ROMA OR MARS ? UNCETAINTY CONTINUES ABOUT SATRIENA COINS

George Halabi *

SYNOPSIS

This article tells a tale of uncertainty. The question: Is it Roma or is it Mars? There appears to be no agreement on this matter in numismatic literature. Major coin auction houses and coin dealers also appear to be undecided. Some say Roma, others say Mars.

This question relates to a series of Satriena coins of the Roman Republican period. They are silver dinarii with a helmeted head and a she-wolf and the words Roma and P. Satrienvs. All coins in the series are almost identical. Some have control numbers behind the head. It is about this helmeted head that the uncertainty exists. Interesting aspects about these coins and the confusion which surrounds them, are presented in this article.

THE SATRIENA COIN SERIES

This series was minted by a certain moneyer called P. Satrienus around 77 BC. The coins are around 17 – 20 mm in diameter and weigh about 3.5 to 4.0 grams. On the obverse is shown a helmeted head, looking right (in most coins there is a control number behind the head, which varies). On the reverse is a she-wolf walking to left (with its front right paw raised); the words ROMA above the wolf, and P. SATRIE / NVS below. Three coin pictures of this series are shown in the Appendix, items C1, C2, and C3.

SUMMARY OF RELEVANT PUBLICATIONS

Major publications on Roman Republic coinage, address the series of Satriena; these and their descriptions of the coins are presented below:

H. Cohen

In his 1857 Monnaies de la Republique Romaine, Cohen, under item “145. Satriena or Satrienus”, describes the coin as follows:Obv. Helmeted head of Mars to right, behind a number that varies;Rev. ROMA, P. SATRIENVS (Publius Satrienus). Wolf marching to left.

Cohen appears to be definitive that the head is that of Mars. He points out that the meaning behind this coin is not evident. He allocates the minting date to around 70 BC.----------------------------------------------------------------- *Member, American Numismatic Society; Member, American Numismatic Association;P.E. (Professional Engineer); Fellow, ASCE; Fellow, ACE.

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E. Babelon

In his 1866 Description des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine, Babelon, under item “CXLVI. Satriena”, describes the coin thus:Obv. Helmeted head of the goddess Roma to right; behind, often a number that varies;Rev. P. SATRIENVS. ROMA. Wolf marching to left.The numbers that vary are between I and CIIII. He gives 74 BC as minting year. He says the head is that of 'goddess Roma' not Mars. He bases this on: (a) the very long hair being like that of a woman; (b) the legend ROMA on the reverse relates to it; and (c) at the time, the name Roma, appearing on the reverse, indicates type used, andhence not name of wolf, whose presence confirms the head is that of Roma.

The reasons on which Babelon bases his decision, appear somewhat questionable. Henri Holland inhis Numismatique de la Republique Romaine (ca. 1890), mirrors Babelon's choice of Roma.

H. A. Greuber

In his 1910 Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum, Greuber, under the heading of “Circa BC 77 P. Satrienvs (Publius Satrienus)”, and item numbers 3208 to 3237, describes the coins thus:---for coin 3208Obv. Head of young Mars r., wearing crested helmet;Rev. P. SATRIE / NVS (in exergue). Wolf walking l. ; above, ROMA.---for coins 3209 to 3237Similar to 3208 but with numbers on obverse behind head (numbers given from VIII to C).

First, Greuber, citing hoard evidence, ascertains the minting date of ca. 77 BC. He then states that “This head may be of Mars or Roma, but more probably of the former (ie. Mars), as the features are too masculine for the feminine divinity. This was also Mommsen's opinion...” Mommsen (1817-1903) was a German historian who authored a large volume on ancient Roman coinage. Greuber mentions that Babelon has given reasons in support of his choice of Roma. But seems to apologetically state that: “As Mars was the father of Romulus and Remus, either would be applicable in point of connection with the reverse type, in which may be seen a reference to the foundation of Rome.” He also mentions that the style of the head is very similar to that of the helmeted male (?--Attis the shepherd lover of Sibyl) on coins of M. Volteius (ca. 78 BC); see Appendix, item C4.

