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Roman consul

This article is about the highest office of the RomanRepublic. For other uses, see Consul.

A  consul  was the highest elected political office of theRoman Republic, and the consulship was considered thehighest level of the cursus honorum (the sequential orderof public offices through which aspiring politicians soughtto ascend).

Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve

for a one-year term. The consuls alternated in holdingimperium each month, and a consul’s imperium extendedover Rome, Italy, and the provinces. However, after theestablishment of the Empire, the consuls were merely afigurative representative of Rome’s republican heritageand held very little power and authority, with the Emperoracting as the supreme leader.

1 History

1.1 Under the Republic

After the legendary expulsion of the last Etruscan KingLucius Tarquinius and the end of the Roman Kingdom,most of the powers and authority of the king were osten-sibly given to the newly instituted consulship. Originally,consuls were called praetors (“leader”), referring to theirduties as the chief military commanders. By at least 300BC the title of Consul was being used.[1] Ancient writersusually derive the title  consul  from the Latin verb  con-

sulere, “to take counsel”, but this is most likely a latergloss of the term,[2] which probably derives—in view ofthe joint nature of the office—from   con-  and  sal-, “get

together” or from con- and  sell-/sedl-, “sit down togetherwith” or “next to”.[3] In Greek, the title was originallyrendered as στρατηγός ὕπατος,  strategos hypatos  (“thesupreme general”), and later simply as ὕπατος.[2]

The consul was believed by the Romans to date back tothe traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC,but the succession of consuls was not continuous in the5th century BC. During the 440s, the office was quite of-ten replaced with the establishment of the  Consular Tri-bunes, who were elected whenever the military needs ofthe state were significant enough to warrant the electionof more than the two usual consuls.[4] These remained in

place until the office was abolished in 367/366 BC andthe consulship was reintroduced.[5]

Consuls had extensive powers in peacetime (administra-

tive, legislative and judicial), and in wartime often heldthe highest military command. Additional religious du-ties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formalimportance, could only be carried out by the highest stateofficials. Consuls also read auguries, an essential step be-fore leading armies into the field.

Two consuls were elected each year, serving together,each with veto power over the other’s actions, a normalprinciple for magistracies. It is thought that originallyonly   patricians   were eligible for the consulship. Con-

suls were elected by the Comitia Centuriata, which hadan aristocratic bias in its voting structure which only in-creased over the years from its foundation. However, theyformally assumed powers only after the ratification oftheir election in the older Comitia Curiata, which grantedthe consuls their imperium by enacting a law, the "lex cu-riata de imperio".

If a consul died during his term (not uncommon whenconsuls were in the forefront of battle) or was removedfrom office, another would be elected by the   ComitiaCenturiata to serve the remainder of the term as  consul 

suffectus, or   suffect consul. By contrast a consul who

was elected to start the year was a  consul ordinarius  orordinary consul. Ordinary consulship was more pres-tigious than interim consulship, partly because the yearwould be named for ordinary consuls (see consular dat-ing).

According to tradition, the consulship was initially re-served for  patricians and only in 367 BC did  plebeianswin the right to stand for this supreme office, when theLex Licinia Sextia provided that at least one consul eachyear should be plebeian. According to Gelzer, only 15of these novi homines  were elected to the consulship be-tween the consulships of Sextius in 366 BC and Cicero

in 63 BC.[6] The first plebeian consul,  Lucius Sextius,was thereby elected the following year. Modern histo-rians have questioned the traditional account of plebeianemancipation during the early Republic (see Conflict ofthe Orders), noting for instance that about thirty percentof the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician,names. It is possible that only the chronology has beendistorted, but it seems that one of the first consuls, LuciusJunius Brutus, came from a plebeian family.[7] Anotherpossible explanation is that during the 5th century socialstruggles, the office of consul was gradually monopolizedby a patrician elite.[8]

During times of war, the primary qualification for consulwas military skill and reputation, but at all times the selec-

1

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2   1 HISTORY 

tion was politicallycharged. With thepassage of time, theconsulship became the normal endpoint of the cursus hon-

orum, the sequence of offices pursued by the ambitiousRoman who chose to pursue political power and influ-ence. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla regulated the  cursus 

by law, the minimum age of election to consul became,

in effect, 41 years of age.

Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a consularyear, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative termas a proconsul, the Roman Governor of one of the (sen-atorial) provinces. The most commonly chosen provincefor the proconsulship was Cisalpine Gaul.

1.2 Under the Empire

Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Sabinianus Pompeius Anasta-

sius  (consul 517 AD) in consular garb, holding a sceptre and the

mappa , a piece of cloth used to signal the start of  chariot races at the Hippodrome. Ivory panel from his  consular diptych.

Throughout the early years of the Principate although theconsuls were still formally elected by the  Comitia Cen-turiata, they were in fact nominated by the princeps.[9] Asthe years progressed, the distinction between the Comi-tia Centuriata and the Comitia Tributa (which elected thelower magisterial positions) appears to have disappeared,and so for the purposes of the consular elections, therecameto be just a single “an assemblyof the people” whichelected all the magisterial positions of the state, while the

consuls continued to be nominated by the princeps.

[10]

The imperial consulate during the period of the High Em-pire (until the 3rd century) was an important position, al-

beit as the method through which the Roman aristocracycould progress through to the higher levels of imperial ad-ministration – only former consuls could become consularlegates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urbanprefect of Rome.[11] It was a post that would be occupiedby a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties

for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others.[9]

Emperors frequently appointed themselves, or their pro-tégés or relatives, consuls, even without regard to the agerequirements. For example, Emperor Honorius was giventhe consulship at birth.   Cassius Dio states that Caligulaintended to make his horse Incitatus consul, but was as-sassinated before he could do so.[12]

The need for a pool of men to fill the consular posi-tions forced Augustus to reinvent the suffect consulate,allowing more than the two elected for the ordinaryconsulate.[9] During the reigns of the Julio-Claudians, theordinary consuls who began the year usually relinquished

their office mid-year, with the election for the suffectconsuls occurring at the same time as that for the ordi-nary consuls. During reigns of the Flavian and Antonineemperors, the ordinary consuls tended to resign after aperiod of four months, and the elections were moved to12 January of the year in which they were to hold of-fice. During the Flavian or Antonine periods, the electionof the consuls were transferred to the Senate, althoughthrough to the 3rd century, the people were still called onto ratify the Senate’s selections.[13]

The proliferation of suffect consuls through this process,and the allocation of this office to  homines novi  (or  new

men) tended over time to devalue the office.[11] However,the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate re-mained intact, as it was one of the few offices that onecould share with the emperor, and during this periodit was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals whohad consular ancestors.[9] If they were especially skilledor valued, they may even have achieved a second (orrarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate,these individuals already had a significant career behindthem, and would expect to continue serving the state, fill-ing in the post upon which the state functioned.[14] Con-sequently, holding the ordinary consulship was a great

honor and the office was the major symbol of the stillrepublican constitution. Probably as part of seeking for-mal legitimacy, the break-away Gallic Empire had its ownpairs of consuls during its existence (260–274). The listof consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscrip-tions and coins.

By the end of the 3rd century, much had changed. Theloss of many pre-consular functions and the gradual en-croachment of the equites into the traditional senatorialadministrative and military functions, meant that senato-rial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointmentas consuls.[14] This had the effect of seeing a suffect con-

sulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the4th century, it was being held by men in their early twen-ties, and possibly younger.[14] As time progressed, sec-

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2.1 Republican duties    3

ond consulates, usually ordinary, became far more com-mon than had been the case during the first two centuries,while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate.Also, the consulate during this period was no longer justthe province of senators – the automatic awarding of asuffect consulship to the equestrian  praetorian prefects

(who were given the  ornamenta consularia upon achiev-ing their office) allowed them to style themselves   cos. II 

when they were later granted an ordinary consulship bythe emperor.[14] All this had the effect of further devalu-ing the office of consul, to the point that by the final yearsof the 3rd century, holding an ordinary consulate was oc-casionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffectconsulships were hardly ever recorded by the first decadesof the 4th century.[14]

One of the reforms of  Constantine I   (r. 306–337) wasto assign one of the consuls to the city of  Rome, andthe other to  Constantinople. Therefore, when the Ro-

man Empire was divided into two halves on the deathof Theodosius I (r. 379–395), the emperor of each halfacquired the right of appointing one of the consuls—although on occasion an emperor did allow his colleagueto appoint both consuls for various reasons. The consul-ship, bereft of any real power, continued to be a greathonor, but the celebrations attending it – above all thechariot races – had come to involve considerable expense,which only a few citizens could afford, to the extent thatpart of the expense had to be covered by the state.[15] Inthe 6th century, the consulship was increasingly sparselygiven, until it was allowed to lapse under  Justinian I  (r.

