roman, mediaeval and post-mediaeval metalworking debris at
TRANSCRIPT
Roman, Mediaeval and Post-Mediaeval metalworking debris | Specialist collections assessment 2012 Gerry Mcdonnell Archaeometals
Dr Gerry Mcdonnell, Gerry Mcdonnell archaeometals, January 2012 1
Contents
Section Heading Sub-Heading Page
1 Introduction 1
2 Methodology 2
3 Slag Classification 5
4 Results 7
4.1 Devon Archaeology: pre-1940 7
4.2 Devon Archaeology 1945-1969 7
4.3 Devon Archaeology 1970-1989 9
4.4 Devon Archaeology 1990-2012 14
4.5 Devon Archaeology Undated 21
4.6 Exeter Archaeology 1945-1969 24
4.7 Exeter Archaeology 1970-1989 27
4.8 Exeter Archaeology 1990-2012 38
5 Discussion 40
6 Recommendations 42
7 Conclusions 44
References 44
Appendix 1 Details of spreadsheets 46
Appendix 2 Pomeroy Wood, X-radiographs with possible hammer scale
48
1. Introduction:
The aim of the assessment was to rank the assessed metalworking debris according to the following
criteria.
(i) Provenance and history (resulting in ranking of importance in terms of international, national, local,
regional, community/group).
ii) Representativeness and best examples of type (locally, regionally, internationally,
community/group)
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iii) Importance to the study or development of archaeology and history in the UK, internationally, and
in particular in Exeter and Devon
Furthermore to categorise the assessed metalworking debris into:
i) Material which offers a high research potential
ii) Material which is unlikely to yield much useful information.
The museum holds 367 boxes of material that could be considered to contain metalworking debris.
Some boxes only contained metalworking debris, whilst other boxes contained a variety of material
types, in some cases with only one small bag of slag. The museum identified a proportion of the
archive to be assessed (Table 1), but due to the help provided it was possible to make an assessment
of all the material in the archive, with the proviso that not all the boxes of copper alloy casting mould
were examined. In addition an extensive programme of non-destructive X-ray Fluorescence (XRF)
analysis was undertaken.
Locality Excavation Dates Number of boxes
Exeter Archaeology 1945-1969 4
Exeter Archaeology 1990-2012 28
Devon Archaeology pre-1940 4
Devon Archaeology 1945-1969 5
Devon Archaeology 1970-1989 37
Devon Archaeology 1990-2012 51
Social and Industrial History 1
Table 1 Number of boxes by locality and date that were identified for assessment (Total 130 Boxes).
2. Methodology:
The basis of the examination was visual identification of the material. Some level of quantification
was also provided, but as the assessment progressed, the bags were either weighed on scales or for
large heavy boxes of material, the weight was estimated. Hence, there is a discrepancy in data detail
between the material examined in the initial stages and that examined in the latter part of the
assessment. The material in the bags were not examined in great detail, and so the dominant type
of slag in a bag was identified, for example a bag containing smithing slag lumps may also contain
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pieces of hearth lining etc. Large bags containing smithing debris were checked with a magnet to
assess the presence or absence of hammer scale. The data was entered into an Excel spreadsheet,
and the data manipulated to generate an overview of each site details of spreadsheets are given in
Appendix 1. The sites are discussed in Section 4, Results, and a summary of the site, including
material significance and research potential is provided. The assessment of national or regional
significance depended on a number of factors. These included:
Bronze Age
Metalworking activity is automatically of regional and national significance.
Iron Age
Non-ferrous smelting – regional and national importance
Non-ferrous smithing e.g. casting, - regional significance, but could be national if significant mould
fragments survive
Iron smelting regional and national significant
Iron smithing – if the assemblage is complete, and by this it contains most of the smithing diagnostic
residues in quantity, then it is of regional and national importance. If its partial or in small quantity
then it is of regional significance.
However iron objects rarely survive on Iron Age sites, so the recovery of iron smithing debris is the
best indicator of consumption of iron on Iron Age sites, i.e. does a greater quantity of smithing activity
occur on larger/higher status sites etc.
Roman Period
Non-ferrous smelting – regional and national importance
Non-ferrous smithing e.g. casting, - if in significant range and quantity, regional significance, but
could be national if in large quantities and securely dated.
Iron smelting - regional significance if full assemblage present. If the morphology is typical of Iron
Age smelting as opposed to the classic Roman ‘tap slag’ then the date could be significant and the
assemblage could rise to national importance.
Iron smithing – if the assemblage is complete, and in in quantity, then it is of regional importance. A
complete smithy, with building evidence would be of national significance.
Early Medieval, Medieval and Post-medieval Periods
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Non-ferrous smelting – regional and national importance
Non-ferrous smithing e.g. casting, - if in significant range and quantity, regional significance, but
could be national if in large quantities and securely dated.
Iron smelting - regional significance if significant parts of the assemblage are present. If the
assemblage was complete and large then the assemblage would rise to national importance.
Iron smithing – if the assemblage is complete, and in quantity, then it is of regional importance. A
complete smithy, with building evidence would be of national significance.
The research potential reflects the regional and national importance. The research potential
(high/low) was assessed both in terms of archaeometallurgical criteria (see Bayley et al. 2008) and
the archaeological data where available. The research potential may apply to the
archaeometallurgical material or to the landscape.
The assessment of the relevance of an assemblage to Community/Group Significance is harder to
assess. This field was not commented upon, but those with research potential could be steered to
relevant groups.
The material on display in the gallery was recorded separately, but is commented on if relevant in the
site summaries. One box (EX 3141) contained one or more bags of material from 18 sites. These
make no change to the overall interpretation or status of those sites. This material could either be re-
boxed to the correct box or disposed of.
XRF Methodology
The instrument is a Bruker S1 Turbosdr hand-held XRF instrument operating at 40kV. A beam of x-
rays is generated in the instrument and focussed on the sample, the x-rays interact with the
elements present in the sample resulting in the emission of secondary x-rays which are characteristic
(in terms of their energy and wavelength) of the elements present in the sample. The energy of the
secondary x-rays are measured and a spectrum generated showing a level of background noise with
peaks of the elements present superimposed on the background noise. Samples will analysed for 30
live seconds, the spectrum is stored and a normalised composition determined using a bespoke
Bruker Fundamental Parameters Programme (R-Alloys FP). All elements heavier than calcium (Ca,
Z=20), can be detected. The calculated two-sigma error on each element is calculated and overall
show values of the order of +/- 0.2%. The data is normalised and hence gives data showing relative
percentage of detected elements, clearly the dominant elements in a crucible fragment are oxygen,
aluminium and silicon which are not detected. The data is generated in a comma delimited file and
then exported to an Excel spreadsheet, where the data is examined and relevant tables generated.
