rotational & rigid-body mechanics - utrecht university 3-4...kinetics of rotational motion πΆ...
TRANSCRIPT
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Rotational & Rigid-Body Mechanics
Lectures 3+4
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β’ So far: point objects moving through a trajectory.
β’ Next: moving actual dimensional objects and rotating them.
2
Rotational Motion
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β’ πΆ is the center of rotation.
β’ π a point on to the object.
β’ π is the distance vector π β πΆ
β’ π = π the distance between πΆ and π.β’ Object rotates π
travels along a circular path
β’ after βπ‘, π covered distance π , and angle π.
β’ Unit-length axis of rotation: π’.β’ In this example, the Z axis going βoutβ from the screen.
β’ Rotation: counterclockwise (right-hand rule).
3
Circular Motion - Definitions
πΆπ
π
π
π
π
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β’ This angle π represents the rotation of the object:
π = π /π
where π is the arc length and π the radiusβ’ unit is radian (πππ)
β’ 1 radian=angle for arc length 1 at a distance 1.
4
Angular Displacement
πΆπ
π
π
π
π
π
π£
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β’ Angular velocity: the rate of change of the angular displacement:
π =βπ
βπ‘=π π‘ + βπ‘ β π(π‘)
βπ‘
β’ unit is πππ/π .
β’ The angular velocity vector is collinear with the rotation axis:
π = ππ’
5
Angular Velocity
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β’ Angular acceleration: the rate of change of the angular velocity:
πΌ =βπ
βπ‘=π π‘ + βπ‘ β π(π‘)
βπ‘
β’ Exactly like acceleration is to velocity in a trajectory.
β’ unit is πππ/π 2
6
Angular Acceleration
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β’ Deferring velocity from position and acceleration:
π(π‘ + βπ‘) = π(π‘) + πΌβπ‘
π =π(π‘ + βπ‘) + π(π‘)
2
βπ = 1 2 π(π‘ + βπ‘) + π(π‘) βπ‘
βπ = π(π‘)βπ‘ + 1 2πΌ βπ‘2
π(π‘ + βπ‘)2 = π(π‘)2 + 2πΌβπ
7
Equations of Motion
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β’ The centripetal force creates curved motion.
β’ Orthogonal to the velocity of the object.β’ Object is in orbit.
β’ Constant force circular rotation with constant tangential velocity.β’ Why?
8
Kinetics of Rotational Motion
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πΆ π(π‘)
π(π‘ + βπ‘)
π(π‘)
π(π‘)
β’ Every point on a rigid body moves with the same angularvelocity.
β’ Different points on a rigid body can have different tangential velocities.β’ Different radii
9
Tangential and Angular Velocities
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β’ Angular velocity vector: direction of rotation axis
β’ Tangential velocity vector: direction of movement direction
β’ Relation: π£ = π Γ π
Or:
π = π Γ π£
π2
β’ Note that π£ = π β π (abs. values), due to π = π β π.β’ Only the tangential part of any velocity matters for rotation!
10
Tangential Velocity
πΆπ
π
π
π
π
π
π£
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β’ Tangential acceleration defined the same way
π = πΌ β π
where πΌ is the angular acceleration.
β’ Similarly to the velocity equation π£ = π β π
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Tangential Acceleration
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β’ The centripetal acceleration, orthogonal to the velocity (=towards the axis of rotation), drives the rotational movement:
ππ =π£π‘2
π= ππ2
β’ What is the centrifugal force?
12
Centripetal Acceleration
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Rigid-Body Kinematicsβ’ Rigid bodies have dimensions, as opposed to single points.
β’ Relative distances between all points are invariant.
β’ Movement can be decomposed into two components:β’ Linear trajectory of any single points
β’ Relative rotation around the point
β’ Free body movement: around the center of mass (COM).
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β’ The measure of the amount of matter in the volume of an object:
π = π
π ππ
where π is the density at each location in the object volume π.
β’ Equivalently: a measure of resistance to motion or change in motion.
14
Mass
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β’ For a 3D object, mass is the integral over its volume:
π = π(π₯, π¦, π§) ππ₯ ππ¦ ππ§
β’ For uniform density objects (simple rigid bodies):π = π β π
where π is the density of the object and π is its volume.
15
Mass
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β’ The center of mass (COM) is the point at which all the mass can be considered to be βconcentratedββ’ obtained from the first moment, i.e. mass times distance.