527–565): the western consulship lapsed in 534, withDecius Paulinus   the last holder, and the consulship ofthe East in 541, with Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius.Consular dating had already been abolished in 537, whenJustinian introduced dating by the emperor’s regnal yearand the indiction.[16] In the eastern court, the appointmentto consulship became a part of the rite of proclamationof a new emperor from Justin II (r. 565–578) on, and islast attested in the proclamation of the future   ConstansII (r. 641–668) as consul in 632.[17] In the late 9th cen-tury, Emperor Leo the Wise (r. 886–912) finally abol-ished consular dating with Novel 94. By that time, theGreek titles for consul and ex-consul, "hypatos " and "apo

hypaton", had been transformed to relatively lowly hon-orary dignities.[18]

In the west, the rank of consul was occasionally bestowedupon individuals by the Papacy. In 719, the title of Ro-man consul was offered by the Pope to  Charles Martel,although he refused it.[19] In about 853 Alfred the Greatwas made Roman consul by the Pope at the age of 4 or 5.

2 Powers and responsibilities

2.1 Republican duties

After the expulsion of the kings and the establishmentof the Republic, all the powers that had belonged to thekings were transferred to two offices: that of the con-suls and the  Rex Sacrorum. While the Rex Sacrorum

inherited the kings’ position as high priest of the state,the consuls were given the civil and military responsibili-ties (imperium). However, to prevent abuse of the kinglypower, the imperium was shared by two consuls, each ofwhom could veto the other’s actions.

The consuls were invested with the  executive power ofthe state and headed the government of the Republic. Ini-tially, the consuls held vast executive and judicial power.In the gradual development of the Roman legal system,however, some important functions were detached fromthe consulship and assigned to new officers. Thus, in 443BC, the responsibility to conduct the  census was taken

from the consuls and given to the   censors. The sec-ond function taken from the consulship was their judicialpower. Their position as chief judges was transferred tothe praetors in 366 BC. After this time, the consul wouldonly serve as judges in extraordinary criminal cases andonly when called upon by decree of the Senate.

2.1.1 Civil sphere

For the most part, power was divided between civil andmilitary spheres. As long as the consuls were in the

pomerium (the city of Rome), they were at the  head ofgovernment, and all the other magistrates, with the excep-tion of the tribunes of the plebeians, were subordinate tothem, but retained independence of office. The internalmachinery of the Republic was under the consuls’ super-intendence. In order to allow the consuls greater authorityin executing laws, the consuls had the right of summonsand arrest, which was limited only by the right of appealfrom their judgment. This power of punishment even ex-tended to inferior magistrates.

As part of their executive functions, the consuls were re-sponsible for carrying into effect the decrees of the Senate

and the lawsof the assemblies. Sometimes, in great emer-gencies, they might even act on their own authority andresponsibility. The consuls also served as the chief diplo-mat of the Roman state. Before any foreign ambassadorsreached the Senate, they met with the consuls. The con-sul would introduce ambassadors to the Senate, and theyalone carried on the negotiations between the Senate andforeign states.

The consuls could convene the Senate, and presided overits meetings. Each consul served as president of the Sen-ate for a month. They could also summon any of the threeRoman assemblies (Curiate, Centuriate, and Tribal) and

presided over them. Thus, the consuls conducted the elec-tions and put legislative measures to the vote. When nei-ther consul was within the city, their civic duties were

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4   2 POWERS AND RESPONSIBILITIES 

assumed by the praetor urbanus.

Each consul was accompanied in every public appearanceby twelve lictors, who displayed the magnificence of theoffice and served as his bodyguards. Each  lictor held afasces, a bundle of rods that contained an axe. The rods

symbolized the power of scourging, and the axe the powerof capital punishment. When inside the pomerium, thelictors removed the axes from the fasces to show that acitizen could not be executed without a trial. Upon en-tering the Comitia Centuriata, the lictors would lower thefasces to show that the powers of the consuls derive fromthe people (populus romanus).

