role stressed and constraints faced by women entrepreneurs · 2013-01-28 · 264 indian research...

264 Indian Research Journal of Extension Education Special Issue (Volume I), January, 2012

Role Stressed and Constraints Faced By Women Entrepreneurs

Seemaprakalpa1 and Manju Arora2

1. Lecturer, 2. Reader, Department of Home Science Extension Education, Institute of Home Science, Dr. B.R.Ambedkar University, Agra -282002 Uttar Pradesh

e-mail- [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Women being entrepreneurs are becoming aware after doing their SWOT (Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities,and threats) analysis. Along with these achievements, they were experiencing stressful conditions andentrepreneurial constraints. So the aim of this present study was to identify role stress and constraints. Descriptivetype of research design was used to study Role stress and constraints faced by 60 women entrepreneurs runningboth boutiques and beauty parlours. Primary data were collected through interview schedule in zones of Agra cityin U.P. during 2002-2005. Percentage was used as a statistical measure .The study showed that majority ofentrepreneurs were experiencing stress as being mothers as they were performing dual responsibilities( mother,housewife and as an entrepreneurs). Constraints faced by entrepreneurs were lack of knowledge about agencies/institutions working for entrepreneurship development, frequent and more need of finance, non-availability ofskilled labour, diligent selection of raw material, and competition from established units in same line. The findingsof the study are based on expressed opinions of the entrepreneurs. Hence the objectivity would be limited to theextent of the entrepreneurs’ honest opinions. In spite of these limitations, it is hoped that findings of this studywould provide a better insight in preparing future plan for entrepreneurship development among women.Key Words: Role theory, Role, Stress, Constraints, Entrepreneurial Constraints

Due to dichotomy in the society’s view betweenmen and women, women have been confined to thefour walls of the house from past decades. Women’sachievements are viewed almost exclusively in term ofsupportive or dependent role such as a home-makerand mother. At present, the scenario has entirelychanged. They have proved that they are not less totheir counter-part in any sphere of life. Alongwith thisachievement, they have to perform multiple roles andface various constraints. As a result, they have becomestressed. Role theory defines in terms of behaviouralexpectations in relation to others (Linton, 1936). Stressoccurs when perceived pressure exceeds your perceivedability to cope (Palmer, 2005). So the women are subjectto a greater stress as the demands of home andentrepreneurial activity at times causes conflict. Aswomen, they have to strike hard to fulfill their roles aswife, daughter-in-law, mother and so on. At the sametime, they have to project different images as chiefexecutive of their enterprise. With these considerationsthis study was carried out to explore role stress andconstraints faced by women entrepreneurs.

METHODOLOGY Descriptive type of research design was used in

the present study. Agra division of Uttar Pradesh wasselected as the locale for the present study by usingpurposive sampling. Agra division comprises of sevendistricts. Out of which, Agra district was selectedrandomly. For the purpose of administration, Agra districthas been divided into two areas; Agra Urban and AgraRural. Agra Urban was selected randomly for thepresent study. According to the requirements and tohave balanced distribution of the respondents, theinvestigator divided Agra city into four zones ;North-East zone;North-West zone ;South-East zone andSouth-west zone. Primary data regarding entrepreneurialrole stress and constraints faced by entrepreneurs werecollected through interview schedule, observation anddiscussion with the selected entrepreneurs. Secondarydata such as a list of women entrepreneurs werecollected from the concerned centers such as DistrictIndustry Centers, Central Excise and CustomDepartment and Small Industries Service Institute (SISI),

Indian Research Journal of Extension Education Special Issue (Volume I), January, 2012 265

Agra during the years of 2002 -2005 . Based on thenature of data and relevant information, percentage wasused as a statistical measure.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAlmost all the entrepreneurs faced stress and

constraints at different levels while managing theirenterprise. Role stress and constraints have been studiedseparately.Table 1. Distribution of Women Entrepreneurs according

to their Role Stress (N=60 )

Role Stress

EntrepreneursNo. %*

Being Mother 38 63.3Being Wife 13 21.7Non-supportive attitude of family members 13 21.7Dual responsibilities 33 55.0Physical stress 18 30.0

* Percentage is calculated on the basis of 60 entrepreneurs.It can be revealed from data in table 1 that out of

the total sampled entrepreneurs, 63.3 per cententrepreneurs, experienced stress as being a motherbecause they have not only to play the role of motherbut as a teacher, guide and friend for their children.The emotional bond between the mother and children ismore in comparison to the bond with their father. Thisis because from the beginning children have been withthe mother for longer hours and so feel secure in hercompany. They have learnt social and cultural valuesthrough her. Now when the children do not get whatthey require and the mother is unable to give them whatshe used to this brings forth stressful conditions. Stressas a mother gets multiplied when children’s demandsincrease such as demand for various types of food; helpin school work daily as well as during examinations;parents’ presence in parents meetings and school/collegefunction etc. because of the above demands and otherrelated demands placed on her shoulders. Theyexpressed that they become stressed and they feelhelpless themselves and another interesting note is thatanother lady can not play a role of mother to a child instead of real mother. These are the moments of stressfor entrepreneurs.

Fifty-five per cent entrepreneurs faced role stressin performing dual responsibilities as housewife and asan entrepreneur. As an entrepreneur, they have toperform dual responsibilities. They are not given any

exemption regarding household duties. They are alsonot provided with any help from family members inperforming household responsibilities. On the other hand,running an enterprise places responsibilities and dutieson them. To perform both responsibilities at the sametime brings about stressful condition.

Thirty per cent entrepreneurs experienced physicalstress to balance all type of roles in one time. This isfelt more when the enterprise and the home are at oneplace. Equally at the time of festivals, celebration athome is also affected. Family’s demands to celebratefestivals in the same way as they have been celebratingin previous years when they were not an entrepreneurcreate stressful conditions. At the Festival time, demandsof customers also increase. As an entrepreneur runninga boutique, everybody’s demands for new clothesincreases. It is same in case of beauty parlours wheneach customer wants to look good and attractive.

Only 21.7 per cent entrepreneurs each facedstress as being wife and by the non-supportive attitudeof family members. Entrepreneurs have to go outsidefor taking orders. Due to it they are not able to devotefull time for household activities and to the needs of thefamily members. So the attitude of family memberstowards their is non-supportive. In absence of outsidehelp i.e. part-time and full-time servants, brings extrapressure on them. Similar findings have been reportedin few earlier studies. Singh et al. (1986) and Nigam(1992) found that women entrepreneurs faced rolestress in performing dual responsibilities.Knowledge related: It is concluded from table 2 thatlack of knowledge about agencies/ institutions workingfor entrepreneurship development was faced by all the60 entrepreneurs. For any type of help relating toenterprise they did not know whom to contact wheneverthey were in need. The sources, which they contacted,did not provide the full knowledge and also sometimesexploited them by charging high expenses and alsowasting time for not providing correct information.

Thirty-eight per cent expressed lack of knowledgeabout various financial schemes, which are providingfinancial help to entrepreneurs at various stages ofenterprise development. The same percentage perceivedwere lack of knowledge about recent advancements invarious technologies used relating to enterprisemanagement i.e. latest technology used for the specificenterprise, advancements in types of raw materials, usedmachinery, latest publicity measures etc.


Only 13.3 per cent of the entrepreneurs expressedeconomic non-credibility as a constraint. This was dueto being a woman. Entrepreneurs were not having anyassets in their name such as house, deposits, jewellaryetc. which are essential for procuring loan and notsecuring their entrepreneurial activity oriented futureprospectives.Man-power: The credibility of the enterprise rests uponskilled workers, which is in term of dependent on skilledlabour. In the present study 55 per cent of theentrepreneurs were facing this constraint in running theenterprise i.e. non – availability of skilled labour. Thosewho had skilled labour were facing another type ofproblem i.e. the experienced staff were leaving the unitand joining elsewhere. This problem was reported by36.7 per cent entrepreneurs.

Another problem was non-cooperative attitudeof the workers. For this 48.3 per cent of theentrepreneurs had said that they being women werenot getting cooperation from the male workers. At times,they were being dominated by the male workers andalso workers were not ready to accept a woman asboss so tried to show non co-operative attitude.Raw material : It is revealed from the table that 80 percent entrepreneurs reported that diligent selection wasrequired in purchasing raw material for satisfyingconsumer’s needs. Due to the change in technologyand variations in raw material, entrepreneurs have toconsider the changes in the demands and choices ofcustomers. Forty-five per cent entrepreneurs facedconstraints due to unstable prices of raw material. Thisin turn brings instability in costing of product/ services.To maintain stability in prices and to attract customersthey have to go places to find where they can getmaterial at reasonable prices, which takes a lot of time,money and energy. Only 13.3 per cent entrepreneursexpressed imbalance in demand and supply of rawmaterial in production/ services. Reasons are -sometimes the agent does not come in time to supplythe raw material; sometimes the production is notsufficient in quantity and sometimes the delivery systemis affected, so the raw material is not got in time.Marketing :It can be observed from the table that 75per cent entrepreneurs were facing constraints due tocompetition from established and larger units in the sameline. Sixty-six per cent entrepreneurs faced constraintsdue to lack of knowledge about marketing strategies.These are; market segmentation, market positioning and

Table 2. Constraints faced by Entrepreneurs in managingtheir Enterprise (N = 60)

Constraints EntrepreneursNo. %*

Knowledge relatedAgencies/institutions working for 60 100entrepreneurship developmentVarious financial schemes 23 38.3Procedures followed for loans. 11 18.3Training programmes 22 36.7Recent advancements 23 38.3Technical know-how about the unit 8 13.3FinancialLack of sufficient working capital 13 21.7Frequent and more need of finance 36 60.0Difficulty in obtaining finance 18 30.0Economic non-credibility 8 13.3Man – PowerInsufficient staff to carry out the enterprise 8 13.3Non-availability of skilled labour 33 55.0Non co-operative attitude of workers 29 48.3Staff leaving after getting experience. 22 36.7Raw – MaterialInterrupted availability of raw material 8 13.3Diligent selection of raw material 48 80.0Unstable prices of raw material 27 45.0MarketingLack of knowledge about marketing strategies 40 66.7Lack of proper market/costumers 26 43.3Difficulty in getting money from customer 27 45.0after sale/servicesCompetition 45 75.0Publicity problem 11 18.3

* Percentage is calculated on the basis of 60 entrepreneurs

Only thirteen per cent of the entrepreneurs reportedlack of knowledge about technical know-how about theunit as a constraint in running the enterprise. Theseentrepreneurs are those who had not received trainingbefore starting the enterprise.Financial : It was found that 60 per cent entrepreneursfaced frequent and more need of finance as a constraintmainly due to the circulation of cash which wasdisturbed due to the recurring expenditure for materialand immaterial sources.

