disposed off at the approved site?
YES ( ) NO ( )
8 Would you say that the containers had been designed to your satisfaction?
YES ( ) NO ( )
E INDIVIDUAL PERCEPTION ABOUT WASTE DISPOSAL
1 Why do you think people do not dispose off waste properly?
(a) Disposal site is far from home
(b) No approved site for waste disposal
(c) The laws are dormant on such offences
2 Would you say population growth has contributed to waste disposal problems?
YES ( ) NO ( )
3 Would you say every household should pay for the collection of its waste?
YES ( ) NO ( )
4 Would you say spending money on waste management is foolish when we need
money for development? YES ( ) NO ( )
5 Do you think waste should be disposed off anywhere provided you cannot be
seen?
92
TOPIC :
STAFF MOTIVATION AND PRODUCTIVITY AT THE WORK PLACE
BY AGBALENYO KUBI HND III SECRETARYSHIP 2000/2001
This is a social research for academic purposes. The researcher will be very grateful if
you will respond to the following questions to the best of your knowledge.
THE RESPONDENT ASSURED ANONYMITY
Please, tick where appropriate and write a short answer where necessary. Please, be
specific and answer the questions as accurately as you can.
PERSONAL DATA OF RESPONDENTS
1. SEX a) Male b) Female
2. AGE a) 21-30 b) 31-40 c) 41-50 d) 51-
60
3. Department…………………………………………………………………………
4. Indicate if you had formal education a) Yes b) No
5. Specify Level
a) 1st Cycle Primary
Middle
J S S
b) 2nd Cycle Secondary
Technical
Vocational
93
c) 3rd Cycle University
Polytechnic
Other Professional Institute………………………………………………………….
6. What is the level of your employment?
a) Top Level
b) Middle Level
c) Supervisory Level
d) Junior Level
e) Other (specify) ……………………………………………………………..
TYPES OF BENEFITS
A. HEALTH SERVICES
7. Does the Company provide health services for employees?
a) Yes b) No
8. If yes, what form does it take?
a) Company bears full payments
b) Company pays …………….. percentage (state the percentage)
9. Does the health facility cover your dependants as well?
a) Children How many children and up to what age?
b) Wife
c) Father
d) Mother
94
10. Does the company provide treatment overseas for employees?
a) Yes b) No
B. SCHOLARSHIP FOR WARDS OF EMPLOYEES
11. Does your company have scholarship facility for wards of employees?
a) Yes b) No
12. How many children of an employee can enjoy it? ……………………….
13. At what level(s) is it enjoyed?
a) Basic Education Level
b) Senior Secondary School
c) Tertiary Level
14. State type of scholarship
a) Full b) Half c) Bursary d) Boarding & Lodging
C. ACCOMMODATION
15. Do you enjoy the company’s accommodation facility? a) Yes b) No
If yes, how much do you pay for occupying it? ………………………………….….
16. Are you in a rented house? a) Yes b) No
17. Does the company pay your rent? a) Yes b) No
If yes what percentage of the rent does the company pay…………………….
18. Does the company help you to occupy your own house? a) Yes b) No
19. To what extent does the company’s housing policy serve as a motivation?
…………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
95
D. TRANSPORT AND CAR LOAN
20. Do you enjoy the company bus services?
a) Always
b) Rarely
c) Often
d) Never
21. If yes, how much do you pay per month? ¢
………………………………………..
22. Are you entitled to car loan? a) Yes b) No
23. How much are you entitled to? about ¢
……………………………………………..
24. What is the basis of re-payment of the loan?
a) Installment
b) Full payments
c) Others (specify)
25. To what extent does the company’s services and car loans motivate you?
……………………………………………………………………………………..
26. How does it enhance your work performance?
……………………………………………………………………………………..
ASSESSMENT OF FRINGE BENEFITS
27. From List A to D which types of benefits enjoyed at Electricity Company of
Ghana Limited Regional Office motivate you most?
a) Health b) Scholarship c) Accommodation
28. Do they improve your standard of living? a) Yes b) No
29. Do they have any influence on your output?
a) Positive b) Normal c) Negative
30. Are there any other factors, which motivate you other than fringe benefits?
96
If yes,
specify……………………………………………………………………………
IMPACT ON PRODUCTION
31. Has it affected the production level of Electricity Company of Ghana Limited as a
whole?
Comment…………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
32. With these benefits, are you ready to sacrifice a little more for the company?
a) Yes b) No
33. What cause can you attribute to workers who are unmotivated and dissatisfied
with their work?
………………………………………………………………………………….
34. What measures in your opinion can be adopted to get this problem solved.
………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
97
SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIREThis questionnaire is designed to gather information in connection with an academic
research on “Office Equipment and its Impact on Productivity”. A Case Study of
Regional Education Office, Ho.