2.1.2 Military sphere

Outside the walls of Rome, the powers of the consulswere far more extensive in their role as  commanders-in-

chief of all Roman legions. It was in this function that theconsuls were vested with full imperium. When legionswere ordered by a decree of the Senate, the consuls con-ducted the levy in the Campus Martius. Upon enteringthe army, all soldiers had to take their oath of allegianceto the consuls. The consuls also oversaw the gathering oftroops provided by Rome’s allies.[20]

Within the city a consul could punish and arrest a citizen,but had no power to inflict capital punishment. When oncampaign, however, a consul could inflict any punishmenthe saw fit on any soldier, officer, citizen, or ally.

Each consul commanded an army, usually two legionsstrong, with the help of military tribunes and a quaestorwho had financial duties. In the rare case that both con-suls marched together, each one held the command fora day respectively. A typical consular army was about20,000 men strong and consisted of two citizen and twoallied legions. In the early years of the Republic, Rome’senemies were located in central Italy, so campaigns lasteda few months. As Rome’s frontiers expanded, in the 2ndcentury BC, the campaigns became lengthier. Rome wasa warlike society, and very seldom did not wage war.[21]

So the consul upon entering office was expected by theSenate and the People to march his army against Rome’s

enemies, and expand the Roman frontiers. His soldiersexpected to return to their homes after the campaign withspoils. If the consul won an overwhelming victory, he washailed as imperator by his troops, and could request to begranted a triumph.

The consul could conduct the campaign as he saw fit, andhad unlimited powers. However, after the campaign, hecould be prosecuted for his misdeeds (for example forabusing the provinces, or wasting public money, as ScipioAfricanus was accused by Cato in 205 BC).

2.1.3 Abuse prevention

Abuse of power by consuls was prevented with each con-

sul given the power to   veto   his colleague. Therefore,except in the provinces as commanders-in-chief whereeach consul’s power was supreme, the consuls could onlyact in unison, or, at least, not against each other’s deter-mined will. Against the sentence of one consul, an appealcould be brought before his colleague, which, if success-

ful, would see the sentence overturned. In order to avoidunnecessary conflicts, only one consul would actually per-form the office’s duties every month. This is not to saythat the other consul held no power but merely allowedthe first consul to act without direct interference. Then inthe next month, the consuls would switch roles with oneanother. This would continue until the end of the consularterm.

Another point which acted as a check against consuls wasthe certainty that after the end of their term they wouldbe called to account for their actions while in office.

There were also three other restrictions on consularpower. Their term in office was short (one year); theirduties were pre-decided by the Senate; and they couldnot stand again for election immediately after the end oftheir office. Usually a period of ten years was expectedbetween consulships.

2.1.4 Governorship

Main article: Roman governor

After leaving office, the consuls were assigned by the Sen-ate to a province to administer as governor. The provinceseach consul was assigned were drawn by lot and deter-mined before the end of his consulship. Transferring hisconsular imperium to proconsular Imperium, the consulwould become a proconsul and governor of one (or sev-eral) of Rome’s many provinces. As a proconsul, his im-perium was limited to only a specified province and notthe entire Republic. Any exercise of proconsular im-perium in any other province was illegal. Also, a pro-consul was not allowed to leave his province before his

term was complete or before the arrival of his successor.Exceptions were given only on special permission of theSenate. Most terms as governor lasted between one andfive years.

2.1.5 Appointment of the dictator

In times of crisis, when Rome’s territory was in imme-diate danger, a dictator was appointed by the consuls for

a period of no more than six months, after the proposi-tion of the Senate.[22] While the dictator held office, theimperium of the consuls was subordinate to the dictator.

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2.2 Imperial duties

After Augustus became the first  Roman emperor  in 27BC with the establishment of the principate, the consulslost most of their powers and responsibilities under theRoman Empire. Though still officially the highest of-

fice of the state, with the emperor’s superior imperiumthey were merely a symbol of Rome’s republican her-itage. One of the two consular position was often oc-cupied by emperors themselves and eventually becamereserved solely for the Emperor. However, the imperialconsuls still maintained the right to preside at meetingsof the Senate, exercising this right at the pleasure of theEmperor. They partially administered justice in extraor-dinary cases, and presented games in the   Circus Max-imus and all public solemnities in honor of the Emperorat their own expense. After the expiration of their of-fices, the ex-consuls (proconsuls) went on to govern one

of the provinces that were administered by the Senate.They usually served terms of three to five years.