Thirty per cent entrepreneurs reported difficulty inobtaining finance from various financial institutions orother sources from where the entrepreneurs were takingfinancial aid.


marketing mix strategy, as they had not attended anytraining programme relating to the enterprise. Only 18.3per cent entrepreneurs had publicity problem. They saidthat that it is expensive method of sales promotion,demands and required more efforts to create goodwillabout product/services among customers. For thisentrepreneurs have to give discounts, seasonal offers,etc on sale/services also. Similar results have beensuggested in few earlier studies. Jose Paul et al (1986),Kapoor (1998) Mishra and BAL (1998), Ganesan(1999), JUDAI (2002), Vyas and Swamy (2002) andHookimsing and Essoo (2003) observed thatentrepreneurs were facing constraints in running anenterprise.

CONCLUSIONIt is true that path of success is not the bed of

roses. It is full of hurdles; those check one’s will powerand who has strong will power, go ahead and who hasnot give up in mid of the path. In case of womenentrepreneurs, entrepreneurial role stress and constraints

obstruct the path of entrepreneurial success. Role whichcreates stressful condition were being mother, dualresponsibilities as home maker and as an entrepreneurs,and being tired. But they were taking these as part oflife and trying to overcome them. Constraints faced byentrepreneurs were; lack of knowledge about agencies/institution working for entrepreneurship development,lack of sufficient working capital, non-availability ofskilled labour and their non-cooperative attitude, diligentselection of raw material, competitors, and lack ofknowledge about marketing strategies. In fact, there isa need to train /aware women at all levels of themarketing chain in handling techniques of theirenterprise’s survive, sustain, and success. These skillsshould help them and will open new doors that couldlead to create employment opportunities to others andexpand their enterprise also. It is therefore, necessaryto involve them on an equal footing with men and thiscan be done only if women entrepreneurs are given theproper means to improve themselves, and theirentrepreneurial situation.

REFERENCES

Ganesan, S.C. (1999), Status of Women Entrepreneurs in India. Kanishka Publishers And Distributers, New Delhi.152-154.Hookimsing And Essoo (2003), Promoting Female Entrepreneurship In Mauritius: Strategies In Training And Development.

SEED working paper No 58, International Labour Office, Geneva.Jose Paul et al. (1996), Entrepreneurship Development. Himalayas Publishing House, New Delhi. 65Jule Development Associates (JUDAI) Consultants (2002), National Conference On Women Enterprise Development In Zambia.

Lusaka, Zambia.Kapoor, K. (1998), Entrepreneurial Behaviour: A study Of Selected Women Entrepreneurs. Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis,

Department Of Home Science Extension Education, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.Linton, R. (1936), The Study Of Man: An Introduction. D.Appleton- Century Company Incorporated. New York, London.Mishra, B.B., and Bal, R.K.(1998), Women Entrepreneurs in Orissa: A study of their profile, Motivation and constraints. In

C.Swarajyalakshmi (ed.), Development of women entrepreneurs in India:Problems and Prospects (pp 227-238). DiscoveryPublishing House, New Delhi.

Nigam, N. (1992), Women In Household Industry- Emerging trends And Issue. Social Changes, 2, 44.Palmer, S. (2005), Managing Stress At Work, well Being At Work. Barking, Havering and Red bridge Hospitals.Singh, M.P. and SenGupta, R., (1986), Potential Women Entrepreneurs: Their Profit, Vision And Motivation. An Exploratory

Study. NIESBUD Research Report Serial-One.Vyas, R., and Swamy, D. (2002), Status and Problems of Women Entrepreneurs: An Insight. Paper Presented In National

Seminar on Empowerment of Women For Better Health And Family Lives. (Paper No.04). Sponsored By UGC New DelhiOn 1st & 2nd March 2002 Organizaed By Post Graduate Department Of Home Science. Sardar Vallab Patel University,Gujrat.


Technology Intervention and Repercussion among High AltitudeCommunity of Ladakh: A Case Study of Trench Greenhouse

Dorjey Angchok1 and R B Srivastava2

Defence Institute of High Altitude Research, Leh-Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir)Corresponding author; E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The present study endeavors to bring forth the socio-cultural local institutions and their repercussions on adoptionof a technology (in this case, the trench greenhouse) among the high altitude community of Ladakh. Ladakhconstitute the transhimalayan part of India where the prevailing harsh environment does not leave much scope forvegetable cultivation in time and space scale (especially during the winter months). With the effective utilization ofgreenhouse technology it has made possible to harness upon the available resources and grow vegetables roundthe year (in winter months also, when ambient temperature dips down upto -25°C). Among the various types ofgreenhouse technology developed by Defence Institute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR), the trench greenhouseis the most economical and easy to establish and grow vegetables in Ladakh area in which vegetables can be grownduring winter months also when in the open field condition, cold weather does not allow for any vegetables togrow. Considering the utility and non expensiveness of this trench greenhouse, DIHAR, during the conception anddissemination process of this technology, perceived widespread adoption of this technology among the localcommunity. But to their dismay, the rate of adoption among the local community is/was not upto the expected level.To understand this paradox, the present study was conducted and found the prevailing grassroots level localinstitution, governing the nature of property regime was the reason behind the low rate of adoption. The timeperiod after harvesting (September) of field crops and sowing (March) in the next year, the institutional normsconvert the private property in to a common pool resource (September to March), the winter months when greenhousesare of immense utility. Trench greenhouse (due to its openness, and devoid of any retention wall above the groundlevel) is not feasible where there is chances of trespassing by stray animals. It indicates that the trench technologydoes not fit well into the prevailing institutional framework and thus the adoption rate is hampered. This findingbrings forth the role of socio-cultural factors in the technology adoption process and furthermore, the findingsstrengthens the concept of involving local people, and understanding the prevailing socio-cultural environment inthe technology generation processKey words: Adoption; Greenhouse technology;DIHAR;

Ladakh constitutes the easternmost trans-Himalayan part of Jammu & Kashmir state of India,bordering Pakistan and China constituting of two districtsviz. Leh and Kargil. Leh district is situated between32°N to 36°N latitude and 75°E to 80°E longitude at analtitude ranging from 2900-5900 m amsl. Area measuring45,110 km having 116 villages is divided into 6 blocks1.

Truly described as high altitude cold arid desert,situated along the valleys of the Indus river, intensivesunlight, high evaporation rate, strong winds, andfluctuating temperature (30 to -40°C) characterize thegeneral climate. It is generally said that a man sitting inthe sun with his feet in the shade can have sunstroke

and frostbite at the same time. With spare vegetation,there is little moisture in the atmosphere. Because ofhigh mountains all round and heavy snowfall duringwinter, the area remains landlocked from the outsideworld for nearly six months in a year2.

The vegetable growing season (in open fieldcondition) is only a few months long during summertimes. Farming is small-scale; traditionally, each familyowns a few acres of land, and their whitewashed mudhouses are grouped together in villages whose size variesaccording to the availability of water. The principal cropis wheat and barley, the mainstay of traditional Ladakhifood. In the valleys there are orchards, and up on the


high pastures, where not even barley grows, peoplehusband yaks, cows or sheep.Fresh food production: past and present : WilliamMoorcroft, a veterinary surgeon traveling in the 1820’s,was the first Englishman to give a detailed account ofLadakh3. Moorcroft describes tsampa (roasted berleyflour), chhang (local barley beer), tea, porridge andbread as the major food and beverages of Ladakh.

Then came the Moravian missionaries to Ladakhin the last quarter of the nineteenth century and theybrought with them vegetables such as potatoes, spinach,cauliflowers, radishes, green beans, brussels sprouts andtomatoes. These were probably the first significantadditions to the Ladakhi diet for many years – turnips,swedes and peas having predominated until then. It wasprobably also the Moravians who demonstrated that rootvegetables could be stored in pits in the ground4, thusimproving the variety of foods available in the winter.

Regarding the interventions made by variousresearch and developmental institutions like DefenceInstitute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR), there hasbeen a tremendous improvement in the diversity,quantity and quality of cultivated crops (especiallyvegetables). It has been demonstrated (on fieldconditions) that around 68 different kinds of vegetables(both European and Asiatic type) can be successfullygrown in Ladakh. Presently, local farmers in Ladakhare successfully growing newly introduced crops likekale, parsely, celery, summer squash, okra, and variouscucurbits also. The increase in crop diversity has helpedthem to increase their income and improve theirnutritional uptake. At present 51% of Army’s (a majormarket for local produce) total fresh vegetablesrequirement (7000 MT) is fulfilled by the local farmers.At present local farmer’s cooperative is supplying 28different kinds of vegetables to army. It not only providesincome to the local farmers but also saves a large chunkof expenditure incurred on transportation.

All these production are made during the shortsummer season. During winter months, the cold climatedoes not allow any vegetables to be grown in open fieldcondition. Therefore DIHAR, in the early 1980’s startedR&D in the field of greenhouse technology, due to whichnow a days, locally grown vegetables are also availableduring the winter months also.Greenhouse Technology : A greenhouse is a covered(by transparent cladding material) structure that protectsthe plants from high wind velocity, excess evaporation,

unusual precipitation, and temperature extremes. It isthe technique of growing crops by providing favorableenvironment/growing conditions to the plants.

In Ladakh region the greenhouse technology is ofimmense use to the farming community. This technologyhelps farmers grow fresh vegetables during wintermonths also when temperature dips down below freezinglevel. As per the diversified farming community ofLadakh, DIHAR has designed various types of passivesolar greenhouses to cater to the needs of local farmersas per their resource availability e.g. polycarbonate andFRP greenhouses for Resource Rich Farmer (RRF),Polyench and trench greenhouses for Resource PoorFarmers (RPF).Trench greenhouse : During the technology generationstage special attention was given to RPF of Ladakh,for which the institute has designed a low costgreenhouses called as trench greenhouse (Fig. 02), whichis made of locally available material except the UVstabilized transparent polythene sheet. It is a very lowcost greenhouse of 30 feet length x 10 feet width x 3feet deep size, made below the ground level. Thestructure is covered with transparent UV stabilized 200micron thick polythene during day time and extra coverof black polythene is laid out at night time. Thisgreenhouse maintains an average of 7–80C differencein temperature during winter. During day time thepolythene sheet is covered/removed as per the prevailingambient temperature. The production cost under trenchgreenhouse is Rs. 5.25/Kg of vegetable and cost benefitratio is 1:3.55.Dissemination and adoption of trench greenhouse:Considering the utility of greenhouses in Ladakh regionfor vegetable production during winter monthsaccompanied by the low cost incurred to establish atrench greenhouse, it was perceived that there will bemass level adoption of this simple technology, andaccordingly extensive awareness programme wereconducted through various channels like, local radio andtelevision, brochures, field days, training camps, fielddemonstration etc. But, to the dismay of the institute,this technology was not adopted by the local farmers asper the preconceived hope. Therefore DIHAR throughits extension wing conducted a study to understand thereasons behind the low rate of adoption.Socio-cultural factors of technology adoption: Oneintriguing features of HAC is high level of social security,even though with limited resources6. It is even more


intriguing to find sustainable agriculture in a region wherethe individuals household are not self sufficient in itselfin terms of resources required to practice agriculture.The answer lies in local institutions, observed high amongHACs.