β’ point of βbalanceβ of the object
β’ if uniform density, COM is also the centroid
16
Center of Mass
COM
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β’ Coordinate of the COM:
πΆππ =1
π π
π π β π ππ
where π is the position at each location in π.
β’ For a set of bodies:
πΆππ =1
π
π=1
π
ππππ
where ππ is the mass of each COM ππ in every body.
17
Center of Mass
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β’ Example for a body made of two spheres in 1D
π₯πΆππ =π1π₯1 +π2π₯2π1 +π2
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Center of Mass
COMππ
ππ
ππ
ππ
ππͺπΆπ΄
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β’ Quite easy to determine for primitive shapes
β’ But what about complex surface based models?
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Center of Mass
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β’ Remember linear momentum: π = π π£.
β’ Rotational motion also produces angular momentum of a any point on the object about the center of mass (or any relative point):
πΏ =
π
π Γ π ππ
β’ unit is π β π β π
β’ Angular momentum is a conserved quantity!β’ Just like the linear momentum.
β’ Remember: measured around a point.
20
Angular Momentum
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β’ Plugging in angular velocity:
π Γ π = π Γ π£ ππ = π Γ π Γ π ππ
β’ Integrating, we get:
πΏ = π
π Γ π Γ π ππ
β’ Note: The angular momentum and the angular velocity are not generally collinear!
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Angular Momentum
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Moment of Inertia
β’ Defining: π =π₯π¦π§
and π =ππ₯ππ¦ππ§
.
β’ Remember that the angular velocity is constant throughout the body.
β’ We get:
πΏ =
π¦2 + π§2 ππ₯ β π₯π¦ππ¦ β π₯π§ππ§
βπ¦π₯ππ₯ + π§2 + π₯2 ππ¦ β π¦π§ππ§
βπ§π₯ππ₯ β π§π¦ππ¦ + (π₯2 + π¦2)ππ§
ππ =
πΌπ₯π₯ βπΌπ₯π¦ βπΌπ₯π§βπΌπ¦π₯ πΌπ¦π¦ βπΌπ¦π§βπΌπ§π₯ βπΌπ§π¦ πΌπ§π§
ππ₯ππ¦ππ§
.
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β’ The inertia tensor only depends on the geometry of the object and the relative point (often, COM):
πΌπ₯π₯ = π¦2 + π§2 ππ
πΌπ¦π¦ = π§2 + π₯2 ππ
πΌπ§π§ = π₯2 + π¦2 ππ
23
Momentum and Inertia
πΌπ₯π¦ = πΌπ¦π₯ = π₯π¦ ππ
πΌπ₯π§ = πΌπ§π₯ = π₯π§ ππ
πΌπ¦π§ = πΌπ§π¦ = π¦π§ ππ
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β’ Finally the inertia can be expressed as the matrix
πΌ =
π¦2 + π§2 ππ β π₯π¦ ππ β π₯π§ ππ
β π₯π¦ ππ π§2 + π₯2 ππ β π¦π§ ππ
β π₯π§ ππ β π¦π§ ππ π₯2 + π¦2 ππ
β’ The diagonal elements are called the (principal) moment of inertia
β’ The off-diagonal elements are called products of inertia
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The Inertia Tensor
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β’ Equivalently, we separate mass elements to density and volume elements:
πΌ =
π
π π₯, π¦, π§
π¦2 + π§2 βπ₯π¦ βπ₯π§
βπ₯π¦ π§2 + π₯2 βπ¦π§
βπ₯π§ βπ¦π§ π₯2 + π¦2ππ₯ ππ¦ ππ§
β’ The diagonal elements: distances to the respective principal axes.
β’ The non-diagonal elements: products of the perpendicular distances to the respective planes.
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The Inertia Tensor
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β’ The moment of inertia of a rigid body is a measure of how much the mass of the body is spread out.
β’ A measure of the ability to resist change in rotational motion
β’ Defined with respect to a specific rotation axis π’.β’ Through the central rotation origin point.
β’ We have that: πΌπ’ = π ππ’2ππ
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Moment of Inertia
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Moment and Tensor
β’ We have: ππ’2 = π’ Γ π 2 = π’ππΌ(π)π’ for any point π. (Remember:
π is distance to origin).
β’ Thus:
πΌπ’ = π π’ππΌ(π)π’ ππ=π’ππΌπ’
β’ The scalar angular momentum around the axis is then πΏπ’ = πΌπ’π.
β’ Reducible to a planar problem (axis is the new z axis).