3 Consular dating

Roman dates were customarily kept according to thenames of the two consuls who took office on January 1 ofthat year, much like a regnal year in a monarchy. For in-stance, the year 59 BC in the modern calendar was calledby the Romans “the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus”,since the two colleagues in the consulship were  (Gaius)

Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus—althoughCaesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that yearthat it was jokingly referred to as “the consulship of Juliusand Caesar”.[23] The practice of dating years  ab urbe con-

dita  (from the supposed foundation date of Rome) wasless frequently used.

In Latin, the ablative absolute construction is frequentlyused to express the date, such as "M. Messalla et M. Pupio

Pisone consulibus ", translated literally as "Marcus Mes-salla and Marcus Pupius Piso being the consuls”, whichappears in Caesar’s De Bello Gallico.

4 Lists of Roman consuls

For a complete list of Roman consuls, see:

•  List of Roman consuls

•  List of undated Roman consuls

•  List of consuls designate

5 See also

•  Constitution of the Roman Republic

•  French Consulate

6 References

[1] Lintott, Andrew (2004).  The Constitution of the Roman

Republic . Oxford University Press. p. 104.   ISBN0198150687.

[2] Kübler, B. (1900). “Consul”.  Realencyclopädie der Clas-

sischen Altertumswissenschaft. Band IV, Halbband 7,

Claudius mons-Cornificius . pp. 1112–1138.

[3] Gizewski, Christian (2013).   “Consul(es)".   Brill’s New

Pauly. Brill Online. Retrieved 2 July 2013.

[4] Forsythe, Gary (2005).  A Critical History of Early Rome: 

From Prehistory to the First Punic War . University of Cal-ifornia Press. p. 236. ISBN 0520226518.

[5] Forsythe, Gary (2005).  A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War . University of Cal-ifornia Press. p. 237. ISBN 0520226518.

[6] See page 15: Wirszubzki, Ch. Libertas as a Political Ideaat Rome during the Late Republic and Early Principate.Reprint. Cambridge University Press, 1960.

[7] Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Hornblower, S. andSpawforth, A. edd., s.v. Iunius Brutus, Lucius

[8] T. J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, chapter 10.4.

[9]  Bagnall et al. 1987, p. 1.

[10] Bury, John B,  A History of the Roman Empire from its 

Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius   (1893), pg.29

[11]  Bagnall et al. 1987, pp. 1–2.

[12] Cassius Dio, Roman History, 59:14:7

[13] Michael Gagarin, Elaine Fantham;  The Oxford Encyclo-

 pedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1 (2010), pgs.296-297

[14]  Bagnall et al. 1987, p. 2.

[15]   Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991),  Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, p. 527, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6

[16]   Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991),  Oxford Dictionary of 

Byzantium, Oxford University Press, pp. 526–527, ISBN978-0-19-504652-6

[17]   Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991),  Oxford Dictionary of 

Byzantium, Oxford University Press, p. 526, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6

[18]   Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991),  Oxford Dictionary of 

Byzantium, Oxford University Press, pp. 526, 963–964,ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6

[19]   e. The Frankish Kingdom. 2001. The Encyclopedia ofWorld History

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6   7 FURTHER READING 

[20] Polybius - Histories book VI

[21] War and society in the Roman World ed. Rich & Shipley

[22] Arthur Keaveney, in   Sulla, the Last Republican   (Rout-ledge, 1982, 2nd edition 2005), p. 162ff online, discussesthe appointment of a dictator in regard to Sulla, in which

case exceptions were made.

[23] Suetonius’   Lives of the Caesars: Julius Caesar  ChapterXX.

7 Further reading

•   Bagnall, Roger S; Cameron, Alan; Schwartz, Seth R;Worp, Klaus Anthony (1987).   Consuls of the later 

Roman Empire. Volume 36 of Philological mono-graphs of the American Philological Association.

London: Scholar Press.

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