A single household, or a village may not be selfsufficient (self possession of resource) of its own interms of the resources required to make a living bysubsistence type of farming, but the household enjoyassurances (both vertical and horizontal) that thedeficient resources will be available, as and whenrequired. For example, a HAC household does notpossess his own irrigation source (unlike the individualtube wells in LLC). In HA there are glaciers, whosemelted water is carried through khuls (channels) intothe villages for distribution in a village (somewheredistributed among more than one village) and furtheramong different householders. Though the system ofdistribution is complex, but exploitation is rare7. Theequitable distribution of this scarce resource to everystakeholder (those who contribute in community work)is ensured by the strong institutional network. Theinstitutions allow (within a limited scope) to contributein a way where a household (household is the socialunit in HA institutional system) is capable of, e.g. I helpyou in sowing and you help me in harvesting.

In terms of technology adoption, institutions play amajor role in regions of high social networking, likeLadakh. Adoption of a technology takes place withinthe institutional framework. Before a technology isadopted, it has to fit within the institutional frameworkof the community. In other words, technology is like the‘word’ and institutions the ‘grammer’. An efficienttechnology if it does not fit into the institutionalframework, is not adopted by the community6. E.g. inthe present case, trench greenhouse being one of themost economical and affordable greenhouse technology,is not adopted by the farmers of Ladakh at large scale.The reason being, local institutional norms leading toconversion (temporal) of private property into a commonproperty during winter (after harvest of crops the wholevillage land is open for animals to graze upon irrespectiveof any private ownership) due to which thesegreenhouses are not feasible where there is risk ofencroachment of free roaming grazing animals. Thesegreenhouses are only feasible where a household hasits own boundary walled compound, thus limiting theadoption of this technology by household who are devoidof such facility.

For overall development of the region, researchoutput has to reach at the grassroots level, but adoptionof a technology (apart from appropriateness of thetechnology) is dependent on many other factors like thesociology of HAC, their economic status, resource andinfrastructure available, and also on the psychologicalmake up of the individuals.

In HA areas with low population density, it hasbeen found that the communication pattern is dominatedby the lateral networking accompanied by more ofpersonal interaction. This network act as a platform forsharing information and acknowledging the variouscreative and innovative endeavours made over time andspace by various individuals.

The property regime in HAC in respect to naturalresources is such that many of the resources are heldin common (common property/pool resource - CPR)and even private property held by an individual householdare spread over different altitudes and consolidatedholdings are rare to find. Today, the development policiesgenerally recommend consolidation of holdings whichoverlooks the advantage of this property regime.

Due to single cropping season in HA it has beenfound that the consequences of perceived risk takes amajor factor in decision making process, especially whenit comes to adoption of a new technology. Thereforeexcept for a very few innovative farmer, a newtechnology is adopted by majority of the farmers onlyafter they have personally identified and experiencedthe positive outcome of the new technology. In extensionterminology, the proportion of late majority occupies themajor share among HACs.

RECOMMENDATIONSIt is a common practice among extension

functionaries to create new institutions for their extensionactivities. It is recommended that, instead of creatingnew institutions the existing institutions (in context ofHAC of Ladakh) e.g. the goba system (villageadministrative system), chhurpon (water supervisor),Kutual (messenger) etc. (for detail about thisfunctionaries see angchok, 2006) should be effectivelyused and involved in various extension programmes. Itwill not only help in reducing the exante and ex-postfactocost, but will also helps in obtaining credibility (a majorfactor for success of an intervention) among the localcommunity.

Increased importance of the role of local and grass


root level institutions can not be overruled. Thereforewhen formulating and implementing plans, priority shouldbe given to relevant institutions on a continuing basis.

In context of the above discussed factors andsituation, it is argued that extension personnel should be

aware of the prevailing socio-cultural environment sothat during the technology development anddissemination phase those factors could be taken in toconsideration and thus avoid undesirable repercussionsin the during the process of transfer of technology.

REFERENCE

1 Anonymous, Statistical Hand Book for the Year 2005-06, (District Statistical & Evaluation Agency, Ladakh AutonomousHill Development Council, Leh, Government of Jammu & Kashmir, India), 2006.

2 Angchok D & Singh P, Traditional irrigation and water distribution system in Ladakh, Indian Journal of TraditionalKnowledge, 5(3), (2006), 397.

3 Reifenberg G, Ladakhi Kitchen, (Melong Publication of Ladakh, Leh), 1998.4 Rizvi J, Ladakh: Crossroads of High Asia, Oxford University Press, 1983.5 Mishra, et al.: protected cultivation for food and nutritional security at ladakh, defence science journal, vol. 61, no. 2,

march 20106 Dorjey Angchok and Premlata Singh, A Frame to Study Local Institutions: Their Role in Common Property Resource

Management in Risk Prone High Altitude Areas, In National Seminar on Extension Strategy for Promoting DevelopmentInitiatives among Farming Community, June 18-20 2003, Pantnagar Uttaranchal.

7 Dorjey Angchok, Stobdan & SB Singh, Community-Based Irrigation Water Management in Ladakh: A High AltitudeCold Arid Region, In: Proceedings of 12th Biannual Conference on CPR Management, 2009. www.iasc2008.glos.ac.uk/conference%20papers/papers/A/Angchok_125001.pdf.


Extent of Participation of Farmers in Planning andImplementation of Community Based Tank

Management Project in Raichur District

S.B. Goudappa1, S. Surekha2, B.S.Reddy3 and A.M. Benki41. Asso.Prof., Dept. of Agril. Extension Education, UAS, Raichur, 2. Asstt. Prof., Dept. of Home Science Extension,UAS, Dharwad, 3. Asstt. Prof., Dept. of Agril.Economics, AC B’Gudi, UAS, Raichur, 4. Asso.Prof., Dept. of Agril.

Extension Education, AC Bijapur,UAS, DharwadCorresponding author e-mail:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The Investigation was carried out in the year 2009-10 to know the extent of participation of farmers in irrigationtank management in six villages of Raichur tahasil of Raichur district revealed that, majority of the respondents(58.33%) had medium extent of participation in irrigation tank management practices. An approximately two-third of the respondents participated regularly in the activities viz., identification of encroachment of tank area(75%), identification of leakages and their repairs(65%), decision on required irrigation for crops(80%), carryingout of desilting (73.33%), repair of sluice structures (65%), strengthening of tank bunds regularly (76.67%) andafforestration of foreshore area of the tank (71.67%).Key words: Investigation;Participation;

Minor water reservoirs behind earthen dams arecalled “irrigation tanks” in India. Tanks are providingsurface irrigation, recharging ground water and servingwater needs of rural households and livestock. Tankirrigation is an old established practice, where themonsoon rains disperse erratically and irrigation tanksserve to store and regulate the flow of water foragriculture. South India has a long history of rain waterharvesting through tanks and weirs. Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka and Tamil Nadu account for nearly 60 percent of the tanks irrigated area. There are about 1,27,000 tanks in these states as against 2, 08,000 tanksin the country. People’s participation in watersheddevelopment and irrigation management programme isvery essential for its success. Every piece of land in atank area should be managed with appropriate soil andwater conservation measures and used according to itscapacity. This is possible only when everybody has landin a command area voluntarily accepts and implementsthe recommended plan. Community participation is theforemost feature in the rehabilitation and livelihoodenhancement objective of this community based tankmanagement project. This will be translated into actionthrough the willingness of the community to carry out,

contribute and participate in the entire rehabilitation andrestoration programmes of the tanks and consequentlivelihood enhancement interventions. Keeping theseissues in mind the present study has been undertakenwith the following objectives: i) to analyze the planningprocess of different community based TankManagement practices. ii) to assess the participation offarmers in the Tank Management activities and iii) tostudy the crop planning activities under community basedtank management project.

METHODOLOGYThe present study was conducted in Raichur taluk

of Raichur district during 2010-11.The study wasfocused on the community based tank managementpractices undertaken by community under JSYS.Purposively Raichur district was selected for the studybecause of higher number of irrigation tanks. Amongfive taluks of Raichur district, Raichur taluk waspurposively selected keeping large command area underirrigation tanks as criteria. Numbers of tanks coveredwere Hoogenhalli, Donga Rampur , Kurabdaddi,Chandrabunda, Mandalgara and Arasigera. Based onthe tank management experience of the tank water user


as criteria, 20 respondents were drawn from six villagesrandomly by employing random sampling procedurescomprising of 120 respondents for the study. Therespondent whose lands are in the command area andwho are members of tank user group (TUG) wasconsidered for selection as respondents. The data wascollected by personal interview method using the pre-tested structured schedule and the benchmark data wascollected from JSYS Office, Raichur. The “Ex-post-facto” research design was employed and the data wereanalyzed by using appropriate statistical tools such asfrequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation andchi-square test for drawing valid inferences of the result.To find out the extent of participation of respondents incommunity based tank management activities.

Taluka-wise Tank Status of Raichur

District Talukas No. of TanksRaichur Raichur 119Raichur Deodurga 09Raichur Sindhanur 02Raichur Manavi 05Raichur Lingasugur 14Total 149

The responses were collected on three pointcontinuums viz., regularly participating, occasionallyparticipating and never participating in the communitybased tank management activities and the responseswere assigned a score of 2, 1 and 0, respectively. Theextent of participation of members of TUGs in eachactivity was computed by summing-up of the scoresobtained by each respondent. The scores obtained onall the steps constituted the total participation scores ofthe respondents in tank user group (TUG). The statisticaltools such as chi-square, mean, standard deviation,frequency and percentages were used to draw validinferences of the results.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIt is observed from the Table 1 that, majority of

the respondents (58.33%) expressed mediumparticipation, while 24.17 per cent of them had highparticipation. Low extent of participation was expressedby 17.50 per cent of the respondents in tank irrigationmanagement. The possible reason may be attributed tothe fact that, University Scientists of UAS, Raichur andDharwad had conducted various agriculture activitiesunder Karnataka Community Based Tank Management(KCBTM) Project in the selected tanks. The project

activities were developed on farmers felt needs and ithad participation of farmers in planning , implementingand post-implementing stages. Tank management andtank rehabilitation were also important activities underproject. The results are in conformity with the findingsof Suresh and Ramesh Babu (2008) who reportedthat half of the farmers had medium level of participation.Table 1: Overall extent of participation of farmers in tank

irrigation management (N = 120 )

Participation categories No. % 2

Low ( less than 47) 21 17.50 23.55**Medium (47-58) 70 58.33High (more than 58) 29 24.17

Mean = 52.79 SD = 12.84**significant at 0.01 level of probability

A perusal of Table 2 presents the data obtainedregarding participation of people in different activitiesof tank management practices in the area. It is observedthat more than two-third of the respondents wereparticipated regularly in the activities such as preparationof social map (75%), preparation of resource map(71.67%), transent walk planning activities (73.33%),household survey (77.50), identification of suchencroachment area (75%), participation in the removalof silt volume from the canal (76.17%), required irrigationwater for crops (80%), carrying out desilting activities(73.33%), strengthening of tank bunds regularly(76.67%) and afforestation in tank foreshore (71.67%).