British Museum Online Research Catalogue at britishmuseum.org/research It is somewhat surprising that, despite Greuber's monumental work of 1910, the online research catalogue of the selfsame British Museum presents 56 coins of Satriena. where the description given for each is: “Helmeted head of Roma, right, border of dots (with control marks behind)”. Cohen, Mommsen, and even Greuber's determinations in favour of Mars are, it appears, disregarded by the museum people preparing their online catalogue !! E. A. Sydenham In his 1952 The Coinage of the Roman Empire, Sydenham (together with Haines, Forrer and 2

Hersh), under item “781 of P. Satrienus” (ca. 75 – 74 BC), describes the coin thus:Obv. Head of young Mars r., wearing crested helmeted.Rev. Wolf walking l., ROMA above, SATRIE / NVS in ex.

Sydenham, together with Haines, Forrer, and Hersh, all seem to support the view that it is in fact the head of Mars. M. H. Crawford

In his 1974 Roman Republican Coinage, Crawford, under item “388 P. SATRIENVS”, describesthe coins as follows:

---1a. DenariusObv. Helmeted head of Roma r. Border of dotsRev. She-wolf l.; above, ROMA; in exergue P. SATRIE / NVS---1b. DenariusObv. Similar, but behind, control-mark.Rev. SimilarCrawford mentions that the control-marks on (1b) are the numerals from I to CV.

He also expresses this view: “For the she-wolf of the Capitol, apparently portrayed here, see W. Helbig....; this type of ferocious wolf has no original connection with the wolf that nursed Romulus and Remus, but was perhaps adopted as a symbol of Rome after the defeat of those rebel Italians who likened Rome to a predatory wolf (E. J Bickerman...); if this is right, the type is perhaps anti-Italian in intention”.

Crawford appears to endorse the Roma head. In discussing 'types and legends', he says: “that in the last years of the Republic, from 81 BC onwards, the legend ROMA occurs extremely rarely, once on the reverse with the Capitoline wolf (on the denarii of P. Satrienus) and three times on the obverse; in each case the legend should probably be regarded as identifying the head portrayed as that of Roma...” Why should the legend identify the head as that of Roma, as stated, is open to question. This and the wolf / anti-Italian story, appear to add a bit more uncertainty to an already uncertain situation.

David R. Sear

In his 1988 Roman Coins and their Values, Sear, under item “283, P. Satrienus (77 BC) denarius”, describes the coin as follows:

Obv. Helmeted head of Roma r. numeral behind;Rev. She-wolf l., ROMA above, P. SATRIE / NVS in ex.

Sear appears to have adopted the Roma head with no questions asked and no effort wasted !!

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H. A. Seaby

In his 1989 Roman Silver Coins, 3rd edition ( revised by David R. Sear and Robert Loosely),Seaby, under heading of “Satriena ( 77 BC)”, gives the following coin description:

---Satriena 1Obv. Head of young Mars r., number behind;Rev. She-wolf l. ROMA above; in ex. P. SATRIE / NVS.---Satriena 2Same but without number.He states: “This type refers to the foundation of Rome. Mars was the father of Romulus and Remus”.

Sear (one of the two reviser of this book) is party to describing the head as young Mars. It is to be noted that the same Sear, in his 1988 book ( see above), identifies it as Roma. Was the sudden turnaround, in favour of young Mars, intended or an oversight ?

SUMMARY OF ON-LINE REFERENCES

As at October / November 2013, some on-line references presenting Satriena coins and their descriptions, are listed below.

British Museum Online Research Catalogue at britishmuseum.org/research This was addressed earlier, following and in conjunction with Greuber.

American Numismatic Society, Mantis, at numismatics.orgThis site presents a total of 19 Satriena coins. The obverse of all 19 coins is described as “helmetedhead of Roma.”