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β’ For a mass point:πΌ = π β ππ’
2
β’ For a collection of mass points:πΌ = πππππ
2
β’ For a continuous mass distribution on the plane:πΌ = π ππ’
2 ππ
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Moment of Inertia
ππ
π1π1
π2π2
π3 π3
πππ
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β’ For primitive shapes, the inertia can be expressed with the parameters of the shape
β’ Illustration on a solid sphereβ’ Calculating inertia by integration of thin discs along
one axis (e.g. π§).
β’ Surface equation: π₯2 + π¦2 + π§2 = π 2
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Inertia of Primitive Shapes
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β’ Distance to axis of rotation is the radius of the disc at the cross section along π§: π2
= π₯2 + π¦2 = π 2 β π§2.
β’ Summing moments of inertia of small cylinders of inertia πΌπ =π2π
2along the z-axis:
ππΌπ =1
2π2ππ =
1
2π2πππ =
1
2π2πππ2ππ§
β’ We get:
πΌπ =1
2ππ βπ π π4ππ§ =
1
2ππ βπ π π 2 β π§2 2ππ§ =
1
2ππ π 4π§ β 2π 2 π§3 3 + π§5 5 βπ
π
= ππ 1 β 2 3 + 1 5 π 5.
β’ as π = π 4 3 ππ 3, we finally obtain: πΌπ =2
5ππ 2.
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Inertia of Primitive Shapes
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β’ Solid sphere, radius π and mass π:
β’ Hollow sphere, radius π and mass π:
31
Inertia of Primitive Shapes
πΌ =
2
5ππ2 0 0
02
5ππ2 0
0 02
5ππ2
πΌ =
2
3ππ2 0 0
02
3ππ2 0
0 02
3ππ2
xz
y
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β’ Solid ellipsoid, semi-axes π, π, π and mass π:
β’ Solid box, width π€, height β, depth π and mass π:
32
Inertia of Primitive Shapes
πΌ =
1
5π(π2+π2) 0 0
01
5π(π2+π2) 0
0 01
5π(π2+π2)
πΌ =
1
12π(β2+π2) 0 0
01
12π(π€2+π2) 0
0 01
12π(π€2+β2)
xz
y
wd
h
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β’ Solid cylinder, radius π, height β and mass π:
β’ Hollow cylinder, radius π, height β and mass π:
33
Inertia of Primitive Shapes
πΌ =
1
12π(3π2+β2) 0 0
01
12π(3π2+β2) 0
0 01
2ππ2
πΌ =
1
12π(6π2+β2) 0 0
01
12π(6π2+β2) 0
0 0 ππ2
h
h
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β’ The object does not necessarily rotate around the center of mass.β’ Some point can be fixed!
β’ parallel axis theorem:
πΌπ£ = πΌπΆππ +ππ2
Where:
πΌπ£: inertia around axis π’.
πΌπΆππ inertia about a parallel axis through the COM.
π is the distance between the axes.
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Parallel-Axis Theorem
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β’ More generally, for point displacements: ππ₯ , ππ¦ , ππ§
35
Parallel-Axis Theorem
πΌπ₯π₯ = π¦2 + π§2 ππ +πππ₯
2
πΌπ¦π¦ = π§2 + π₯2 ππ +πππ¦
2
πΌπ§π§ = π₯2 + π¦2 ππ +πππ§
2
πΌπ₯π¦ = π₯π¦ ππ +πππ₯ππ¦
πΌπ₯π§ = π₯π§ ππ +πππ₯ππ§
πΌπ¦π§ = π¦π§ ππ +πππ¦ππ§
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β’ For a planar 2D object, the moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane is the sum of the moments of inertia of two perpendicular axes through the same point in the plane:
36
Perpendicular-Axis Theorem
π₯
π¦π§
πΌπ§ = πΌπ₯ + πΌπ¦for any planar object
π₯
π¦π§
πΌπ§ = 2πΌπ₯ = 2πΌπ¦for symmetrical objects
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β’ The inertia tensor is coordinate dependent.
β’ If π changes bases from body to world coordinate, the inertia tensor in world space is:
πΌπ€ππππ = π β πΌππππ¦ β π π
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Reference Frame
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Rigid-Body Dynamics
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β’ The torque is a force F applied at a distance r from a (held) center of mass.