It could be inferred from the above results thatregular participation in above activities could be theintensive use of extension teaching methods, use ofparticipatory techniques, planning based on felt needs.The above results are due to participation of TUGmembers in tank management practices. The otherpossible reason could be that above activities are directlyrelated to farmers and tank command area aroundwhich whole tank rehabilitation is planned. Further, itwas observed that considerable number of respondentsparticipated regularly in the activities such asarrangement of labour for common work (48.33%),giving consent for taking up of activities (61.67%),resection of feeder channels (46.67%), resection ofbunds(50%) and assigning responsibility to other farmers(45.83%). Further, the respondents participated poorlyin the activities such as creation of dead storages,interventions in tank bund, selection of site for checkdams , identification of locations for cross drainage works


such as aqua duct/culvert and resection of feederchannels . The reasons to the above results may be thatthe respondents must have felt that the aforesaidfacilitations are departmental duties and such decisionsare taken by Executive committee viz President,Secretary and Treasurer and other project staffmembers. Hence, their participation in such decisionwere low. Further, few of the above activities arecomplex in nature and require expertise in engineeringaspects which might be difficult for the farmers. Theabove variation in results for the support from thefindings of Ninga Reddy (2005) who observed highparticipation of watershed beneficiaries in activities like

collection of facts, identifying the problem, deciding theobjectives, developing plan of work, while poorparticipation was observed in activities like determiningthe progress and evaluation of the programme.

Data recorded in Table-3 presents that respondentsparticipated regularly in the crop planning activities suchas deciding on the crops based on water availability(51.67%), deciding on suitable crop managementpractices for increasing agricultural production (45.83%),water utilization based on critical stages of the crops(47.50%), deciding on number of irrigation for crop(50.83%) and scheduling of time of water release fromtank ( 43.33%) to increase their crop yield. the finding

Table 2: Extent of participation of farmers in community based tank irrigation management activities (N=120)

Extent of participation Tank management activities Regularly occasionally Never

No. % No. % No. %

Tank rehabilitation / Planning StageSurvey and data collection activitiesCollection of facts about tank information 67 55.83 44 36.67 9 7.50House hold survey 93 77.50 18 15.00 9 7.50Identification of major problem in the tank command area 51 42.50 57 47.50 12 10.00Identification of encroachment area 90 75.00 18 15.00 12 10.00PRA ActivitiesPreparation of social map 90 75.00 21 17.50 9 7.50Preparation of resource map 86 71.67 16 13.33 18 15.00Transect walk and planning activities 88 73.33 18 15.00 14 11.67Irrigation Activities Identification of leakages on bunds and their repair 78 65.00 30 25.00 12 10.00 Identification of locations for cross drainage works such as aqua duct or culvert 35 29.17 30 25.00 55 45.83Decision-making Activities onAvoiding the damages to sluice structure 63 52.50 42 35.00 15 12.50Participation in the removal of silt volume from the canal 92 76.17 21 17.50 7 5.83Selection of site for check dams 32 26.67 34 28.33 54 45.00Creation of dead storages 36 30.00 29 24.17 55 45.83Required irrigation water for crops 96 80.00 15 12.50 9 7.50Interventions in tank bund 34 28.33 35 29.17 51 42.50Giving consent for taking up of activities 74 61.67 32 26.67 14 11.66Resection of feeder channels 56 46.67 22 18.s33 42 35.00Implementation stageCarrying out desilting activity 88 73.33 23 19.17 9 7.50Repair of sluice structures 78 65.00 30 25.00 12 10.00Strengthening of tank bunds regularly 92 76.67 22 18.33 6 5.00Resection of bunds 60 50.00 51 42.50 9 7.50Afforestration in tank foreshore 86 71.67 20 16.66 14 11.67Arrangement of labour for common work 58 48.33 41 34.17 21 17.50Supervision of tank management practices 54 45.00 44 36.67 22 18.33Assigning Responsibility to other farmer 55 45.83 49 40.83 16 13.33


of this was in confirmative with Souvik Gosh andAshwani Kumar (2010).

CONCLUSIONThe results of the study revealed that majority of

the respondents had medium extent of participation inirrigation tank management practices. Further,Community based tank management project is a holisticapproach in this regard to build and strengthen the basicresources, so as to enable the establishment ofsustainable life support. Further, the study also indicatedthat an approximately two-third of the respondents

participated regularly in the activities viz., identificationof encroachment of tank area ,identification of leakagesand their repairs, decision on required irrigation for crops,carrying out of desilting, repair of sluice structures,strengthening of tank bunds regularly and afforestrationof foreshore area of the tank. This has resulted inincrease in land productivity in terms of yield due to theeducational efforts of the line departments in generallyand community based tank water management team inparticular. Therefore there need to focus much on cropbased water management training programme.

REFERENCES

Suresh, T.V. and Ramesh Babu, C.H. (2008). Extent of participation of farmers in sujala Kalinganahalli halla watershed project,Andhra Agric. j., 55(3) : 405-407.

Ninga Reddy (2005). A study on knowledge, extent of participation and benefits derived by participation farmers of thewatershed development programme in Raichur district of Karnataka state. Unpublished. M. Sc. (Agri), Thesis, Univ.Agric., Sci., Dharwad, Karnataka, India.

Souviks Gosh and Ashwani Kumar (2010). Performance of Irrigation and Agricultural sector in Orissa: analysis of missing links.Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 10 (2), May, 2010:48-57

Table 3: Extent of participation of farmers crop planning in Community Based Tank Management Project (N=120) Extent of participation

Tank user activities Regularly occasionally NeverNo. % No. % No. %

Crop planningEstimation of water in the tank 86 71.67 19 15.83 15 12.50Projecting the irrigated area 64 53.33 43 35.83 13 10.83Deciding on the crops based on water availability 47 39.17 30 25.00 43 35.83Deciding on suitable crop management practices for increasing agril. production 55 45.83 54 45.00 11 9.17Water utilization based on critical stages of the crops 57 47.50 53 44.17 10 8.33Taking up of integrated crop management practices. 41 34.17 57 47.50 22 18.33Participation in group meeting/ gram sabha on the issues of tank 90 75.00 23 19.17 07 5.83management activities.Deciding on number of irrigation for crop 61 50.83 48 40.00 11 9.17Scheduling of time of water release from tank 64 53.37 43 35.83 13 10.831Deciding on repairing of tank work 53 44.17 58 48.33 09 7.501Attending repair & maintenance of bunds, canals etc 42 35.00 66 55.00 12 10.00Deciding on water tax collection 12 10.00 25 20.83 83 61.17Obtain consent from the encroacher 27 22.50 59 49.17 34 28.33


Gender Differentials in Performance of Farm and NonfarmActivities in Ummednagar Village of Jodhpur District

Soma Srivastava1 and Bhagwan Singh2

1. Scientist, 2. Sr. Scientist, Division of Transfer of Technology, Training and Production Economics, Central AridZone Research Institute, Jodhpur-342003, Rajasthan.

Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected],

ABSTRACT

The present study was conducted in Ummednagar village of tehsil Mandor of Jodhpur district. The village wasselected purposively under the transfer of technology programme supported by CAZRI, Jodhpur. The observationswere taken regarding activities related to agricultural production, livestock, and domestic works. In case ofagricultural activities it was observed that there is a clear-cut differentiation among some works performed by maleand female members individually whereas, overlapping in few activities which they perform jointly. Regardingagricultural activities like field preparation bunding and clearing weeds harvesting and transport harvest majorityconsidered them as working jointly. However in case of weeding (72.22%), threshing (52.78%) and winnowing(77.77%) females were always involved in these operations and involvement of male members was very less (16-33%). In case of live stock activities except heath care (13.88%) and marketing of produce (6.66%) women alwaysinvolved in all the other activities like fodder collection, drying, feeding, cleaning, milking , processing milk etc.Regarding different household works the contribution of women was very high (91.67-100%) except marketing forhousehold provisions which was primarily done by the male members (58.33%) or jointly (41.66%).Key words: Bunding; Harvesting; Household; Livestock; Processing;

Gender is an important variable in all humaninteractions. Gender is not just about the women butthe various socio–cultural roles imposed on men andwoman based on perceived gender characteristics andtheir mutual dynamics. Women are the pivots aroundwhich the family, the society and the whole communitymoves. Rural women are the important segment of thevillage society both by their numbers and hours theyspent in performing multiferous activities at home, farmand looking after cattle. They lead difficult lives andspend maximum time doing tiring and arduous tasks.Studies also report the fact that women generallyperform farm activities which are time and labourintensive, monotonous, and more drudgery prone.Women’s participation in various farm and non-farmactivities vary widely across the regions according todifferent farming systems and socio economic status ofthe families. Farming and animal husbandry are themajor work domain except the domestic works wheretheir participation may range as high as 100 %. Sinceall household, agricultural and livestock activities are

done manually, they cause considerable physical andmental fatigue to the women. Hence, the present studywas designed to systemically analyze the men andwomen differential perceptions and actual roles invarious farm and nonfarm activities. The observationswere taken regarding activities related to agriculturalproduction, livestock, and domestic works.

METHODOLOGYThe present study was conducted in Ummednagarvillage of tehsil (administrative unit) Mandore of Jodhpurdistrict which falls in the arid zone of western Rajasthan.Most of the basic community facilities were madeavailable in the village except in some scatteredsettlements where drinking water supplied by publichealth engineering department were not connected. Thearea was, by and large, single cropped with few irrigatedwells where Rabi (winter season) crops are grown to alimited extent e.g. wheat, Mustard, Cumin and fewvegetables like cabbage, onion, garlic and carrot. Thevillage was selected purposively under the transfer of


technology programme supported by CAZRI, Jodhpur.Stratified random sampling technique was used to selectthe 36 farm families representing different caste andland holding category and from different clusters(settlements). Data were collected through a speciallydesigned interview schedule developed for this studyas given by Puri (1972) and Acharya and Benett(1982),with some necessary modifications, observations,case studies, participatory rural appraisal etc.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONWomen as agriculturist tend to look at performing

in their totality from the sowing of the crop to its ultimateutilization either as food, feed or raw material or industry.The total intellectual and physical participation of thefarm woman in the process of agricultural developmentis absolutely necessary. Thus, the data was collectedand analysed based on three major categories ofoperations viz. Agricultural, livestock and domesticactivities in which participation of women is greatest andresults are presented and discussed accordingly as under.Agricultural Activities: The economic census of Indiaestimate state wise number of agricultural and non-agricultural workers in India, which has been furtherbifurcated in actual number and percentage of malesand females engaged in these activities. According tofifth economic census (E.C.) in 2005, the number ofpersons engaged in agricultural activities in Rajasthanis 4, 41,315 (Mathur Y, 2008). The provisional censusdata from Directorate of Economics and Statistics fordistrict Jodhpur states that the total number of male andfemale involved in agricultural works are 39.40 and69.40 percent, respectively which indicates almostdouble participation of females in agriculture (KhinchiNL,2001). If we see the data regarding percentparticipation of males and females as agricultural labour6.54 % participation for males and 16.53% for femaleshas been reported in the of labourers engaged inprovisional census data of jodhpur district which againhighlight the higher percent participation of females asagricultural labourers. These reports highlight the higherparticipation of women in various agricultural activitiesrather than men.