The Free Collaborative Numismatic Research Website at coinproject.comThis site lists 3 Satreina coins; two describe the head as young Mars; the third as Roma.

Archive of Ancient Coins at coinarchives.comSearch for Satriena on this site gave three results. One identifies the head as Mars and two as Roma.

Data bank of Greek, Roman and Byzantine Coins at wildwinds.comThis site lists 11 Satriena coins (auctioned from 13.03.2001 to 28.10.2005). One identifies the headas Roma, and ten as Mars (five of the ten as young Mars).

Ancient Coin Search Engine at acsearch.infoOn this site 50 Satriena coins are listed (auctioned from 07.12.2000 to 19.06.2013). Of the 50, 21 identify the head as Roma and 29 as Mars ( 9 of the 29 as young Mars).

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OUTCOME FROM PUBLICATIONS AND ON-LINE SOURCES

There obviously exists a serious uncertainty as to a proper, unified, and agreed identification of the helmeted head. This is clearly evident from the above summaries and as tabulated below;

Publications:

In 1857 Cohen said Mars.In 1866 Babelon said either Roma or Mars but opted for Roma.In ca.1890 Rolland said Roma.In 1910 Greuber said either Mars or Roma but opted for Mars.In 1952 Seydenham said young Mars.In 1974 Crawford said Roma.In 1988 Sear said Roma.In 1989 Seaby said young Mars.

On-line Sources:

britishmuseum.org says Roma.numismatics.org says Roma.coinproject .com says young Mars.coinarchive.com says of 3 coins, one Mars and two Roma.wildwinds.com says of 10 coins, one Roma and 9 Mars.acsearch.info says of 50 coins, 21 Roma and 29 Mars.

This seems to be one of the few cases in numismatic assessments where such an uncertainty continues unchallenged for so long. Perhaps a closer fresher look at the problem is due.

THE HELMET OF THE HELMETED HEAD

The above sources, excepting two, describe the head as a “Helmeted head”. Grueber ( in 1910) and Sydenham (in 1952) are more specific saying “wearing crested helmet”. This prompts the question as to the relevance of the “crested helmet” on Satriena coins.

As seen from the coin photos in the Appendix, the helmet is rather simple, featuring: a crest, a visor in front, and a pattern of two lines converging into a circle. This pattern is meant to schematically show one of the two tapered ends of the visor, where it attaches to the body of the helmet, allowing it to swivels up and down from its (circular-shaped) fixings.

The Greeks have several helmet types; most common are: Attic, Corinthian, and Phrygian. The Phrygian (also known as Thracian) is distinctive in that it has a crest with a forward apex, somewhat resembling the Phrygian/Thracian cap. 5

In Rome, types are: Montefortino, Coolus, Imperial-Gallic, and Imperial-Italic. The last two have a peak or crest. Examples of a crested helmet (with attached cheek pieces) are shown in the Appendix, item C5. Item C6 shows 4 typical Roman helmets. The lower left, designated for generals, shows the crested peak, the visor and its fixings at the circular ends. This type and the ones shown in C5, are almost identical to the helmet worn on the Satriena coin.

Of note is that this type helmet, as evidenced by a number of Roman Republican coins, is often associated with Mars. Roma usually has a very ornate winged helmet. Seyffert in his 1891 Classical Antiquities, pointedly says: “In Rome she (ie. Roma) was always represented in military shape, sometimes like a Minerva, sometimes like an Amazon. On the obverse of silver coins she appears with a winged helmet.”

In support of a hypothesis that the Satriena helmet is not Roma's but Mars', it is noted that several republican coins of Mars have almost identical helmets. Examples shown in Appendix: ---C7 shows a denarius of Lentulus Clodianus (88 BC) with helmeted head of Mars / Biga victory. ---C8 shows a denarius of L. Rustius (76 BC) with helmeted head of Mars / Ram. ---C9 shows a denarius of P. Fonteius Capito (55 BC) with helmeted head of Mars / Warrior on horseback.