The technique is non-destructive.
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3 Slag classification:
The material was visually examined and the classification is based solely on morphology. In general
metalworking and other debris are divided into THREE broad groups. First are the diagnostic ferrous
material which can be attributed to a particular industrial process; these comprise ores and the
ironworking slags, i.e. smelting and smithing slags. The second group, are the diagnostic non-ferrous
slags which can be attributed to a particular industrial process; these comprise the crucibles, moulds,
metal spills etc. Thirdly, the non-diagnostic slags, could have been generated by a number of
different processes but show no diagnostic characteristic that can identify the process. In many cases
the non-diagnostic residues, e.g. hearth or furnace lining, may be ascribed to a particular process
through archaeological association. The residue classifications are defined below.
3.1. Diagnostic ferrous slags and residues:
Ore - Iron rich natural mineral, may be identifiable to a particular type e.g. Goethite or hematite
Tap Slag - this smelting slag is characterised by its ropey flowed morphology, indicating a free
flowing slag. The slag is normally black in colour. The upper surface is smooth, sometimes with
ripples. Large gas bubbles may occur.
Smelting Slag - this smelting slag is characterised by its viscous appearance (compared with the
relative free flowing morphology of smelting tap slags), and often the presence of large charcoal
impressions (approximately 25 mm in square section and at least 30 mm long).
Smithing Slag - randomly shaped pieces of iron silicate slag generated by the smithing process. In
general slag is described as smithing slag unless there is good evidence to indicate that it derived
from the smelting process.
Hearth Bottom - a plano-convex accumulation of iron silicate slag formed in the smithing hearth.
Metal – metallic iron fragments, that lack a distinctive morphology of an artefact and may be
fragments e.g. of bloom, the raw metal extracted from the furnace.
Hammer Scale - there are two forms of hammer scale, flake and spheroidal. During heating a piece
of iron may develop a thin skin of scale, which is predominantly iron oxide. This will break from the
metal during hammering, and normally falls to the ground as small (usually less than 5 mm long)
fishscale - like flakes. During fire welding, the mechanical joining of two pieces of metal at high
temperature, the surfaces to be joined will have been cleaned by the addition of a flux (usually sand).
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The flux reacts with any scale present to form a thin film of liquid slag. When the pieces are
hammered together the slag is expelled, and during flight forms balls of liquid slag (<10 mm diameter)
and freeze. Both these micro—slags are generated during smithing, and are normally deposited
around the working area (around the anvil). The presence of hammer scale is therefore a strong
indicator that smithing (primary or secondary) was carried out on the site. Their small size precludes
their hand recovery, and they are usually recovered during soil sample sieving (for environmental
data). They are therefore not recorded in the context by context listing of the slags, but are noted
when present.
Cinder - high silica content smithing slag, often formed at the reaction zone between the smithing
slag and the hearth lining.
3.2 Diagnostic non-ferrous slags and residues:
Native Metal – naturally occurring metal, metals normally occur as minerals, e.g. oxides, sulphides
etc. In certain circumstances the metal occurs in the metallic form .
Ore – ores of copper, tin, lead and other non-ferrous metals.
Crucible – ceramic vessels in which the metal or alloy was melted.
Mould - the shape usually made of clay, sane or stone into which the metal or alloy is poured
Cupellation and Parting– special processes to extract silver from base metals (e.g. lead or copper -
cupellation). Separation of gold from silver (parting).
Slags with non-ferrous corrosion – slag formed either in hearths or from other material with copper
alloy corrosion (green).
Metal Spills – frozen spills of molten metal.
Scrap – broken fragments of metal.
3.3 Non-diagnostic slags and residues: Hearth or Furnace Lining - the clay lining of an industrial hearth, furnace or kiln that has a vitrified or
slag-attacked face. It is not possible to distinguish between furnace and hearth lining. Many of the
lining fragments were attacked by slag and some were grey in colour.
Cinder - high silica-content slag that can either be formed as described above or by high
temperature reaction between silica and ferruginous material. It can be considered either a non—
diagnostic slag or a diagnostic slag depending on its iron content and morphology.
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Other Material comprised possible, ferruginous concretions (probably naturally formed iron rich
precipitates, although they may have formed after the archaeological deposits), fragments of fired
clay, charcoal fragments and burnt stone.
4 Results
4.1 Devon Archaeology: pre-1940
4.1.1 Hembury (1934, 1935 and 1980-83)
Evidence – copper alloy casting mould fragments (XRF 457, no copper alloy elements detected at
significant levels), also iron smelting slag (Iron Age) iron ore, and possible SSL fragments. Note
Todd (2007) states a fabrica was present in the Roman Fort constructed on the site.
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - 100%.
4.1.2 Holcombe Villa (pre- 1940) and 1969-75
Evidence – c. 4kg of smithing debris, and copper ingot (XRF 468, leaded brass with minor tin levels)
and crucible or mould fragment (XRF 469, cooper, zinc, tin, antimony and lead were detected)).
Blacksmithing tools including tongs are on display in the gallery (Gallery LR62-70).
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - 100%.
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4.2 Devon Archaeology 1945-1969:
4.2.1 Blackbury Castle (1952-54)
Evidence – small quantity of iron smithing slag
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No, though smithing is the most important craft in medieval castles.
Retention Advice – 100%, evidence of smithing in the castle.
4.2.2 Dean Moor (1954-56)
Evidence – iron ore (1kg) and iron smelting slag (0.3kg), whetstones also found. Cassiterite nodule.
A sample of slag was on display in the Gallery (Gallery LP41) and described as tin slag, but XRF
analysis (XRF 443 and 444) showed the slag to be iron slag.
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.2.3 Kes Tor 1951-52
Evidence – iron smelting slag (Iron Age. One sample has been cut and a thick section removed by PC
Peter Crew?), and refers to a report on page 59, but no details of publication. Two large soil samples
E quarter Pound Hut furnace soil sample checked for hammer scale none, lots of magnetic material.