In case of agricultural activities, a general surveyof farm operations was performed. It was observedthat there is a clear-cut differentiation among someworks performed by male and female membersindividually whereas, some overlapping in few activitieswhich they perform jointly. Regarding agricultural

activities like field preparation (69.44%), clearing weeds(66.66%), harvesting (58.33%) and transport harvest(63.89 %) majority considered them as jointly performedactivities. However in case of weeding (72.22%),threshing (52.78%) and winnowing (77.77%) femaleswere always involved in these operations andinvolvement of male members was less (16-33%). Thedata further inferred that operations such as ploughing(100%), sowing (83.33%), fertilizer application(94.44%), pesticide application (83.33%) watch andward of field (52.78%), storage (80.56%) and marketing(95.45 %) are done primarily by the male members andthe contribution of female members was very less orthey never involved in these activities (Table-1). Raj &Kishore (1991) also reported that the contribution offarm women in agriculture roughly estimated to be 50-60 percent in our country.Table 1. Gender Activity Profile of Agricultural Activities

Activities Women Men Jointly(%) (%) (%)

Field preparation 16.66 13.88 69.44Clearing weeds 33.33 - 66.66Ploughing - 100 -Sowing 5.56 83.33 11.11Weeding 72.22 8.33 19.44Fertilizer application - 94.44 6.66Pesticide application - 83.33 16.66Transport FYM 2.78 88.88 8.33Watch & ward of field 27.78 52.78 19.44Harvesting 25.00 16.66 58.33Threshing 52.78 33.33 13.89Winnowing 77.77 19.44 2.78Transport harvest 5.55 30.56 63.89Cleaning 41.66 - 58.33Storage of Harvested crop 8.33 80.56 11.11Marketing for agril. inputs - 95.45 5.55

Livestock Activities: Animal husbandry is a majordomain in which participation of rural women is seen asvery high. Researchers have indicated that mostdrudgery–ridden tasks in this domain are collecting andbringing fodder, milking, cleaning shed, feeding animalsand processing milk. In case of live stock activities exceptheath care (13.88%) and marketing of produce (6.66%)women always involved in all the other activities likefodder collection (66.66 %), feeding (77.7 8%), cleaningshed (91.67%), milking (97.22%), processing milk(97.22%) etc. The percentage wise participation ofwomen in various live stock activities has been presentedin (Table -2). It is evident from the table that womenaccounted for higher percent participation than men in


different livestock activities. Sharma & Khandelwal(2002) also reported cent percent participation in foddercollection and cleaning of animal shed, and in case ofmilking of animal 91.66 percent. Sankhala & Sharma(2000 -2001) found that least important role performedby farm women in marketing and healthcare of animals.Domestic activities : In majority of cases women alonewere responsible for all the activities related to care offamily and children showing clearly that domestic orhousehold works are more or less a female prerogative(Table-3). Regarding different domestic works thecontribution of women was very high (91.67-100%)except marketing for household provisions which wasprimarily done by the male members (58.33%) or jointly(41.66%). Majority of women participated in householdactivities like fuel wood collection (94.44%), fetchingwater (91.67%), cleaning house (100%), cooking(100%), child care (88.88%) and washing clothes(91.67%) with a very less contribution of the malemembers of the family.

Table 2. Gender Activity Profile of Livestock Activities


Collection of fodder 66.66 27.77 6.66Washing animals 80.56 13.89 5.55Feeding 77.78 11.11 11.11Milking 97.22 2.77 -Grazing 77.77 6.66 16.66Milk processing 97.22 2.78 -Deliver milk at center 16.66 33.33 50Dung cakes 100 - -Health of animals 13.88 86.11 -Cleaning shed 91.67 2.78 5.55Marketing 6.66 94.44 -

REFERENCES

Acharya M & Bennett H (1982) Women and subsistence sector; economic participation and household decision making inNepal. World Bank staff working paper no 526, Washington DC USA.

Khinchi NL (2001) Jila Sankhyikiya ruprekha: Jila Jodhpur. Aarthik evam sankhyikiya Nideshalaya, Jaipur, Rajasthan.Mathur Y (2008) Statistical Abstracts: Rajasthan. Directorate of Economics & statistics, Jaipur, Rajasthan.Puri S (1972) Work roles and decision making pattern of farm wives and husbands. Ph.D. Thesis IARI, New Delhi.Raj MJ & Kishore D (1991) Participatory behaviour of farm women in irrigated agriculture. Journal of Indian Water Resources

Society 11(2): 9-14.Sabarwal K & Kaushik S (2007) Gender differentials in perception and performance of productive roles in paddy cultivation.

Rajasthan Journal of Extension Education 15: 72-75.Sankhala G & Sharma BM (2000-2001) Role performance of farm women in agriculture and dairy husbandry; analysis. Rajasthan

Journal of Extension Education. Vol. 8 & 9: 10-13.Sharma KC & Khandelwal S (2002) Role of farm women in animal management. Rajasthan Journal of Extension Education 10:

126-129.

Table 3. Gender Activity Profile of Household/DomesticActivities


Fuel wood collection 94.44 5.56 -Fetching water 91.67 8.33 -Cleaning house 100 - -Cooking 100 - -Carry food to farm 94.44 5.56 -Child care 88.88 11.11 -Washing clothes 91.67 8.33 -Buy household provisions - 58.33 41.66

CONCLUSIONIt is clear from the discussion that in most of the

activities related to agriculture, livestock and domesticworks women participation was reported to bepredominant. However, no participation or lesser wasrecorded in financial activities like marketing, selling ofproduce and allied activities owing to lack of knowledgewhich was considered primarily as male dominatedactivities. It was also observed that however womenare playing significant role in most of the activities stilltheir control over resources and products was foundapproximately negligible. It is time to rethink whether itis better if the target group with regard to sex inagricultural research and development should be towardfarm women in developing countries to provideopportunities for women to participate in the process ofdevelopment and transfer of technology projects keepingin view their greater involvement in all sort of activitiesin agriculture and allied areas.


Role of Financial Institutions in the Development ofWomen Entrepreneurship

Neha Pandey1 and M.A. Ansari2

1. Ph. D. Scholar, 2. Associate Professor, Dept. of Agric. Communication, College of Agriculture, G B PantUniversity of Agric. & Tech., Pantnagar-263145, Uttarakhand

Corresponding author e-mail:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Entrepreneurship as an ingredient of economic development is now recognized. A number of financial institutionsprovide support to women entrepreneurs for their innovative and imaginative scheme of activities aimed at skilldevelopment for income and employment generation in different sectors. Besides, the society should also facilitatethe growth of women by recognizing their talents and abilities. There has been a substantial growth in women’sinvolvement in the economic activities all over the world over the past few decades. For this both the governmentand non-government agencies have to play a vital role. Despite the efforts of governmental and non-governmentalorganizations, the women entrepreneurs are facing many problems. It has been pointed out by many researchstudies that more than 70% of the problems faced by the women entrepreneurship are related with credit. Financialinstitutions have historically viewed women entrepreneurs as more doubtful preposition than men entrepreneurs.Today there is a greater awakening among women. If given the opportunity, they will deliver the results. It istherefore essential to encourage educated young women to entrepreneurial streams with financial, technical andscientific assistance. Hence, an integrated approach is necessary for making the movement of womenentrepreneurship a success. Governmental and Non-governmental organizations should make more focused anddirected efforts, and initiate specific programmes for women entrepreneurship development. Entrepreneurialdevelopment programmes should train, motivate, enhance and shape-up individual skills of women having marketpotential. The EDPs and MDPs can become a vital link for harnessing vast and untapped human skills to channelizethem towards accelerating the gender mainstreaming and position women entrepreneur on par with menentrepreneurs.Key words: Finance; Financial Institutions; Entrepreneur; Enterprise; Entrepreneurship;

Entrepreneurship as an ingredient of economicdevelopment has been recognized long ago in 1950. Itwas since then substantial amount of research has goneinto this sphere. It is well known fact that entrepreneursare born but they can also be made through innovativeand creative interventions. However men and womenat large are not showing sufficient of entrepreneurshipskills and the women’s position is more critical.Therefore, they should be helped particularly wherewomen entrepreneurs are prone to face more hurdles.The focus on the contribution of women in directproductive work was first brought out in 1970 by EsterBoserup in his book “Women’s Role in EconomicDevelopment”. This work of Boserup is a complicationof his research experience in India. It also provided a

conceptual framework for research on Women andDevelopment. Around the mid 1970’s, neo-Marxistfeminists and dependency theorists began looking at therelationship between women and development ratherthan the strategies for integrating women in economicdevelopment. However, lack of understanding ofwomen’s work in developing societies, and Westernbiases in development projects reinforced the divisionbetween public and private spheres of women lives.Women and development like women in developmentfocused on productive sector, and aimed at skilldevelopment for income generation.Financial Institutions: A number of institutions collectfunds from the public and place them in financial assetssuch as deposits, loans and bonds rather than tangible


property. Various financial institutions and banks areplaying a significant role in the development of womenentrepreneurship. Some of them are described belowGovernmental Institutions: Regional Rural Bank, Co-operative Societies, Khadi and Village Industries,National Agriculture Bank for Rural and Developmentoperate in rural areas whereas National Small BusinessDevelopment Corporation, Research DevelopmentCorporation, National Institute for Entrepreneurshipoperates in urban areas. However, Small IndustriesDevelopment Corporation, National Small IndustriesCorporation, Small Industries development of India,Industrial financial Corporation of India functions in ruralas well as urban areas.

Tiwari et al (1981) found that the government wasassisting the women for entrepreneurship developmentby providing financial assistance in the form of termloans, interest, subsidy, unsecured loans and concessionin the form of subsidies in the capital, self employmentloan etc. Kumar (1998) reported from Banglore thatCanara Bank’s Centre for EntrepreneurshipDevelopment gives training to women and helps themto set up small industrial units besides providingassistance for marketing their product. The assistanceby the government to women entrepreneurship has beenprovided through various institutions like SIDO, DIC,EDI, NAYE, NISIET, SIDBI, SEF, WCFC andcommercial banks etc.