LONG HAIR / SHORT HAIR, MASCULINE / FEMININE FEATURES

Some of the authors cited appear to have based their preferences (Roma or Mars) on length of hair and on facial features.

Babelon, for instance, says that the helmeted head is that of Roma because its very long hair is like that of a woman. This is perhaps incongruous. A closer look would show that many of the male heads on republican coinage do, in fact, have long hair. Few examples: Apollo on a coin of L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi ( 90 BC); Apollo on a coin of Mn. Fonteius ( 85 BC); Vejovis on a coin of Fonteius (85 BC); Helmeted male bust on a coin of Volteius (78 BC); Young male head with flowing hair on a coin of P. Cestianus (57 BC).

As to features, Greuber, in his preference argument, says that the helmeted head is most probably that of Mars, “as the features are too masculine for the feminine divinity”. Another quick look at Apollo, Vejovis, the male bust, and the young male, on above listed coins, (all males with features, perhaps mistaken for feminine features), would render reliance on features, whether male or female, to determine gender, short of being reliable.

THE NAME ON THE COIN REVERSE

Another in-congruency in the preference arguments between Roma and Mars, is that of Babelon. He says that the helmeted head is that of Roma because: (1) the legend on the reverse relates to

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Roma, and (2) that the name Roma, when it appears on the reverse, indicates the type used, and not the name of the wolf, whose presence on the reverse confirms that the head is that of Roma.

These arguments are to be viewed with some caution. The coin evidence suggests that the word ROMA on the reverse does not necessarily bear a relation to the obverse type. Few examples:

---Ca. 241/35 BC AR didrachm: Head of Mars/ Horse's head, ROMA. (Cr. 23/1) (cf. App. C10). ---Ca. 217/15 BC AE quadrans: Head of Hercules/ Bull, ROMA. (Cr. 39/2).---Ca. 114/3 BC Fonteius denarius: Janiform/ Galley, ROMA.(Cr. 290/1). ---Ca. 82/4 BC Metellus denarius: Apollo head, ROMA/ Shield.(Cr.369). ---Ca. 80 BC Vatia denarius: Apollo, ROMA/Horsemen.(Cr. 370). ---Ca. 81 BC Anonymous denarius—Apollo/Victory, ROMA. (Cr, 373).

As indicated, the three reasons of Babelon favouring Roma, are debatable. Even the notion that thewolf is taken to confirm it is Roma, is somewhat odd. It is perhaps unfortunate that Babelon seems to have overturned Cohen's decision on Mars, in haste. In so doing it appears that he may have unwittingly triggered the current uncertainty. Greuber, some 44 years later, steered things back to Cohen and hence Mars. But after that, things went awry again.

MARS, THE WOLF, AND THE TWINS

Initially Mars was a fertility god and the protector of cattle; gradually his role as 'earth-god' widened to include death and the underworld, and ultimately battle and war.

He is said to be the son of Juno and Jupiter; and father of the twins Romulus and Remus. The twinsare thought to have later founded Rome. They are also known as 'Sons of Mars'. Mars seems to have been greatly honoured and worshipped by the Romans.

Seyffert, in his 1891 monumental Classical Antiquities, states that Mars' “symbols were the ravenous wolf, the prophetic and warlike woodpecker, and the lance.” It is also said (Mars being awar god) that the fiercest creatures were consecrated to him: the ferocious wolf; the horse for vigour; the dog for vigilance; the cock and vulture for aggressive daring.

It is said that during one of the festivities (the contests with battle-steeds) in his honour, a horse was sacrificed and its blood used for purification. Sacrifice of horses was neither accepted nor practised by the Romans, except in his case. Hence some Mars coins show a horse as reverse.