Sample of 1mm sieve also had a high magnetic fraction, no hammer scale. One piece of cassiterite
confirmed by original Kes Tor report and XRF analysis (XRF 466).
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
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Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice – 100%, could reduce soil sample if analysed for environmental evidence.
4.2.4 Seaton Villa (1969)
Evidence – small amount of iron smithing slag debris, some hearth lining and a lead spill. One iron
artefact that should be placed in stable storage.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100%, evidence of smithing activity at the villa.
4.3 Devon Archaeology 1970-1989
4.3.1 Berry Meadow Kingsteignton (1985)
Evidence – smithing debris including a high iron content hearth bottom that requires stable storage.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100%, until context understood.
4.3.2 Buckfast Abbey (1980-1990)
Evidence – Over 20kg of smithing debris, smithing area marked on site plan, but these look like pits.
Slag sent to AML but no report. Also c 8kg smithing debris from Southgate excavation (1991).
National Significance – Yes largest quantity of smithing debris from a Cistercian Abbey in Britain.
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
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Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.3.3 Bury Baron (watching brief 1984-85)
Evidence – Non-Diagnostic Cinder
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – Discard.
4.3.4 Chicacott, Oakhampton Fort (1st century) (1976-1977)
Evidence – Non-Diagnostic Cinder
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Discard.
4.3.5 Crediton (1986)
Evidence – not slag corroded iron objects, but not in stable storage.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – If regarded as a significant iron object then place in stable storage, if not discard.
4.3.6 Crediton Hayward’s School 2002
Evidence – 2 fragments of post-medieval smithing slag and corroded iron objects, but not in stable
storage.
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National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – Discard.
4.3.7 Dainton 1975
Evidence – Bronze Age casting debris see Nedham et al (1980). The assemblage includes circa 13
soil samples, visually there is no evidence of copper alloy staining. Analysis (XRF 492) of one topsoil
sample (0-10cm depth) detected no copper but some zinc. Analysis (XRF 493) of sample 414-114 (8-
20cm depth) detected copper and zinc, (note zinc may derive from the plastic bag) . XRF screening
of all soil samples could reduce the volume of samples significantly. A mould fragment was
analysed (XRF 470-472), detected copper, zinc and tin as major elements.
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance -Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice – Retain all moulds etc., check all soil samples for metallurgy (XRF) and
environmental evidence.
4.3.8 Exmouth (1982-84)
Evidence – smithing slag debris, and a copper alloy ingot (XRF 494) with a copper/antimony/tin/lead
alloy of similar composition to the alloys used in the cauldron casting at Cowick Street (Dungworth in
Blaylock 2000).
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes for the ingot
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - re-assess after review of smithing activity across town.
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4.3.9 Hayes Farm, Clyst Honiton (1987) Evidence – not metallurgical, burnt material
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – Discard.
4.3.10 Hayne Farm, Uffculme ( ? )
Evidence – 2 lumps of iron tap slag
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance - Yes
Research Potential - Yes, if evidence of an ironworking site, check HER.
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.3.11 Lower Netherton (1989)
Evidence – dribble of tapped iron smelting slag (XRF 495).
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes, if dated
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes if dated
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.3.12 Newton Abbot (1976, 1980-81, 1983)
Evidence – c. 18kg of smithing debris
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
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Research Potential - Yes, to synthesise data from all 3 sites
Retention Advice - re-asses after review of smithing activity across the town.
4.3.13 Otterton Point (1989)
Evidence – fragment of hearth lining, during field-walking recovered one fragment smithing slag
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance - No
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – Discard.
4.3.14 Overand, Thorverton (1984)
Evidence – iron smelting slag and lining, but on roadway, hence may be being used as hard-core, but
site will be near-by.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance –Yes, if smelting site could be located.
Community/Group Significance - yes
Research Potential – Yes, fieldwork to locate site.
Retention Advice – 100% until site is defined.
4.3.15 Tiverton (1973-1974)
Evidence – classic tap slag, adjacent to river, water-powered? (1973), frags of SSL (1974)
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes, possibly water-powered
Retention Advice - 100% until site is defined.
4.3.16 Totnes 39 Fore Street (1982)
Evidence – 5 fragments of smithing slag
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National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – Needs further information.
4.4 Devon Archaeology 1990-2012
4.4.1 A30 Excavation (1996-9) A series of excavations along the A30 Honiton to Exeter improvement scheme were excavated
between 1996-9 and were published in 1999 (Fitzpatrick et al 1999). The slags were reported on but
no detailed analyses were undertaken. Field-walking in 1994 prior to the development recovered
some slags including iron smelting tap slag. The sites are summarised in Table 2. The Black Horse
site produced some smelting slag probably dating to the Iron Age. This indicates, as has been
observed in other parts of the country that Iron Age societies exploited low lying bog ores as the main
ore source. Hence the site is of Regional Significance as an indicator of the location of the Iron Age
smelting industry. Pomeroy Wood produced extensive evidence for iron smithing, in excess of 10kg
of smithing debris including smithing slag lumps (SSL), hearth bottoms (HB) and hearth lining. The
material was reported by Phil Andrews (Andrews 1999) but a cursory re-examination of the material
and reading the report suggests that the excavation encountered a smithy which was not recognised.
Some bags were tested for hammer-scale, but as the slag appears to have been washed, none was
recovered. The X-radiographs of the iron objects recovered from Pomeroy Wood held at the County
Archive Offices were examined and features, probably entrapped hammers-scale were observed in
the corrosion products of some items (details provided in Appendix 2). It was also noted that some
radiographs may show the presence of copper alloy debris. Furthermore, cursory examination of the
report on the iron objects shows a marked increase in the number of objects in Phase 4i and 4ii in
which the majority of the slag was recovered. It is also significant that the majority of bar and rod
shaped items and unidentified items occurred in the same phases. Also two whetstones (context
4650, 4952, box DEV 1213) both fine-grained, both large size were recovered. These data strongly
indicate that a smithy was excavated or very close to the areas excavated. There was no programme
for the recovery of hammerscale during the excavation or during the examination of the large number
of environmental samples processed. In one case the environmental record indicates that it was
taken to recover hammerscale but there is no record as to whether it was recognised (Feature 4123,
Context 4130, Sample 1777, File 57, Archive box 56). The site lies in the valley below the Blackdown
Hills the site of a major Roman iron industry and hence is of major significance in researching the
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Roman ironworking landscape. The Pomeroy Wood industrial residues and ironwork deserve further
research.