In an earlier research (Bindiya 2001) undertook astudy on Women and Agriculture. He found that theRegional Rural Banks are playing an important role inempowerment of rural women through various creditschemes for entrepreneurship development. Variousfinancial institutions have special financial schemes forwomen entrepreneurship development. These includeKVIC, NABARD, Cooperative Societies and RegionalRural Banks. They provide loan opportunities to ruralwomen entrepreneur for dairying, poultry, beekeeping,food processing and preservation, mushroom cultivation,spices process, potato chips, dalia and other cottageindustries. These agencies provide loans to womenentrepreneurship upto five lakhs without any security.Other facilities include, 13.5 percent rate of interest upto a loan of Rs. 2 lakh; relaxation of registration andrespective fees related to land mortgages involved insecurity for a loan in rural areas up to the limit of Rs. 3lakhs; convenient and easy installments in case of longterm loans and provision of immediate case under a

limit as working capital; loans for housing andconsumption loans to raise status of rural women; andspecial credit schemes for enterprises related tocomputers and other electronic equipment at easierterms. The self help groups finally made the followingrecommendations, but still women entrepreneur facedunfavorable terms of credits.Non- Governmental Institutions: World Assembly ofSmall and Medium Entrepreneurs, Xavier Institute forSocial Societies are functioning in rural areas whereasNational Association of Women Entrepreneurs andExecutives, Indian Council of Women Entrepreneurs isworking in urban areas. National Alliance of YoungEntrepreneurs, Self Employed Women’s Association etcare having their presence in rural as well as urban areas.

There are many promotional governmental and non-governmental institutes/agencies functioning at nationallevel for the promotion of entrepreneurship. These arealso playing significant role in the development of womenentrepreneurship.Financial Schemes for Women Entrepreneurship:With a view that women entrepreneurs should comeforward in industrial field and become selfsufficient,governmental and financial institutions have announcedmany schemes of providing financial assistance. SeedCapital Scheme- In order to start one’s own businessthis scheme is undertaken by the government. Mohanty(2004) suggested that various self-employment andincome generating schemes such as IRDP, SEEUY,PMRY, SSI, KVI and DWCRA implemented in Orissahave made significant contribution towards economicempowerment and self- employment of women anddevelopment of women entrepreneurship. Importantgovernment agencies are Directorate of Industries,Khadi and Village Industries Board, Small IndustriesService Institutions, Mahila Vikash Sambaya Nigam andRashtriya Mahila Kosh were contacted for this purpose.The Rastriya Mahila Kosh mainly fulfills the credit needsof poor women particularly, those engaged in theunorganized sector not being adequately addressed bythe formal financial institutions. RMK aims at promotingsmall enterprises among poor women through provisionof credit as an instrument to socio-economic changeand development through the provision package offinancial and social development service for thedevelopment of women entrepreneurship. Gupta (1997)found that the empowerment of women centralgovernment of India has started Priyadarshani Yojna in


the name of late Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi.Through this scheme loan on minimum interest isprovided to women for entrepreneurship developmentto improve their livelihood. As a pilot project this schemehas been launched in six districts: four districts (Raipur,Sitapur, Shravasti and Behraich) are in Uttar Pradeshand two (Sitamani and Madhubani) in Bihar.Obstacles in Getting Financial Assistance byInstitutions: Despite the efforts of governmental andnon-governmental organization the womenentrepreneurs are facing lots of problems. In variousstudies it was reported that more than 70% of theproblems faced by the women entrepreneurs are relatedwith credit.In addition to credit, problems like lack of collateral,lack of knowledge about procedure of availing finance,Lack of Training, Delay in obtaining finance, Underfinance or inadequate finance, High rate of interest,Absence of grace period or moratorium, Reducerepayment period, Negative attitude. In another studyby Charumathi (1991) reported that banks and financialinstitutions historically viewed women entrepreneurshipas more doubtful prepositions than menentrepreneurship. Pal (1997) in a study on WomenEntrepreneurship and the need for financial sectorreforms found that the lack of affordable credit fromthe formal financial sector was the most criticalconstraint for women entrepreneurship. It was alsorevealed that women operating a business may approacha local financial institution, most probably the local bank.She will come across many barriers between her needsand the bank’s requirements which make access to creditmore difficult than she would have imagined. Womenfaced other obstacles while dealing with commercialbanks. For example, they often encounter barriers evento open a bank account so that they can increase theirsaving in order to finance their own expansion orprovided security for a future loan. Coleman (2000) useddata from the Federal Reserve Board and the UnitedStates Small Business Administration to assess theissues surrounding start up and operation financial capitalfor male and female business owners. The author foundthat women owned businesses were less likely to useexternal funding for the start up and operation of theirbusinesses and they were more likely to rely on theirpersonal funds. The author contends that they (i.e. lenderbanks and financial institutions) did not discriminateagainst the women business owners because of theirgender.

Parihar and Singh (2006) studied the constraints facedby the women entrepreneurship in Jammu district ofJammu and Kashmir. The sample consisted of 240women entrepreneurs. A large majority of womenentrepreneurs (83.33%) favored the establishment ofunits at their homes and were reluctant to go too far-off. Further, 82.5% of women entrepreneurs facedfinancial problems since they could rarely providecollateral security, which was required to get bankcredits and 62.5% of women entrepreneurs were notaware of the incentives meant for them. A significantportion i.e. 58.33% women entrepreneurs facednegative attitude of the society. In this study, only 82.5%women entrepreneurs faced problems on account oftheir counterparts rather they were found to besupportive. It was also observed that they faced problemof marketing of both raw material and finished goods.About 93% of women entrepreneurs revealed that thesupport of government was inadequate whereas 59.58%women entrepreneurs expressed that family constraintsdid not allow the women to be a successful entrepreneur.Given the situation, the questions that need to be exploredfurther are: What are the credit related problems amongwomen entrepreneurship development? , How manyfinancial institutions actually give support to womenentrepreneurs?, Whether women organization hasknowledge or information about the womenentrepreneurship run by the government?

Recently, Government of India launched morerational and motivational programmes for womenentrepreneurship, but now a day’s women are facinglots of problem when she starts a business unit.Therefore financial institutions should be creating theconducive environment and enabling framework neededfor healthy entrepreneurship. Financial institutions shouldbe helpful to those women who intend to start a businessunit for the first time. They should also be providedassistance – financial as well as technical when shechoose to start a visible and viable project requiringmanagerial skills, credit related security, necessaryfinancial support, appropriate training, subsidies, funds,saving opportunities, borrowing etc. Marketing facilitiessuch as sales, purchases and other required support fortimely start of a viable venture etc is also necessary forwomen empowerment

CONCLUSIONFor the proper development of women

entrepreneurship in India, we have to evolve many more


strategies to suit the various conditions in differentcommunities and regions. The various problems beingconfronted by women entrepreneurs can be solved inthe following manner:-1. Uneven Ministries of finance and Central banks can play a

key role in encouraging competition among anumber of financial institutions with in theircountry.

Government can also play a key role in promotingflexibility regarding collateral.

Financial institutions must recognize the potentialof women entrepreneurs and develop specialservices for them.

Proper technical education to the women. Improvement of identification mechanism of new

women entrepreneurs. Engaged organizations and agencies in EDPs

should co-ordinate their activities effectively. Assistance to project formulations. Availability of adequate infrastructures to the

women.

Free training facilities in the field of enterprises.· Avoid delaying attitudes by different EDP

institutions. Better co-ordination between financial institutions

and women entrepreneurs. For developing a proper co-ordination between

executives of promotional agencies and viablewomen entrepreneurs.

Adequate data regarding market situation shouldbe made available to the women entrepreneurs.

Adequate follow- up support to the womenentrepreneurs.The task ahead for EDP institutions is to

communicate the noble message of womenentrepreneurship development in most effective manneramong the women aspirants of all regions and all classes.In the last, to ensure women entrepreneurshipdevelopment, integrated efforts by various organizationand agencies are needed so that necessary assistanceshould be provided to prospective as well as existingwomen entrepreneurship.

REFERENCES

Bindya, B. (2001): Women Entrepreneurship: Challenges and Achievements, NISIET, p.121.Charumathi, B.(1991): Women Entrepreneur’s Challenges and Prospects, Head Department of Management, Karpagarn Arts

and Science College Affiliated to Bharthiar University, Coimbatore, 1991, p.57.Coleman, T.P. (2000): The Federal Reserve Board and the United States Small Business Administration.Gupta, C.G. and Srinivasan, N.P. (1997): Women Entrepreneurship and the Need for Financial Sector Reform. Economic Reform

Today, September, 1997, 8, p.30.Kumar, R.V. (1998): “Entrepreneurship Development Programme among Women”. Centre for Entrepreneurship Developments,

2000, 24 (5), p.5.Mohanty, A. (2008): Women in Management of Micro Enterprises: Problems and Prospects, Journal of Social Science, 2004, 8

(3), p. 245-251.Pal, M.S. (1997): Women Entrepreneurship and the Need for Financial Sector Reform. Economic Reform Today, September,

1997, 8, p.26-29.Parihar, P. and Singh, S.P. (2006): Constraints Faced by Women Entrepreneurs in Jammu. Journal of Extension Education,

January- May p.1-2.Tiwari et al (1981): Women Entrepreneurship OF eastern, UP. Challenges and Strategies of Empowerment. Discovery Publishing

house, 1987, p.7.


Behavioural Changes of Farmers through Krishi Vigyan Kendra

Ram Jiyawan1, Kalyan Ghadei2, Manver Singh3 and D.K.Sujan4

. 1 &3. Research Scholar, 2. Lecturer (Sr. Scale), 4. Professor, Department of Extension Education, Institute ofAgricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi -221 005.

e-mail: [email protected] and [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) in India playas important role in transfer of Agricultural technology. The KVK PaliMarwar in Rajshan of India was established in 1992 to carry out activities for the farmers of the area. Therefore, thepresent investigation entitled “Behavioural Changes of Farmers through Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK)” wasdesigned with the objectives to find out the existing level of knowledge on various activities, attitude towardsvarious activities and skill developed among the farmers by KVK. Knowledge, skill and attitude are the threecomponents of behaviour but here the paper examines the change in knowledge and attitude of farmers. The studywas conducted in purposively in Pali district of Rajasthan. The block SOJAT CITY, out of total ten blocks in thedistrict was identified on the basis of maximum activities carried out by KVK during the preceding five years. Fiveadopted Villages were selected from the identified panchayat samiti (Sojat City) on the basis of maximum activitiescarried out by KVK as evident from KVK records. Likewise five non adopted villages were also identified from thesame panchayat samiti as control group, where no activities were initiated by KVK. Thus, in all 10 villages (5adopted and 5 non-adopted) were included in the study comprising of 150 respondents (i.e., 75 beneficiaries and75 non-beneficiaries). The major findings of the study were that exactly 50.00 per cent of respondents possessedmedium level of knowledge, whereas 26.66 per cent respondents were reported to be from low knowledge group.This was followed by 23.34 per cent respondents who could be placed in high knowledge group. Knowledge ofrespondents was assessed under two major aspects i.e., knowledge about general aspects and knowledge aboutvarious activities of KVK. It was interesting to note that a fair majority of respondents (86.50%) were foundacquainted with KVK and the purpose for which they were established. Similarly, majority of them (79.5%) wereaware of the operational area for each KVK. As regard to knowledge about TOT activities, majority of respondents(75.75%) knew well about demonstration, its purpose, and types of demonstrations. Farmers fair and vichargoshthis(Discussion forum) had also attracted the attention of majority (74.75%) of respondents. The Study alsorevealed that 42.00 per cent of the total respondents had favourable attitude, followed by 41.33% least favourableand 16.67% most favourable attitude towards activities of KVK.Keywords:Attitude; Behaviour;Farmers; Knowledge;

The progress in agriculture to a large extentdepends on the quick and effective dissemination of newagricultural practices among the farmers and feedingback the farmer’s problems to the research station fortheir solution. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Farm ScienceCentre) evolved in the year 1974 by the Indian Councilof Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi. KVKperforms on farm trials, front line demonstration,vocational training of farmers, farm women and ruralyouths, in-service training of grass root level fieldfunctionaries etc. Rajasthan is the pioneer state in whichfirst KVK was started in Fatehpur Shekhawati in Sikar

district in the year 1976. According to Rathore, 2005,at present a total of 31 KVKs are working in the stateof Rajasthan, out of which 10 KVKs are working underthe administrative control of Maharana Pratap Universityof Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, six KVKs undernon-government organizations (NGOs) and theremaining two KVKs are running under theadministrative control of ICAR. This is unanimouslyaccepted that success of any extension activity dependson the ability and expertise of the extension staff tospeedy delivery and direct flow of information to theclientele system at the right time in the most appropriate


manner. A large number of highly qualified manpowerand huge amount of budgets are diverted to theseinstitutions. Inspite of all these efforts, a considerabletechnological gap still lies between the technology alreadydeveloped and the technology adopted by the ultimateusers. Thus, it was considered important to conduct astudy on Krishi Vigyan Kendra and its impact on thepeople of its operational area. Thus present study wasundertaken with the objectives to find out the existinglevel of knowledge of respondents in terms of variousactivities of KVK and to measure attitude ofrespondents towards various activities undertaken byKVK.