BY MARY OWUSU HND III SECRETARYSHIP HO POLYTECHNIC 1999/2000
Any information given by the respondent(s) will be treated as private and confidential.
Your co-operation would be highly appreciated.
You are requested to give independent and accurate information.
Please, tick () where applicable, the space/box provided to correspond with your
response.
A. PERSONAL DATA
1. Sex Male Female
2. Age (a) 20-29 (b) 30-39 (c) 40-49
(d) 50-59 (e) 60 and above (if any)
2. Educational Background
(a) University (e) Senior Sec. School
(b) Polytechnic (f) Commercial School
(c) Training College (g) Middle School/JSS
(d) Technical School
3. Marital Status
(a) Single (c) Divorced
(b) Married (d) Widowed
4. For how many years have you been working in this organization?
98
(a) 1-5 years (c) 11-15 years (e) 21-25
yrs
(b) 6-10 years (d) 16-20 years (f) 26-30
yrs
5. Rank
(a) Regional Director (e) Accountant
(b) Asst. Director (f) Accounts Clerk
(c) Unit Head (g) Typist
(d) Prin. Superintendent (h) Security Officer
B. JOB INCENTIVES 6. What is your main duty?
………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
7. Do you like your job? Yes No
Give reason(s) for your choice
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
8. How do you rate your own performance?
(a) Low (c) Above average
(b) Average (d) Excellent
9. How do you think contributes to the level of your performance indicated
in number?
99
You may indicate more than one factor.
(a) Equipment (d) Lack of satisfaction
(b) Salary (e) Proper Motivation
(c) Lack of motivation (f) Job satisfaction
10. What do you think is/are the cause(s) for workers not being able to give of
their best at work?
(a) Lack of proper/necessary Equipment
(b) Poor Salary
(c) Lack of job satisfaction
(d) Lack of motivation
11. What do you think could be done to enhance your performance at work?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
12. Are you satisfied with the office equipment you are working with?
(a) Yes (b) No
Give reason(s)
………………………………………………………………………………
100
AVAILABILITY LEVEL
EquipmentAlways
Available
Sometimes
Available
Mostly Not
Available
Not At All
Available
101
1. Calculators
2. Computers
3. Dictating Machine
4. Duplicating Ink
5. Duplicating Machine
6. Duplicating Paper
7. Electronic
Typewriter
8. Eraser
9. Fax Machine
10. Filing Cabinets
11. Manual Typewriters
12. Office Pins & Clips
13. Pens
14. Perforators
15. Photocopies
16. Rulers
17. Scanner
18. Shredding Machine
19. Staplers
20. Stencils
21. Stencil Correcting
Fluid
22. Telephone
(Intercom)
23. Typing Sheets
24. White Correcting
Fluid.
13. Are the equipment that are always available being put into effective use?
(a) Yes (b) No
102
14. Why do you think they are sometimes available?
……………………………………………………………………………
15. Whose duty is it to provide these equipment if they are not available?
(a) The worker (c) The Public
(b) Management (d) Not sure
16. What effect do you think the non-availability of the equipment can have
on performance and productivity?
(a) Negative effect (b) Positive effect
17. If “Negative”, suggest ways and means of improving the situation to
enhance Productivity?
………………………………………………………………………………
103
QUESTIONNAIREPersonal Interview questions for Management of the Volta Regional Educational Office,
Ho on the Topic “Office Equipment and its impact on Productivity”
BY MARY OWUSU HND III SECRETARYSHIP HO POLYTECHNIC 1999/2000
1. How do you assess the performance of your staff generally? ……………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
2. What would you say is responsible for this level of performance?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
3. What do you think hinders their level of output?
……………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
4. Do you know of any method or technique by which you could encourage them to
perform better?
…………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
5. What types of equipment are available?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
6. Do you face any problem(s) in using the manual equipment at your disposal?
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………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
7. What is the effect of equipment on productivity on your staff?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
8. What plans are there for providing the modern equipment? ………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
9. What has prevented management from providing these equipment all theses years?
……………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
10. Whose duty is it to provide these equipment?
…………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
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QUESTIONNAIRES TO MANAGERS (AND SENIOR STAFF) THE EFFECT OF
EMPLOYEES PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL ON EFFICIENCY AND
PRODUCTIVITY OF PUBLIC SECTOR ORGANIZATION
QUESTIONNAIRES TO MANAGERS AND SENIOR STAFF OF GHANA
REGIONAL APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRIAL SERVICE
(GRATIS)
This study is being carried out to determine Performance Appraisal impact on Public
Sector Organisations. Please answer these questions with your most candid objective
opinion. This study has GRATIS PROJECT in perspective. Do not write your name on
any part of this sheet. This is strictly for academic purposes and your confidentiality is
assured. Thank you.