Retention – as a broad sweep through Devon, all material should be retained, until sites are
reviewed.
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Site Period Material
Type
National
Significance
Regional
Significance
Research
Black
Horse
Iron Age Iron
Smelting &
Smithing
N Y Y
Castle Hill ? Iron
smelting
N N N
Fair Oak ? Non-
diagnostic
N N N
Gittisham
Forge
? Iron
smithing
N Y? Y?
Haynes
Lane
? Iron
smithing
N N N
Long
Range
? Iron
smithing
N N N
Pomeroy
Wood
Roman Iron
Smithing
Y Y Y
Table 2 Summary of the A30 Sites
4.4.2 Ash Farm, Ottery St Mary (1993)
Evidence – copper ingot s (XRF 464 and 465), both copper, and spill of lead, plus ingot of lead
National Significance - Yes, if date could be established
Regional Significance – Yes, if date could be established
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice – 100%.
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4.4.3 Beer Head (1991)
Evidence – hematite iron ore, iron working slag, some is smithing some could be smelting.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Depends on the date of the slag and if it is smelting slag
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Requires research to resolve the slag type
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.4.4 Bolham Roman Fort near Tiverton (1993?)
Evidence – Iron Age iron smelting slag. Reported on by Budd in Maxfield (1991, 86-9). Report lacks a
context listing of the material, unless in archive. Deserves reconsideration in light of current
knowledge.
National Significance – Yes, IA smelting
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes for overviews of IA iron production
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.4.5 Bridestow (1990-2012)
Evidence – copper ingot (XRF 461)
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.4.6 Church Field Alfington (1990)
Evidence – iron tap smelting slag
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National Significance - No
Regional Significance -Yes
Community/Group Significance - Yes
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.4.7 Crib House, Membury (Blackdown Hills) (1993)
Evidence – Blackdown Hills iron ore, i.e. natural – recommend disposal, with the exception of piece in
bag labelled tithe apportionment no. 293/4 a ropey back vitreous slag which analyses (XRF 474-5),
detected copper and zinc.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – disposal of iron ore, retain vitreous slag. The ore should be utilised in reference
collection and teaching collections.
4.4.8 Cullompton (Roman Fort) (1992)
Evidence – small lump of smithing slag and a haematite nodule
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100% as reminder of importance of smithing in a Roman Fort.
4.4.9 Dunkeswell Abbey (2000?)
Evidence – bog ore and one piece of iron smelting slag
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes if smelting slag can be phased
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Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes, if there is more material
Retention Advice – 100% until points above resolved.
4.4.10 Gaffers Farm (Haycroft Farm), Membury (2000-2001)
Evidence – modern clinker, probably from firebox or cooking range
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100% for reference collection/teaching collection.
4.4.11 Hemyock ( ? )
Evidence – classic iron tap slag
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes,
Community/Group Significance - Yes
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice – 100%
4.4.13 Raddon Hill (1994)
Evidence – ironworking slag, possibly smelting, check Gent and Quinnell 2000.
National Significance – Yes the slag in Context Pit 781, if dated to c. 800-400 Bc is some of the
earliest in Britain if iron smelting slag and is early (Gent and Quinnell 2000, p21 last few lines)
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes, if not done in detail in publication
Retention Advice – 100%.
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Dr Gerry Mcdonnell, Gerry Mcdonnell archaeometals, January 2012 20
4.4.13 Stockland (Fieldwalking near Blackdown hills) ( ? ) Evidence – medieval iron smelting tap slag, and iron ore, plus a piece of copper ore (XRF 473)
which confirmed the identification.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes, for both finds
Community/Group Significance - Yes
Research Potential - Yes, e.g. geophysics
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.4.14 Torbay (1990-2012) Evidence – two ingots (XRF 460-462), one copper , one copper arsenic.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes.
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes, if dating could be secured, arsenic suggest BA
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.4.15 Totnes Castle (1999)
Evidence – six small fragments of smithing slag from a watching brief. Smithing is the most important
craft in medieval castles.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100% as evidence of smithing in castles.
4.4.16 Totnes Fire (1991) Evidence – one fragment of smithing slag
National Significance - No
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Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – Discard.
4.4.17 Wolborough Street West, NCP Car Park, Newton Abbot (2005)
Evidence – no metallurgical material
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – Discard.
4.4.18 Woodbury Great Close, Axminster (1990)
Evidence –smithing slag debris including a piece of hearth lining with arc of blow hole .
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100%, the only blow hole so keep for reference collection.
4.5 Devon Archaeology – undated
4.5.1 Bigbury Bay
Evidence – tin ingots on display in the gallery (Gallery EP157 and EP158), one h-shaped ingot
(EP158) was analysed (XRF435) and shown to be pure tin.
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
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Community/Group Significance - Yes
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.5.2 Drewsteignton
Evidence – palstave (Gallery EP137), analysed (XRF 436)
National Significance – Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - 100%.
4.5.3 Escott House
Evidence – Bronze Age Hoard, (XRF 508 and 509), both analyses showed very high tin levels
indicative of either corrosion effects or that the original surface was tinned.
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - 100%.
4.5.4 Gitisham Barrow 3
Evidence – 4 copper alloy ingots (LP6), analysed (XRF439 – 442), one was arsenical copper (LP6-1),
whilst two others were copper.
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
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Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - 100%.
4.5.5 Morchard Bishop
Evidence – ingot on display in gallery (Gallery EP156), analysed (XRF434) showed it to be copper
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - 100%.
4.5.6 Talaton
Evidence – a copper alloy scrap hoards (EP124), analysed (XRF 437 and 438) showing the
fragments to be copper.
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - 100%.
4.5.7 Washfield
Evidence – worked copper alloy sheet, showing stress cracking of hammering would then be
annealed (Gallery LP29), analysis (XRF445) identified the alloy as tin bronze.
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
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Retention Advice - 100%.
4.6 Exeter Archaeology 1945-1969
4.6.1 Banfylde House (1945-47)
Evidence –smithing debris
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100% Historical significance.