METHODOLOGYKrishi Vigyan Kendra at Pali Marwar in the district

of Pali started functioning on 05 May, 1992 under theadministrative control of ICAR. This KVK is situatedin IIA agro-climatic zone of Rajasthan and catering tothe need of about 80 per cent of the total workingpopulation of the district engaged in agriculture and alliedagricultural occupations. The study was conducted inpurposively selected Pali district of Rajasthan. The blockSojat city, out of total ten blocks in the district was

identified on the basis of maximum activities carriedout by KVK during the preceding five years. Fiveadopted Villages were selected from the identifiedpanchayat samiti (Sojat city) on the basis of maximumactivities carried out by KVK as evident from KVKrecords. Likewise five non adopted villages were alsoidentified from the same panchayat samiti as controlgroup, where no activities were initiated by KVK. Thus,in all 10 villages (5 adopted and 5 non-adopted) wereincluded in the study comprising of 150 respondents (i.e.,75 beneficiaries and 75 non-beneficiaries).

Fifteen beneficiaries and fifteen non- beneficiarieswere selected from each adopted and non- adoptedvillage using random sampling technique. Informationwas collected with the help of a structured interviewschedule. The interview schedule was pre-tested andmodified based on suggestions made by the respondentsand finally the data was collected by personal interviewmethod. The data obtained was compiled and analyzedusing statistical tools.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONKnowledge level of respondents about variousactivities of KVK: Knowledge plays an important role

Table 1: Knowledge level of beneficiaries and non- beneficiaries about TOT activities

Particulars Beneficiaries Non-Beneficiaries Total AverageMPS Rank MPS Rank MPS Rank

Knowledge about general aspects:What is KVK? Why they are established? 93.00 I 80.00 I 86.50 IWhat is operational area for each KVK? 86.00 III 73.00 II 79.5 IIWho is the sponsoring agency of these KVK? 80.00 VI 60.00 VII 70.0 VIIWho runs these institutions? 73.00 XI 53.00 XII 60.00 XIIName the extension method commonly used by 66.00 XIV 46.00 XIV 56.00 XIVKVKs for the transfer of technology?Knowledge about various activities:Demonstration 86.50 II 65.00 V 75.75 IIITraining 81.50 V 60.00 VI 70.75 VIOn farm research 73.02 X 53.02 XI 63.01 XIField Day 66.50 XIII 50.00 XIII 58.25 XIIIExhibition 78.25 VII 58.25 VIII 68.25 VIIIFarmer’s fair and goshthies 83.00 IV 66.50 IV 74.75 IVEducational Tour 77.66 VIII 66.66 III 72.16 VPublication 75.00 IX 56.50 IX 65.75 IXFilm show 71.00 XII 55.33 X 63.16 XCampaign 53.00 XV 43.00 XV 48.00 XVFarm advisory service 0.00 XVI 0.00 XVI 0.00 XVIOverall Total 76.22 59.08 67.45

MPS =Mean Per Cent Score


in the adoption of an innovation or any new idea by thefarmers. It may be defined as retained informationconcerning facts, concept and relationship. Knowledgeseeking is initiated by an individual and greatly influencedby one’s predisposition. A need can motivate an

individual to seek information. Knowledge function ismainly cognitive.

Knowledge of respondents was assessed undertwo major aspects i.e., knowledge about general aspectsand knowledge about various activities of KVK. The

Table 2: Comparison of attitude between beneficiary and non-beneficiary respondents

Statements Beneficiaries Non-Beneficiaries Total AverageMPS Rank MPS Rank MPS Rank

The production of crop can be increased by the 77.52 1 64.42 4 70.97 2advice of scientists working at KVKThe KVK is not useful in raising the living 55.26 10.5 49.89 9 52.57 9standard of the farmersThe KVK keeps the farmers abreast with the 55.26 10.5 35.52 12/5 45.39 11latest technological changesThe demonstrations conducted by KVK are 75.00 2.5 68.36 1.5 71.68 1useful in motivating the farmers towardsimproved agricultural practicesThe training period is not sufficient to cover 27.63 18 21.00 18 24.31 18all filed informationThe subject matter information given in the 55.89 9 46.57 10 51.23 10training programmes is adequateThe trainers cannot acquire enough knowledge 44.68 12 42.00 11 43.34 12of subject matterThe gap between two trainings inadequate 75.00 2.5 65.68 3 70.34 4All the recommendations given in the trainings 31.57 17 28.89 17 30.23 17are profitable to farmersKisan Mela organized by KVK is useful in 73.57 4 68.36 1.5 70.96 3providing improved farming techniquesThe place of training is not suitable 32.84 16 31.57 14.5 32.00 16Field days organized by KVK are useful in 65.68 5 63.15 5 64.41 5solving the problems right in the field situationFilm show are not helpful in developing 35.52 14 31.57 14.5 33.54 14confidence towards new technologyFarmers training programmes provide the 64.42 6 57.78 7 61.10 7practical knowledge about the new agriculturaltechnologyPress releases are not helpful in providing 34.10 15 31.57 15.5 32.83 15informationCampaign organized by KVK are beneficial 63.15 7 60.47 6 61.81 6to farmersYouths training is not beneficial in improving 18.31 19 17.05 19 17.68 19physical as well as mental status of youthsThe training does not help in developing 42.00 13 35.52 12.5 38.36 13confidenceFarmers guidance at headquarter is beneficial 60.47 8 52.57 8 56.52 8in receiving new technologyOverall total 51.99 45.89 48.91

MPS =Mean Per Cent Score


results so obtained are presented in Table 1. It wasinteresting to note that a majority of respondents(86.50%) were found acquainted with KVK and thepurpose for which they were established. Similarly,majority of them (79.5%) were aware of the operationalarea for each KVK. As regard to knowledge aboutTOT activities, majority of respondents (75.75%) knewabout demonstration, its purpose, and types ofdemonstrations. Farmers fair and vichar-goshthee(Discussion forum) had also attracted the attention ofmajority (74.75%) of respondents.

It is noted that none of the respondents knew aboutthe farm advisory services, which is an important activityof KVK. Likewise farmers had poor knowledge(48.00%) about campaign. More than half (56.00%) ofthe total respondents did not know about the name ofmethods commonly used by KVK for the transfer ofagricultural technology. A close observation of dataindicated a variation in the knowledge score betweenbeneficiaries and non-beneficiaries about TOT activities.Thus, it can be concluded that the beneficiaryrespondents of the study area possessed moreknowledge about KVK activities as compared to non-beneficiaries of KVK. It may be due to more exposureof beneficiaries about various activities of transfer oftechnology. They had frequent contact with the KVKpersonnel, participated in various KVK activities andwere enlightened. Obviously the non-beneficiaries weredeprived of such exposure resulting into their poorknowledge. The findings are line with the findings ofChand (1993) and Singh (1996) who reported asignificant difference in the knowledge between trainedand untrained farmers.Attitude of respondents towards various activitiesundertaken by KVK: Allport (1935) defined “Attitudeas a mental state of readiness, organized throughexperience, exerting a directive and dynamic influenceupon individual’s response to all object and situation withwhich it is related” The attitude of an individual towardsany (activity or programme) exerts a significant influenceupon his participation in the activity. Experiences haveshown that people having favourable attitude towardsan activity reflects a commutative response in the formof a favourable reaction. Such an individual is moreprone to change and readily adopt the technology.Keeping in view the crucial importance of attitude inthe adoption of technology, an attempt was made in thispart of study to find out the attitude of farmers towards

TOT activities of KVK. The results so obtained havebeen presented in Table 2.

Table 2 shows the attitude of beneficiary and non-beneficiary respondents towards activities carried outby KVK. It is apparent from the data in Table 2 thatdemonstrations conducted by KVK were useful inmotivating the farmers towards improved agriculturalpractices. This statement scored highest MPS and wasranked first. The reflection of such a strong positiveattitude towards demonstration may be due to the factthat the demonstration provides best visual explanationof the idea to the farmers. The demonstrations wereconducted by the scientists on the scientific lines. Thismight have motivated the farmers towards improvedagricultural practices.

Further, both beneficiaries and non-beneficiarieshad strong agreement with the statement “productionof crop can be increase by the advice of scientistworking at KVK.” Majority of farmers (70.97%) hadexpressed that Kisan mela organized by KVK is usefulin providing improved farming techniques. The majorityof respondents (70.34%) have also shown theiragreement with the statement that gap between twotraining is inadequate. Since the attitude statement“youths training is not beneficial in improving physicalas well as mental status of youths” is negative and therespondent’s strong disagreement towards it reversesits meaning and thereby it becomes positive, hence itsinterpretation will also be accordingly.

Both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries havediscarded and have shown strong disagreement withthe statement related to youth’s trainings. Likewise thetraining period was not considered sufficient by majorityof farmers. The farmers, in general, did not agree thatall the recommendation given in training is beneficial.The results were obvious because the trainingsconducted by KVK are mostly related to agricultureand allied fields. The activities to improve the physicalas well as mental status of youth are very rare atKVKs. Similarly, all the field information cannot becovered in single training programme conducted forspecified time period. Conclusions therefore, can bedrawn that the attitudes of farmers towards activitiesof KVK were somewhat favourable. This finding is inthe line with the findings of Chhipa (1987), who foundthat the knowledge level of farmers about the activitiesof KVK was of medium level and majority of farmershad positive attitude towards the activities of KVK.Kalla (1988) reported that most of the beneficiary


farmers had their attitude in positive direction aboutpractices of lab to land programme.