Please tick the appropriate box:
PERSONAL DATA OF RESPONDENTS:
1. Sex: (a) Male (b) Female
2. Age: (tick as appropriate)
(a) Below 20 (c) 30 – 39 (e) 50 - Above
(b) 20 – 29 (d) 40 - 49
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL AND PRODUCTIVITY
3. What basis does the organization use to determine the wages of new employees?
………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
4. Do you give other incentives to the employees? (a) Yes (b) No
5. If yes, specify the type of incentives given:
…………………………………………….
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………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
6. Does the organization appraise the performance of the employees?
(a) Yes (b) No
REASONS AND METHODS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
7. If yes, why?
(a) To identify training and development needs of employees
(b) For promotional purposes
(c) To weed out low performance
(d) To determine salaries
(e) To diagnoses problems
(f) To distinguish between effective and ineffective performance
(g) Specify
others………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………
…..
8. What appraisal system do you use?
(a) Employee Comparisons
(b) Behaviour Oriented
(c) Result Oriented Method
(d) Interview
(e) Personal Traits
(f) Critical Incident
(g) Others (specify)
9. Who carries out the appraisal?
…………………………………………………………
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………….
………………………………………………………………………………
…..
10. Does the organization give special appraisal for those who carry out the appraisal?
(a) Yes (b) No
11. How is the appraisal result used?
(a) Promote outstanding performance
(b) Discipline others
(c) Used to establish objectives for training programmes
(d) Others (specify)
………………………………………………………………….
12. Has this led to increase in Workers efficiency? (a) Yes (b) No
13. If yes, how do you measure the efficiency of your workers?
……………………………………………………………………………….
14. Has this led to increase in output? (a) Yes (b) No
15. If no, what do you think is the reason?
………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………..
…………….
………………………………………………………………………………..
…………….
16. Do the management appraise regularly? (a) Yes (b) No
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17. If no why?
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………..………
18. Do you encounter any problems in performance appraisal?
(a) Yes (b) No
19. If yes, what are some of these problems?
……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………..………………
………………………………………………………………………..………………
109
QUESTIONNAIRES TO MANAGERS (AND SENIOR STAFF) THE EFFECT OF
EMPLOYEES PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL ON EFFICIENCY AND
PRODUCTIVITY OF PUBLIC SECTOR ORGANIZATION
QUESTIONNAIRES TO MANAGERS AND SENIOR STAFF OF GHANA
REGIONAL APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRIAL SERVICE
(GRATIS)
This study is being carried out to determine Performance Appraisal impact on Public
Sector Organisations. Please answer these questions with your most candid objective
opinion. Do not write your name on any part of this sheet. This is strictly for academic
purposes and your confidentiality is assured. Thank you.
Please tick the appropriate box:
PERSONAL DATA OF RESPONDENTS:
1. Sex: (a) Male (b) Female
2. Age: (tick as appropriate)
(c) Below 20 (c) 30 – 39 (e) 50 - Above
(d) 20 – 29 (d) 40 – 49
3. Position (Please tick as appropriate)
(a) Supervisor (f) Sales Personnel
(b) Headman (g) Telephonist
(c) Machine Operator (h) Typist
(d) Binder (i) Accounting Officer
(e) Messenger/Cleaner (j) Account Clerk
(k) Others (specify)
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
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4. Date of first employment (State information as to date month and year)
……………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
5. What was your highest educational attainment when you first joined the
corporation?
(a) Never being to school
(b) Middle School Certificate
(c) Junior Secondary School
(d) General Certificate of Education ‘O’ Level
(e) General Certificate of Education ‘A’ Level
(f) Certificate ‘A’ four years
(g) Diploma
(h) Others (specify)
……………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………
………
6. Since you joined the organization have you ever had or received any typed of
training? (a) Yes (b) No
7. (a) If yes, what type of training have you had:
…………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…..
(b) Specify the number of times you have had such chance: ……………….
………………………………………………………………………………
….
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8. If you never had any training up to date since you joined the organization state the
reason why?
…………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………
…….
9. Have you had any promotion since you joined the corporation/organization?
(a) Yes (b) No
10. If yes, what led to such promotions?
(a) Increase in qualification
(b) Excellent performance on job
(c) Good Human Relationship
(d) Others (Specify)
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..
…………
11. If no, give reason why it has been so
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..
…………
12. How often does your boss stress your level of performance on your job?
(a) Daily
(b) No mention of any performance on the job
(c) Yearly through staff appraisal/confidential
13. Does this type of appraisal influence the quality of your job performance?
(a) Yes (b) No (c) Not sure
14. Does this type of appraisal gives the quality of your job performance?
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(a) Yes (b) No (c) Not sure
15. Have you had any increase in your salaries/wage?
(a) Yes (b) No
16. If yes, what has been the basis for this increment?
………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………
………
17. Are you content with your salaries/wages according to the level of work and
position? (a) Satisfied (b) Not satisfied
18. If no, give reasons
…………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
19. Do you receive remuneration other than the monthly salaries/wages?
(a) Yes (b) No
20. If yes, specify the type of allowance(s)
received……………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………
21. Are you given sanctions when you fail to perform your duty as required?
(a) Yes (b) No
Thank you.