4.6.2 Bartholomew Street East (1959)
See Exeter Archaeology 1970-1989.
4.6.3 Bedford Street (1945-47)
Evidence – kiln furniture
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – not metallurgical.
4.6.5 DAES 1930
Evidence –thought to be a crucible, but XRF (XRF 448) detected no non-ferrous metals, therefore not
a crucible or mould.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
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Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - 100% Historical significance.
4.6.5 Exeter (1945-47)
Evidence – crucible (XRF 452) detected minor zinc, an object described as a stone mould but XRF
(XRF 452, 453 and 454) showed higher copper trace on exterior, possibly a pivot base.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.6.6 Exeter locality unknown ( ? )
Evidence – crucible (XRF 449), minor trace of copper, zinc and lead were detected.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.6.7 Gaters (1945-47)
Evidence – Non-diagnostic cinder
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
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Retention Advice - 100% Historical significance.
4.6.8 South Gate (1964, 1965, & 1968)
Evidence – fragment of hearth lining, iron object, soil sample from a feature described as “furnace
under rampart”. Checked for hammerscale, none recovered, but significant magnetic content from
burning. 1 heavily corroded obj in 2 parts.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - 100% Historical significance?
4.6.9 St Georges (1945-47)
Evidence – location description "soil sample under gravel debris from Cu alloy working", potential
remnants of working floor, droplets of Cu alloy. Analyses (XRF 456, 457 and 463) detected copper
with minor lead. One piece of Egyptian blue. Evidence of Egyptian blue manufacture?
National Significance – Yes if Egyptian blue manufacture
Regional Significance - Yes if Egyptian blue manufacture
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes if Egyptian blue manufacture
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.6.10 Waterbeer Street (1888)
Evidence – described as a crucible, but probably a drug jar (T. Cadbury), analyses (XRF 450)
detected lead and minor traces of zinc and arsenic.
National Significance - ?
Regional Significance - ?
Community/Group Significance -
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Research Potential - ?
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.7 Exeter Archaeology 1970-1989
4.7.1 Acorn Street (1988) Evidence – scatter of smithing slag in Roman, medieval and later medieval levels. One piece of
copper alloy stained slag in the medieval phase.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – asses in light of review of smithing across the city.
4.7.2 Albany Road (1978-84)
Evidence – smithing debris, currently un-phased, possibly Roman and medieval. Large assemblage
of copper alloy casting debris in medieval layers.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes (copper alloy casting)
Community/Group Significance – Yes – as examples of debris type.
Research Potential - Yes –part of an overview of medieval non-ferrous metalworking in Exeter
Retention Advice - asses in light of review of smithing across the city.
4.7.3 Bartholomew Street East (1980)
Evidence – c. 5kg of smithing debris, multi-period site but material is currently un-phased. An object
described as a tuyere was probably daub (XRF 458 and 459).
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – yes if phased and distribution of smithing activity within the Roman or
medieval settlements is researched
Community/Group Significance -
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Research Potential - yes, see regional Significance
Retention Advice - asses in light of review of smithing across the city.
4.7.4 Bartholomew Street West (1974)
Evidence – c 6kg of smithing debris, multi-period site but material is currently un-phased, plus sprue.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - yes if phased and distribution of smithing activity within the Roman or
medieval settlements is researched
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - yes, see Regional Significance
Retention Advice - asses in light of review of smithing across the city.
4.7.5 Bowhill House (1977) Evidence – a little smithing slag, plus possible glass cullet (XRF 497, high manganese).
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - asses in light of review of smithing across the city.
4.7.6 Cathedral Close (1971-6 & 1994)
Evidence – c. 14kg of smithing debris, medieval bell casting.
National Significance – Yes for bell casting
Regional Significance - Yes for bell casting, and yes for smithing to research distribution of smithing
activity in Roman and/or medieval Exeter.
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential – Yes
Retention Advice -
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4.7.7 Cricklepit Mill (1989-90)
Evidence – one fragment of post-medieval smithing slag.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Discard .
4.7.8 Cricklepit Street (1974 & 1985)
Evidence – fragments of smithing slag and corroded iron objects.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice -
4.7.9 Exe Bridge (1975-76)
Evidence – smithing slag and copper alloy working. Copper alloy strip (L462, XRF 482) was arsenical
copper with a trace of tin. Another (strip L461 XRF 483) was leaded gunmetal. A piece of glazed
lining detected copper, tin and antimony (XRF 496).
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes, distribution of smithing and copper alloy casting across the city
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes, copper alloy casting across the city
Retention Advice - Reconsider after review of smithing and cu alloy working across the city after
mould assessment .
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4.7.10 Exe Street (1985-86)
Evidence – Over 20kg of smithing debris, some copper alloy stained slag.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes, distribution of smithing activity across the city.
Retention Advice - Reconsider after review of smithing and cu alloy working across the city after
mould assessment.
4.7.11 Exeter Excavations (1970-81)
Evidence – Roman crucibles returned from J Bailey 2003
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Ye, evidence of copper alloy production across Exeter
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes, alloy type, use of Antimony.
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.7.12 Flowerpot (1987)
Evidence – c. 3kg of smithing slag
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.7.13 Friernhay Street (1981)
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Evidence – several kg of smithing debris, possibly Roman military, some evidence of copper alloy
working reported on by Bayley (1989b). A tuyere fragment was analysed (XRF 480) and detected
copper, zinc, silver and lead.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes, if Roman military
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes, if Roman military
Retention Advice - Reconsider after review of smithing and cu alloy working across the city after
mould assessment.
4.7.14 Goldsmith Street (1971-72)
Evidence – c 20kg of smithing debris, evidence of copper alloy working, including possible parting
vessel (XRF 489), and detected copper, zinc and silver. One crucible sherd (XRF 488) detected
copper and silver, another (crucible 49-36-4) and analyses (XRF 500-502), detected major zinc, with
minor copper, silver, tin, antimony, and lead. Unclear about phasing, but close to Fort fabrica.
National Significance – Yes , crucibles Saxo-Norman
Regional Significance - Yes if material can be stratified
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes if material can be stratified
Retention Advice - Reconsider after review of smithing and cu alloy working across the city after
mould assessment.