Bearing in mind that the main symbol of Mars is the ravenous wolf, it follows that this symbol mayfeature as a prominent element in coins with Mars as an obverse type. Regarding the twins Romulus and Remus, they feature as the main characters in the myth of Rome's foundation. Legend has it that their mother, a daughter of a king and a vestal virgin, called Rhea Silvia, is forced to abandon them at birth. They are thrown into the river to die but magically the river carries them to safety. A she-wolf finds and suckles them with her milk and a woodpecker feeds them. A shepherd then finds them and they grow up in his care, to become young shepherds. 7

When the twins discover the truth of their birth, they reclaim the king's throne and decide to establish a new city. One prefers a location on Palatine Hill, the other on Aventine Hill. They quarrel and Remus is killed. Romulus then founds the city he calls Rome, after his own name. Rome becomes a large and dominant force. Romulus becomes more autocratic, then disappears.

Item C11 in Appendix shows a statue of the she-wolf suckling the twins, in a benevolent posture.

C12 shows the 'Ara Pacis' (Alter of Augustian Peace) as now reconstructed and preserved. It was originally erected and consecrated in 9 BC, in honour of the goddess Peace. It has a number of painted panels with scenes of myth and legend.

C13 shows an interesting panel. It portrays the legend of Rome's foundation. It combines: the twins being suckled by the she-wolf; Mars, their father; the shepherd who raised them up; and the woodpecker who fed them, perched on a tree.

The she-wolf, is usually depicted, whether in the statue (C11), or the panel ( C13), or on many republican and imperia coins, as tame, rather caring and kind, and always suckling the twins. Examples of two republican coins:---Sextus Pompeius (137 BC) denarius (Cr.235);--- Anonymous (115/4 BC) denarius (Cr. 287). This she-wolf is obviously not the same she-wolf of the Satriena coin. The she-wolf of the coin isshown in a ravenous, menacing, and aggressive posture, with erect ears and raised front paw, as though preparing for the attack. It is this same ravenous wolf that is the main symbol of Mars. OF NAMES AND PUNS

On a lighter note, the subject of names and puns is addressed. A pun is a play on similar- sounding words but of different meaning or usage, done for fun or to generate interest.

Puns were applied by republican coin engravers with exceptional cunning and success.Examples:---A denarius of F. Purpurea (169-158 BC) has Roma on the obverse; the reverse shows Luna in biga, murex shell above, PVR below and ROMA in ex. The murex alludes to Tyrian purple, and PVR (=Pur ) alludes to the first 3 letters, hence both discretely point to the name Purpurea.

---A denarius of L. Thorius Balbus (105 BC), has a charging bull on the reverse, a pun on the name Thorius = taurus = bull.

--- The coin series of Q. Pomponius Musa ( 66 BC ). The name 'Musa' was 'punned' with the name of the 'Muses'. The result was a superb representation of each of the nine Muses on his coinage. Theartistry of these coins places them among some of the exceptional coins produced in that period.

For the Satriena coin, a possibility of a discrete 'name/ pun' may very well exist.. A trail of afew clues is proposed :

---- Babelon, in his 1866 book, says that the name Satriena derives from the name 'Satrius', similarto Nasidienus deriving from Nasidius; Matienus from Matius; Salvidienus from Salvidius.

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---- Considering the name 'Satrius', it directly relates to the 'Caninia gens', as confirmed in the “Namensgebung, Imporium Romanum” at imperium-romanum. info.

---- The 'Caninia gens' is recorded as a large Roman family with many branches including one by the name of 'Satrius'. A certain 'Aulus Caninius Satrius' is said to have been mentioned by Cicero in 65 BC.

----The meaning 'caninia', is derived from the word 'caninus'. This, as an adjective, means having fierce canine attributes (of wolves, dogs, jackals...); and, as a verb, means to snarl, to growl, to snap the teeth, as in an angry beast.

Could it be that the ravenous wolf on the Satriena coin (in addition to all its associations with Mars) also hide an engraver's pun by linking: Satrienus>Satrius>Caninia> caninus>ravenous wolf ? The odds are quite in favour of such a possibility.