β’ Tangential part causes tangential acceleration:
πΉπ‘ = π β ππ‘β’ Multiplying by the distance, the torque is:
π = πΉπ‘ β π = π β ππ‘ β π
β’ We know that ππ‘ = π β πΌ
β’ So we have π = π β π β πΌ β π = π β π2 β πΌβ’ unit is π β πβ’ rotates an object about its axis of rotation through the center of mass.
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Torque
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β’ A force in general is not applied in the direction of the tangent.
β’ The torque π is then defined as: π = π Γ πΉ
β’ The direction of the torque is perpendicular to both πΉ and π.
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Torque
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β’ The law πΉ = π β π has an equivalent with inertia tensor and torque:
π = πΌ πΌ
β’ Force linear acceleration
β’ Torque angular acceleration
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Newtonβs Second Law
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β’ Translating energy formulas to rotational motion.
β’ The rotational kinetic energy is defined as:
πΈπΎπ =1
2ππ β πΌ β π
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Rotational Kinetic Energy
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β’ Adding rotational kinetic energy
πΈπΎπ‘ π‘ + βπ‘ + πΈπ π‘ + βπ‘ + πΈπΎπ π‘ + βπ‘= πΈπΎπ‘ π‘ + πΈπ π‘ + πΈπΎπ(π‘) + πΈπ
β’ πΈπΎπ‘ is the translational kinetic energy.
β’ πΈπ is the potential energy.
β’ πΈπΎπ is the rotational kinetic energy.
β’ πΈπ the βlostβ energies (surface friction, air resistance etc.).
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Conservation of Mechanical Energy
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Torque and Angular Momentum
β’ Remember, in the linear case: πΉ =π π
ππ‘( π is the linear momentum).
β’ Similarly with torque and angular momentum:ππΏ
ππ‘=π π
ππ‘Γ π + π Γ
π π
ππ‘= π£ Γ π π£ + π Γ πΉ = 0 + π
β’ Force derivative of linear momentum.
β’ Torque derivative of angular momentum.
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β’ We may apply off-center forces for a very short amount of time.
β’ Such βangularβ impulse results in a change in angular momentum, i.e.in angular velocity:
πβπ‘ = βπΏ
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Impulse
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β’ A force can be applied anywhere on the object, producing also a rotational motion.
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Rigid Body Forces
π
πͺπΆπ΄
π
πΆ
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β’ Remember: the object moves linearly as the COM moves.
β’ Rotation: the movement for all points relatively to the COM.
β’ Total motion: sum of the two motions.
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Position of An Object
π
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β’ Most simple instance of a physics systemβ’ Each object (body) is a particle
β’ Each particle have forces acting upon itβ’ Constant, e.g. gravity
β’ Position dependent, e.g. force fields
β’ Velocity dependent, e.g. drag forces
β’ Event based, e.g. collision forces
β’ Restrictive, e.g. joint constraint
β’ So net force is a function πΉ ππ, π£, π,π, π‘, β¦
β’ Discretization: e.g., π π π ππ becomes a sum: π=1π π ππ ππ
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Particle System
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β’ Use the equations of motion to find the position of each particle at each frame.
β’ At the start of each frame:β’ Sum up all of the forces for each particle.
β’ From these forces compute the acceleration.
β’ Integrate into velocity and position.
β’ Rigid body: all particles receive the same rotation and translation.
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Particle System
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β’ When an object consists of multiple primitive shapes:β’ Calculate the individual inertia of each shape.β’ Use parallel axis theorem to transform to inertia about an
axis through the COM of the object.β’ Add the inertia matrices together.
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Complex Objects
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β’ A rigid body may not be free to move βon its ownβ.
β’ We wish to constrain its movement:β’ wheels on a chair
β’ human body parts
β’ trigger of a gun
β’ opening door
β’ actually almost anything you can think of in a game...
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Motion Constraints
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β’ To describe how a body can move in space, specify its degrees of freedom (DOF):β’ Translational
β’ Rotational
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Degree of freedom
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β’ A kinematic pair is a connection between two bodies that imposes constraints on their relative movementβ’ Lower pair, constraint on a point, line or plane:
β’ Revolute pair, or hinged joint: 1 rotational DOF.
β’ Prismatic joint, or slider: 1 translational DOF.
β’ Screw pair: 1 coordinated rotation/translation DOF.
β’ Cylindrical pair: 1 translational + 1 rotational DOF.
β’ Spherical pair, or ball-and-socket joint: 3 rotational DOF.
β’ Planar pair: 3 translational DOF.
β’ Higher pair, constraint on a curve or surface.
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Kinematic pair