4.7.15 Haven Banks (1988)
Evidence – 0.5kg of smithing debris
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
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4.7.16 High Street Wheatons (1927), (1975-6) 197 High Street ( ? ), and 41-2 High Street (1980) High Street, Woolworths (1933)
Evidence – small quantity of smithing slag and a few crucible sherds. The pilgrim mould in the gallery
(Gallery LM66) was recovered from the Woolworths site and was analysed (XRF447) and zinc, gold,
mercury and lead were detected. A crucible was recovered from Wheatons (XRF 451) and only
minor zinc was detected. At 197 High Street a crucible sherd was recovered and analysis (XRF 486
and 487) detected zinc and silver with minor levels of copper and lead.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - Reconsider after review of smithing and cu alloy working across the city after
mould assessment .
4.7.17 Holloway Street (1974)
Evidence – Smithing slag (un-weighed, 42 small bags). Un-phased.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.7.18 Katharine’s Priory (1976-79)
Evidence – small amount of smithing slag.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
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4.7.19 King Street 5-6 ( ? )
Evidence – small amount of smithing slag (fragments).
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.7.20 Lower Coombe Street (1989-90)
Evidence – c. 1kg of Roman smithing slag
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.7.21 Magdalene Street (1976 and 1986-88)
Evidence – 0.5kg of medieval smithing slag, c 8kg of post-medieval smithing slag (residual?), plus
some copper alloy stained slag.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Reconsider after review of smithing and cu alloy working across the city after
mould assessment.
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4.7.22 Mermaid Yard (1977) Evidence – c. 10kg of copper alloy stained slag indicating copper alloy working, medieval bell
founding.
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - Reconsider after review of cu alloy working across the city after mould
assessment.
4.7.23 Nelson Close (Topsham Fort) (Roman fort) (? )
Evidence – a few fragments of smithing slag.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – 100% evidence of smithing in Fort.
4.7.24 North Gate ( ? ) Evidence – small quantity of smithing slag.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance - No
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.7.25 North Street (1971) Evidence – c. 3kg of smithing slag and iron artefact fragments.
National Significance - No
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Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance - No
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.7.26 Paul Street (1982-85)
Evidence – Roman – smithing slag; medieval c.7kg smithing debris; post-medieval c. 2kg of
smithing slag (residual?). Extensive evidence for medieval casting, including bells. Material includes
hearth structure, spills of alloy (one large one, was leaded gunmetal (XRF 481), copper alloy stained
slag and mould fragments.
National Significance - Yes
Regional Significance - yes
Community/Group Significance - Yes
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - Reconsider after review of smithing and cu alloy working across the city after
mould assessment.
4.7.27 Preston Street (1976-77)
Evidence – c. 2kg of iron smithing slag and 2kg of copper alloy stained slag indicating copper alloy
casting, plus c 0.5kh of heath lining some stained with copper alloy. Un-phased.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes for distribution of copper alloy working in the city
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - Reconsider after review of smithing and cu alloy working across the city after
mould assessment.
4.7.28 Quay (1985-86)
Evidence – corroded iron objects
National Significance - No
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Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – either store iron objects in suitable conditions or discard.
4.7.29 Queen Street (1978-79)
Evidence – c. 0.4kg of smithing debris
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.7.30 Rack Street (1974-78)
Evidence – c 10kg of smithing debris, including 3 possible bloom fragments (Box EX3168), which
must be extracted and conserved.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance –Yes, if phasing is available
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes, check ironwork catalogue
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city, possible bloom fragments
should be analysed if phased.
4.7.31 Shooting Marsh Stile (1984)
Evidence – 12kg of smithing debris and a small amount of copper alloy stained slag, no report, un-
phased.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes, copper alloy working in Exeter
Community/Group Significance -
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Research Potential - Yes, copper alloy working in Exeter
Retention Advice - Reconsider after review of smithing and cu alloy working across the city after
mould assessment.
4.7.32 Southernhay Gardens (1974) Evidence – non-diagnostic “blown” fired clay
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – retain for reference collection.
4.7.33 Trichay Street (1972-74) Evidence – site of the Roman fort fabrica, significant smithing evidence, including smithing slag and
hearth bottoms. Iron artefact assemblage must be examined for rods, bars, examination of the x-
radiographs showed presence of hammerscale and copper alloy droplets. Evidence of copper alloy
working. Some material reported by Wilthew (1986) and Bayley (1989a). A copper spill (SFN 469)
was shown to be leaded tin bronze (XRF 477), and another (SFN 471) was pure copper (XRF 478).
A copper alloy sheet (SFN 466) was gunmetal (Cu/Zn/Sn, XRF 479). A mould was analysed (XRF
484 and 485) detected copper and silver.
National Significance - yes
Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice – 100%.
4.7.34 Valiant Soldier (1973-1974)
Evidence – c. 3kg of smithing debris, plus lots of iron artefacts, un-phased.
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - yes
Community/Group Significance -
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Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.7.35 Waterbeer Street (1975)
Evidence – c 1kg of smithing debris
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.8 Exeter Archaeology 1990-2012
4.8.1 Bonhay Road (2000)
Evidence – one thin hearth bottom
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.8.2 Cowick Street (1999-2000)
Evidence – large assemblage of cauldron mould fragments from late medieval contexts. Only a few
boxes examined and a selected number of pieces were analysed (XRF 506-7, 510-514) and showed
varying results but copper, zinc, tin arsenic and lead were detected.. Not fully assessed, see proposal
on mould retention. Also the manila mould on show in the gallery (Gallery S&G154) was analysed
(XRF 503 and 504) and showed the presence of copper and lead with minor arsenic. , as well as a
manila (122 1993.8) (XRF505), the manila was not from Exeter but an unknown location and was
copper, tin with significant lead and minor arsenic.
National Significance - Yes
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Regional Significance - Yes
Community/Group Significance - Yes
Research Potential - Yes
Retention Advice - reviewed after overall Exeter mould assessment.
4.8.3 Exeter Road Topsham ( ? )
Evidence – modern clinker
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice – Discard.
4.8.4 Fishers Square ( ? )
Evidence – 2 fragments of smithing slag
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.8.5 Market Street and Smythen Street (1995-99)
Evidence – c. 3kg of smithing debris
National Significance - No
Regional Significance - No
Community/Group Significance -
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Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
4.8.6 Northcott Warehouse ( ? )
Evidence – c. 3kg of smithing slag
National Significance - No
Regional Significance – Yes if phased
Community/Group Significance -
Research Potential - No
Retention Advice - Re-asses after review of smithing activity across city.