CONCLUSIONS

In this article, the uncertainty surrounding the Satriena coins has been examined based on a simple, straight approach. This has helped to pave the way to a logical conclusion. Mars, on the obverse, and his main symbol, the ravenous wolf, on the reverse, taken together, form potent, mutually- reinforcing and complementary elements in the symbolism and design of these coins. The word ROMA on the reverse, as it has often been used in a number of other coins, is in all probability merely an identification in confirmation that the coin is a coin of Rome.

The confusion, evident in many publications and sources, as to the identity of the helmeted head is, in the writer's opinion, no longer warranted. All indications seem to favour Mars. The uncertainty needs to end.

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ROMA OR MARS ? UNCETAINTY CONTINUES ABOUT SATRIENA COINS

REFERENCES

The writer is greatly indebted to, and acknowledges with much gratitude the following references. Without the valuable help and assistance of these references, this article would not have been possible.

A. Publications

Ara.Pacis.Avgvstae at: cdm.reed.edu/ara-pacis.

Babelon, Ernest, Description Historique et Chronologique des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine, Vol. II, Paris, London, 1886.

Cohen, H., Description Generale des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine, Medailles Consulaires, Paris, 1857.

Crawford, Michael H., Roman Republican Coins, Vol. I, Cambridge, 1974.

Greirson, Philip, Numismatics, Oxford, 1975.

Greuber, H. A., Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum, Vol. I, London, 1910.

Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Romulus, Vol. I, Loeb Classical Library edition, 1914 , at: penelope.uchicago.edu.

Rolland, Henri, Numismatique de la Republique Romaine, Paris, ca. 1890.

Seaby, H. A., Roman Silver Coins, Vol. I, Third revised edition, (revised by David R. Sear and Robert Loosely), London 1989.

Sear, David R., Roman Coins and their Values, Fourth revised edition, Seaby, London, 1988.

Seydenham, E. A., The Coinage of the Roman Republic, (Revised with indexes by G. C. Haines. Edited by L. Forrer and A. Hersh), Spink, London, 1952.

Seyffert, Oscar, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Mythology, Religion, Literature & Art, 2nd Ed, London, 1891.

The World of Myths, Mythology from around the World, at: aworldofmyths.com.

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B. Coin Depositories

Ancient Coin Search Engine: (acsearch.info).American Numismatic Society, Mantis, (numismatics.org).Archive of Ancient Coins: (coinarchives.com).British Museum, Collection online, (britishmuseum.org).

Data bank of Greek, Roman and Byzantine Coins: (wildwinds.com).

Namensgebung, Imporium Romanum: ( imperium-romanum. info).

Numismatische Bilddatenbank Eichstaett. (nbeonline.de).

Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Muenzkabinett Online Catalogue. (smb.museum.de).

The Free Collaborative Numismatic Research Website: (coinproject.com).

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ROMA OR MARS ? UNCETAINTY CONTINUES ABOUT SATRIENA COINS

APPENDIX( Denarius pictures are enlarged for clarity; denarius coins are about 17 – 21mm in dia.)

C1. Satriena denarius with helmeted head and she-wolf(no contol-marks behind head).

C2. Satriena denarius, as C1 but with control-marks.

C3. Satriena denarius, as C1 but with control-marks. 12

C4. Volteius denarius (ca. 78 BC). Greuber indicatesthat the style of the head on the Satriena coin is verysimilar to the male head (Attis?) on this coin.

C5. Roman crested helmets with cheek pieces attached.

C6. Types of Roman helmets.

C7. Lentulus Clod. denarius (88 BC) with helmeted Mars and biga victory. 13

C8. L. Rustius denarius (76 BC) with helmeted Marsand Ram.

C9. P. Fonteius denarius with helmeted Mars andwarrior on horseback.

C10. Helmeted Mars with horse's headand the word ROMA.

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C11. Statue, Palatine she-wolf suckling the twins.(Musei Capitolini, Rome)

C12. The reconstructed 'Ara Pacis' Templededicated to the goddess Peace.

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C13 A panel of Ara Pacis. It shows the twins being suckledby the she-wolf; Mars standing left; the shepherd standingright; and the woodpecker perched on the tree.

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