113
QUESTIONNAIRE ON THE IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL
UNREST ON PRODUCTIVITY IN AN ORGANISATION
BY SITSOFE ACKUAKU HNDIII SECRETARY HO POLYTECHNIC 1999/2000
Your answers will be used solely for academic purpose and will be treated with
importance and confidentiality that it deserves.
Please tick either YES [] or NO [] where necessary and briefly and clearly write short
notes where the need arises.
(A) Personal Data of Respondents
1. Sex: (a) Male (b) Female
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2. Age: (a) 20-29 (b) 30-39 (c) 40-49
(d) 50 and Above
3. Educational Background:
(a) Middle School/JSS (e) Certificate ‘A’
(b) Secondary School (f) Post Secondary
(c) Technical School (g) Polytechnic
(d) Commercial School (h) University
4. Marital Status:
(a) Single (c) Divorced
(b) Married (d) Widowed
5. Number of years working with the department/unit.
(a) 1 – 5 (d) 16 - 20
(b) 6 – 10 (e) 20 and above
(c) 11 - 15
6. Rank of respondent……………………………………………………
7. In which department/unit are you?………………………………………..
(B) Causes of Industrial Unrest
1. What do you understand by the term industrial unrest/dispute?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What are the main causes of industrial unrest in your department/unit?
(a) Demand for removal of management of staff
(b) Lack of staff involvement in decision-making
(c) Demand for wages/salary increment
(d) Claim for yearly bonus
(e) Due to outmoded and outdated Industrial Relations Act
115
(f) Service conditions
(g) Non payment of wages/salaries/overtime
(h) Others (specify)
………………………………………………………………
3. Which group of people cause industrial unrest?
(a) Government (b) Employers (c) Employees
4. Do you experience industrial unrest in your department/unit?
(a) Yes (b) No
5. Do you like your job? a) Yes (b) No
Give reasons for your choice:
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
6. In your opinion how do you consider your remuneration?
(a) Adequate (b) Inadequate
(c) Satisfactory (d) Poor
(C) Impact of Industrial Unrest on Productivity
1. How do you rate your own performance?
(a) High (b) Average (c) Poor
2. What do you think contributes to the level of your performance chosen in thirteen
(13)?
(a) Equipment
(b) Allowance/Salary/Overtime
(c) Participation in decision-making
(d) Awards
(e) Promotion
116
(f) Suitable attitude of the boss
(g) Unsuitable attitude of the boss
(h) Others (specify)
………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………
…….
3. How do you assess the present industrial relations atmosphere?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
4. What are the forms that industrial unrest/dispute takes in your department?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
….
5. What effect has industrial unrest got on productivity?
(a) Reduce output
(b) Loss of life
(c) Loss of property
(d) Reduce capital/investment
(e) Break future projections
(f) Others (specify)
…………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Which people are involved in the industrial unrest?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
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(D) Management of Industrial Unrest
1. What parties are involved in negotiations for staff welfare in your
department/unit?
(a) Negotiation committee
(b) Government
(c) Employers
(d) Others (specify)
…………………………………………………………………
2. By what means do you air your grievances?
(a) Negotiations (d) ‘Go slow’
(b) Dialogue (e) Others (specify)
………………………..
(c) Strike actions …………………………………………..
3. Are there good human relations between staff? (a) Yes (b) No
4. Are there any good industrial relations in your department/unit
(a) Yes (b) No
Give reasons, if No.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(E) Possible Solutions to Industrial Unrest
1. Is there any incentive for employees?
(a) Insurance (d) Health and Safety inducement
(b) Pension (e) Promotion
(c) Protection (f) Facilities for handling grievances
(g) Others (specify)
…………………………………………………………………..
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………………………………………………………………………………
2. Do you think the existing Industrial Relations Act is achieving its aims and
objectives?
(a) Yes (b) No
Give reasons for your choice:
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What influence has the labour law got on the workers?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Are you involved in decision making for the department/unit?
(a) Yes (b) No
Give reasons for your choice:
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
5. How do you think the factors that cause industrial unrest could be eliminated?
(a) Good conditions of service
(b) Motivation
(c) Chain of communication
(d) Good industrial relations
(e) Good human relations
(f) Involvement in decision-making
(g) Others (specify)
…………………………………………………………………...
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6. Who would you suggest to see to the elimination of industrial unrest?
………………………………………………………………………………………
……..
Give reasons for your answer:
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