5 Discussion
The Royal Albert Memorial Museum metallurgical collection contains a wide range of material of
national and regional significance. Material from 115 sites contained in c. 223 boxes was examined.
The material presents an excellent record of the history of metal production and metalworking in the
British Isles, but with some notable and important omissions, discussed below. The results are
summarised in Table 3. The evidence from the main periods is discussed, with the dating
information available.
Period Non-
ferrous
Smelting
Non-
ferrous
Working
Iron
Smelting
Iron
Smithing
Bronze Age Yes
Iron Age Yes Yes
Roman Yes Yes Yes
early Medieval
Medieval Yes Yes Yes
Post-Medieval Yes Yes
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Table 3 Summary of evidence of metalworking in Devon by period
Bronze Age metalworking is evidenced from 5 or 6 sites predominantly by metal finds that display the
range of compositions expected, i.e. copper, copper arsenic and copper tin alloys, e.g. Dainton, Ash
Farm and Gitisham Barrow etc.. All sites are of national importance. Iron Age iron smelting was
present on five sites, two of which (Dean Moor and Kes Tor) did not produce evidence of smithing
which is significant. Three sites produced evidence of both iron smelting and iron smithing, and one
(Beer Head, date uncertain) produced only smithing. This is also significant in that it would be
expected that the majority of Iron Age occupation sites, certainly from the later Iron Age (400/200BC
onwards) would be expected to produce smithing evidence. The lack of recovery of hammerscale is
important in this respect (see recommendations). All the smelting sites are of national importance
and the smithing sites are of regional importance. It is important when considering iron smithing
debris is a vital indicator of iron consumption not only in the Iron Age but in all periods. It is of
particular significance in Iron Age studies as the survival and recovery of iron artefacts from Iron Age
sites is poor.
Outside of the Blackdown hills there is little evidence for Roman iron smelting, one fragment was
recovered from Goldsmiths Street in Exeter and a small assemblage from Bolham Roman Fort
(Tiverton) but has the morphology of Iron Age smelting slag. Fifteen Roman sites produced evidence
of iron smithing most significant at Pomeroy Wood (A30 Scheme), Trichay Street and at Pauls Street
in Exeter. Although no hammerscale was recovered from the excavations (see recommendations)
there was evidence for hammerscale entrapped in the corrosion products of some iron objects visible
on the contemporary x-radiographs. Holcombe Villa produced only a small quantity of smithing
debris, but excellent examples of smith’s tools were found. Further research should be undertaken on
the distribution of iron smithing across the Roman settlement in Exeter, and further work could be
undertaken on the Pomeroy Wood, Trichay Street and Paul Street assemblages, which if confirmed
smithies had been excavated these sites would be of national importance. Thirteen sites generated
evidence of non-ferrous metalworking, of which ten were within Exeter. All the non-ferrous working
evidence requires research to synthesise the evidence, to identify the major sites and consider the
range of alloys in use.
The early medieval period (5th-10thC AD) is poorly represented in the archive, no site was identified to
this period alone, but within the stratigraphic sequence of Exeter early medieval levels will exist.
The evidence of medieval iron smelting sites is sparse primarily due to the lack of secure dating, e.g.
sites such as Hemyock, or that the quantity of slag is small and may be redeposited. This is a critical
period of innovation in iron smelting technology with the move from human powered bellows to water-
powered bellows. Thus in the case of the Blackdown hills the 14th/15th century sites will be adjacent
to streams or small rivers. Eighteen sites produced evidence of blacksmithing, again nearly all
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Dr Gerry Mcdonnell, Gerry Mcdonnell archaeometals, January 2012 42
medieval occupation sites produce some evidence of blacksmithing and so the list will be longer if
other sites re dated. The evidence from the Cistercian House of Buckfast Abbey is of national
importance and requires further research. The evidence across Exeter should be reviewed to assess
whether there is any evidence for craft specialisation in specific areas of the city. The evidence of
non-ferrous metalworking in Exeter is of national importance. Sites have produced significant
evidence of bell casting and other copper alloy working. There is intriguing evidence for the use of
copper-tin-antimony alloys that have been observed elsewhere, and probably have a
Cornish/Southwest source, but their composition has implications for ore resource exploitation and
smelting technology.
The slag recovered from the 18th century site at Tiverton was identified as smelting slag but may be a
slag derived from the refining of cast iron. The site deserves further archaeological and historical
research. Thirteen sites with post-medieval iron smithing evidence were noted, but the material
needs to be assessed as to whether the deposits are residual from either roman or medieval activity.
The evidence in Exeter for post-medieval copper alloy working in particular the Cowick Street Site is
of national significance.
Very few assemblages have been highlighted as having importance for Community/Group
Significance. Those with research potential could be steered towards relevant groups, in particular
groups wishing to undertake survey work in their local parish or area.
6 Recommendations
A number of key recommendations are made to refine the assessment, improve archive quality,
identify research potential, provide opportunities for improved public interaction with the collection and
contribute to the public understanding of science. Some of these suggestions could be more easily
achieved via the web rather than other means, but with some nudge towards the web at suitable
instances, e.g. gallery guides (written or verbal).
6.1 Improve archive quality
6.1.1 Firm up dating on as many sites as possible. Improved dating of deposits will identify those that are predominantly residual, hence are unstratified
and could be significantly reduced in volume. Material securely dated to a specific period may/will
change its significance.
6.1.2 Museum to seek examples of specific processes
The museum lacks examples of some processes in particular the smelting of copper tin and lead.
Opportunities should be sought to obtain suitable examples e.g. of tin slag for the gallery and to
develop a reference collection.
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6.1.3 Ensure optimum quality for future accessions to the museum It was very significant that the most important indicator of iron smithing was absent from the
collection. To properly assess the future deposition of smithing debris it is essential to know whether
hammerscale was present on the site. Hence it is recommended that the Museum suggest to the
County Archaeologist that they insist all archaeological contractors show their methodology for
recovering hammerscale, both on site, during excavation and at the post-excavation stage (following
national guidelines established by English Heritage (Centre of Archaeology Guidelines for
Archaeometallurgy, p6).
6.1.4 The non-ferrous casting assemblages
To develop a methodology to archive the current major of mould material and the expected arrival of
further substantial collections (see separate paper: Proposal for the Curation of the Cauldron Mould
Assemblages).
6.2 Identify Research Potential
Identify research themes within the archive through links with universities for research at the
undergraduate, masters and doctorate levels. Some suggestions are:
Review change in copper alloy composition usage across Exeter from the Roman period to
the Post-medieval period
Review evidence of iron smithing across Exeter.
Explore iron smelting sites in Devon other than the Blackdown Hills.
Re-assess specific sites in particular assess all artefacts (e.g. iron slag and iron artefacts)
and ecofacts, e.g. Trichay Street, Paul street and Pomeroy Wood.
6.3 Public interaction and the public understanding of science. The archive offers excellent opportunities for Museum Volunteers to improve the archive by e.g.
sorting through bags of smithing debris and re-bagging spate artefacts types, e.g. hearth bottoms,
smithing slag lumps, hearth lining etc. Educational collections of metalworking debris could be
established. Highlight the importance of Devon’s metallurgical heritage, for example there was little
evidence of the importance of the Dartmoor tin industry. Metals and metalworking residues offer
exceptional opportunities to improve the public understanding of science, and directly interact with
school curricula. This can range from simple questions as to what is a metal, what is an alloy,
through to the use of x-rays, and their interaction with matter.
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7 Conclusions
The metalworking archive of the Royal Albert Memorial Museum contains material of national and
regional importance. It provides evidence for many metalworking activities of Devon’s industrial
heritage. There are opportunities to refine the archive and ensure it makes a more significant
contribution to the Museums presence, including web presence.
Gerry Mcdonnell Archaeometals
22 January 2012
References
Bayley J. 1989a Some evidence for non-ferrous metalworking from Roman Exeter, Devon. .
Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report (New Series) 54/1989 English Heritage
Bayley J. 1989b Evidence for non-ferrous metalworking from Frien Hay Exeter, Devon. . Ancient
Monuments Laboratory Report (New Series) 55/1989 English Heritage
Bayley, J., Crossley D. and Ponting M. 2008 Metals and metalworking. A research agenda for
archaeometallurgy. Historical Metallurgy Occasional Publication Number 6. Historical Metallurgy
Society Ltd. London
Blaylock S.R. 2000 Excavation of an early Post-medieval Bronze Foundry at Cowick Street, Exeter
1999-2000 Devon Archaeological Society Proceedings Vol 58 1-92
Fitzpatrick A.p., , Butterworth C. A. and Grove J 1999 Prehistoric and Roman Sites in East Devon:
the A30 Honiton to Exeter improvement DBFO, 1996-9. Wessex Archaeology Report Number 16.
Gent, T H; Quinnell, H. 2000 Excavation of a causewayed enclosure and hillfort on Raddon Hill,
Stockleigh Pomeroy. Devon Archaeological Society Proceedings Vol 57 1-75
Maxfield, V. A. 1991 Tiverton Roman Fort (Bolham): excavations 1981–1986. Devon Archaeological
Society Proceedings Vol 49 25-98
Roman, Mediaeval and Post-Mediaeval metalworking debris | Specialist collections assessment 2012 Gerry Mcdonnell Archaeometals
Dr Gerry Mcdonnell, Gerry Mcdonnell archaeometals, January 2012 45
Needham S., Silvester R. J. and Howard H. 1980 An assemblage of Late Bronze Age
metalworking debris from Dainton, Devon. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. Vol 46 177-215
Todd M. 2007 Roman military occupation at Hembury (Devon). Britannia Vol 38 107-123
Wilthew P. 1986 Examination of slag from various Roman sites in Exeter. Ancient Monuments
Laboratory Report (New Series) 44/1986 English Heritage
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Dr Gerry Mcdonnell, Gerry Mcdonnell archaeometals, January 2012 46
Appendix 1
List of Spreadsheets
1 exeter_museum_metalworking_master97ver.xls
The raw data recorded at the museum and processed. The headings are self-explanatory,
the explanation of short-hand classifications are given below.
2 exeter_museum_by_period_97ver.xls
A summary of the sites with period data where known. Hence can be sorted by period. The
type of evidence is very superficial, presence of evidence e.g. iron smithing.
3 exeter_museum_boxees_97ver
A summary of the boxes examined. Requires some editing to ensure the boxes can be
ordered in numerical order
4 filtered_xrf_data_97ver
Raw XRF data, blank columns removed
5 filtered_xrf_data_processed_97ver
Processed data.
Shorthand terminology used in the master spreadsheet
Diagnostic Ferrous Slags and Residues
Ore - Iron ore
Tap - Tap Slag
IA Slag - Smelting Slag
SSL - Smithing
HB - Hearth Bottom
Fe obj - Metal
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HS - Hammer Scale
Cin - Cinder (diagnostic – rare)
Diagnostic Non-Ferrous Slags and Residues
Cruc - Crucible
Mould - Mould
Cu stained SSL or Cu stained slag - Slags with non-ferrous corrosion
Metal Spills – frozen spills of molten metal.
Non-Diagnostic Slags and Residues
HL - Hearth or Furnace Lining
Cin - Cinder
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Appendix 2
Pomeroy Wood – Xrays RAMM Archive box 91, paper archive file 102
3/2004
Plate number Object number Comment
7929 2164 Hammerscale (HS)
2192 HS
2176 HS
No number HS
7930 2357 ?HS
7932 2124 HS or Cu
2186 HS
2165 HS
7933 2116 HS
7934 2285 HS
2286 HS
7935 2305 HS
2277 Plus Cu
7936 2306 HS (long object)
2289 HS
2328 HS
7937 2322 HS (left hand object)
2289 HS (dense nail)
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2304 HS (horizontal nail)
Also 2 others HS
7938 2242 HS
2204 HS
2243 ?Cu
7939 3 artefacts with Cu
7940 2282 HS
2217 HS
2219 HS
2283 HS
7941 2208 Slag, but could be bloom
7943 2040 HS
7946 2111 ?just a scratch on x-ray
plate
7952 3012 HS (thin rod)
970 HS
7953 2253 HS (left hand frag)
3066 HS
7954 4207 Slag
3621 ?Cu
8060 1371 HS (long item)
1766 HS
1745 HS (bottom row, 2nd from
left)
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