CONCLUSIONLooking to the existing knowledge gap among the

respondents, it is recommended that KVK personnelshould visit the fields more frequently and teach the

farmers about various activities carried out by KVKfor their benefit and it is encouraging to note thatmajority of respondents had positive attitude towardsKVK and its activities. But still there lies a scope tocontact the farmers who had unfavorable attitude toenlighten them about the benefits of KVK and bringabout changes in their attitudes.

REFERENCES

Allport,G.W. (1935). Attitude, A Handbook of Social Psychology, (ed.) C. Murchison Clark University press, Worchester.[cited by Ray, 1996]

Chand, S. (1993). An impact study in relation to adoption of improved practices by farmers in Bharatpur district (Raj.). M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis (Unpublished), RAU, Bikaner.

Chippa, B.L. (1987).The impact of Krishi Vigyan Kendra of technology among the farmers in Ajmer district Rajasthan. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis (Unpublished), SKN College of Agriculture, Jobner.

Kalla, P.N. (1988). A study on lab to land programme on behavioural change of farmers in Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis (Unpublished),RAU, Bikaner, Campus: Udaipur.

Rathore, J.S (2005). Impact of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) Pali (Rajasthan) on behavioural change of farmers, M.Sc. (Ag.)thesis (unpublished) submitted to Department of Extenson Education Institute of Agricultural Sciences Banaras HinduUniversity (BHU), Varanasi (UP) - 221005

Singh, A.K. (1996). Impact of Krishi Vigyan Kendra in adoption of mustard production technology among the farmers ofNadbai panchayat samiti of Bharatpur district of Rajasthan. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis (Unpublished), Rajendra AgricultureUniversity, Bikaner.


Biomass Recycling and Integrated Nutrient Management inBanana-A Farmer Participatory Research

Sheeba Rebecca Isaac1 and Bindu Podikunju2

1. & 2. Farming System Research Station, Kerala Agricultural University, Sadanandapuram,Kotarakkara,Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Abstract: The need for reducing chemical usage in banana necessitated an on farm testing programme on integratednutrient management in Nendran banana during 2009-10 in farmers’ field in Kollam district. The trial to assess theeffectiveness of organic wastes composted using earthworms, enriched with chemical fertilizers at 50% substitutionand using biofertilisers on the growth and performance of Nendran in farmers’ fields revealed highest yields andreturns in the fields where chemical source of N was used for enrichment (20.2 t/ha) and significantly superior tobiofertilisers (13.2 t/ha). The results of the trial projects the need for integration of nutrient sources for higheryields in banana and the responses of the farmers reveal their acceptance of the technology of vermicomposting asan ideal method of disposal and recycling of organic wastes.Key words : Recycling, enrichment, vermicompost, integration

Banana is one of the most remunerative cropspreferred by farmers for cultivation both in the uplandsand lowlands. Nendran banana is an integral componentin the banana fields on account of its market preference.It is the assumption among the farmers that due to thelong duration of the crop, large quantity of fertilizersare to be applied during the different growth phases.The farmers’ practice is to apply complex fertilizers sixto seven times in soil at the expense of organic manuresand this is followed by application of ammonium sulphatein sachets to the tip of the bunches to increase bunchsize. Heavy use of pesticides is also common. However,the increasing awareness among the consumers aboutthe chemical hazards has urged the farmers to adoptuse of safer and ecofriendly alternatives to these inputs.The enormous of organic wastes available after harvestin the form of pseudostems, leaves, bunch peduncle andrhizomes (20-30 kg/ plant) offers scope for recyclingand use in the subsequent crop. Keeping this in view anattempt on the evaluation of recycled banana wastesas a source of manure for the successive crop wasinitiated as a field testing programme in Kollam district.

METHODOLOGYThe on farm testing programme was conducted

in farmers’ fields during 2009-10. Vermicompost units

were set up and weighed quantities of the biomassavailable after the harvest of the bunches werecomposted using Eisenia foetida earthworms.Biowastes were mixed with FYM in the ratio 8:1 in thecemented rings and the final compost was enriched withdifferent nutrient sources which were then evaluatedfor its nutrient value and applied for the succeeding cropof banana. The treatments were T1: Vermicompostenriched with urea, (10 kg/ plant) T2: Vermicompostenriched with N and P biofertilisers and rock phosphate(10 kg/ plant), T3: farmer’s practice of applyingpseudostems in basins and complex fertilisers.Phosphorus and potassium were applied as chemicalssupplementing that were made available through theorganic manures

The prepared enriched compost were applied asper the treatments fixed and the response was evaluatedin the trial modifying the nitrogen recommendationsaccording to the nitrogen contents in the organic source.Planting and other management practices were followedas per the package of practices recommendations. Thecrop was ready for harvest during October 2010. Thedata were analysed using statistical procedures with thefarmers fields’ serving as replications.

The trial also explored the feed back of theparticipating farmers to the technology of organic


recycling in banana and recorded the response of asample of 32 farmers visiting the trial fields during thedifferent stages of growth and field days.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe data on the growth and yield parameters of

Nendran banana are depicted in Table 1The observations recorded showed that the growth

performance and yields were highest for the treatmentsin which chemical organic integration was adopted (T1)compared to enrichment with rock phosphate and Nand P biofertilisers. Significantly superior values arerecorded with respect to the number of fingers and bunchweight which contributed to the significantly higheryields in the combined application. This could beattributed to the better availability of nutrients from bothsources, especially in the early stages of growth, whilein plants fertilized with the biofertiliser enriched compost,an initial stress would have occurred on account of thelower contents in the compost. Banana is a heavy feederof nutrients and a steady supply of nutrients right fromplanting to bunch maturity is essential to produce largeand good quality bunches (Shehana and Abraham, 2002).Integrated nutrient management is beneficial for nutrientsupply to an optimum level for sustained cropproductivity. Bhalerao etal.(2009) reported that in GrandNaine TC banana application of 100 % recommendeddose of NPK with 10 kg FYM per plant andbiofertiIizers (Azosprillum and PSB @ 25 g per planteach) were found beneficial in terms of banana yieldand monetory returns, which was followed by applicationof 50 % NPK through organic ( FYM + Green manure)and 50 % NPK through inorganic and biofertiIizers. Inhis study Ziauddin (2009) recorded that integration oforganic and inorganic fertilizer was more effective thanthe inorganic fertilizers alone. Field trials on compostenrichment and application in bhindi revealed results ofchemical fertilizer enrichment of vermicompost to bethe best (Isaac et al.,2006) The farmers’ practice whichincluded application of pseudostems as such in basinsfollowed by complex fertilizers gave on par yields to

enrichment of vermicompost with chemicals butsignificantly lower benefit cost ratio (Table 1). The yieldbenefit is attributed to the better nutrient availability fromvermicompost compared the fresh pseudostems.

The farmer participatory study also brings to focusthat recycling and enrichment technology in banana isgood especially in terms of reduction of pest innoculm.The field survey and response of farmers to thetechnology revealed that the recycling of banana biomasscould significantly reduce the pest innoculm (Fig.1) Theconventional method of applying the pseudostems inbasins cannot be considered as good in commercialbanana cultivation. The concept of integrated nutrientmanagement in banana, organic recycling of the bulkbiowastes have been rated very good by 56-68 per centof the farmers. Biofertilisers for compost enrichmenthas not been acceptable,

Fig. 1 Response of farmers to biomass recycling inbanana (n=32)

The limitations put forth by the farmers in adoptingthe recycling technology and organic nutrition in bananaare presented in Table 2

It is very much evident that the farmers upholdchemical fertilizers as the source of nutrients in banana.The study shows that the conventional practice ofapplying the biowastes in basins adds to chances of pestsand disease incidence in the succeeding crop andapplication of complex fertliser in indiscriminatequantities hikes the cost of cultivation with no significantincrease in yields as revealed in the economic analyses.

Table 1. Growth and yield parameters of Nendran banana

Treatments Height at No. of hands/ No.of fingers Bunch weight Yield BCharvest (cm) bunch / hand / plt ( kg) t/ha

T1 305 5.0 49.7 8.7 20.2 2.17T2 275 4.5 41.0 5.6 13.2 1.06T3 (Farmer’s practice) 290 5.0 46.3 8.0 18.8 2.06CD ns ns 13.030 0.522 2.680 0.023


As chemicals are ready sources of nutrients and takinginto account the need for organic nutrition it is economicalto integrate vermicompost and fertilisers thus partlysubstituting the nutrient requirement with chemicalsources of fertilisers. Biofertilisers alone cannot satisfythe nutrient needs of banana in compost enrichment.

Table 2. Constraints ranked by the participating farmersin organic nutrition in banana

Constraints Rank

Labour shortage- transportation of the 1pseudostems from fields to the compost pitsnormally taken in homesteadsAvailability of biofertilisers locally 4Separation of worms from compost is laborious 2Low nutrient contents in organic manures 3Long duration necessitates chemical fertilisers 2

CONCLUSIONVermicompost units need to be established near

farmers’ fields and the ideal recommendation would berecycling banana pseudostem as vermicompost +chemical fertilizers (50% N substitution). Pseudostemscomposted with earthworms on an average need to beapplied @ 10 kg per Nendran plant in two splits, urea220g and potash 500g (six splits), rajphos, 550g (twosplits) at monthly intervals. Enriching compost with greenleaf manures or biofertilisers can further reduce thechemical dosage in the integrated schedule based onthe nutrient content of the final compost, but based onthe results of the trial and farmers’ feed back, chemicalfertilizers cannot be avoided. Awareness programmeshave to strengthened among the farmers on the needfor integration of nutrient sources rather thanoverdependence on chemicals

REFERENCES

Bhalerao, V.P., N.M. Patil, C.D. Badgujar and D.R. Patil. 2009. Studies on integrated nutrient management for tissue culturedGrand Naine Banana Indian J. Agric. Res., 43 (2) : 107-112,2009

Isaac, Sheeba R., Ravi, S. Joy, S. J. 2006. Response of bhindi to enriched compost in homesteads. In Abstracts of NationalSeminar on Appropriate technologies for sustainable Horticulture, March 20-21,2006, Annamalai University

Shehana R. S and Abraham, Alice.2002. Effect of P solubilising organisms in conjunction with MRP on the growth and yield ofbanana cv. Nendran. In Proceedings of the 14th Kerala Science Congress, Thiruvananthapuram jan.29-31,2002

Ziauddin, Syed.2009. Integrated nutrient management studies in Banana (cv. Ardhapuri) The Asian Journal of Horticulture,Vol. 4 No. 1 : 126-130


Empowering the Farm Women for Greening the Upland throughHorticultural Crops

(Smt.) A. Mishra1 and A.Mishra2

1. Sms(H.Sc),KVK, Dhanbad, 2. Programme Coordinator , KVK, Pakur (Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi)Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

As per the report of FAO, women constitute about half of the world’s population which account for 60% of workinghours, yet they receive only 10% of world’s income and own less than 1.0% of world’s property. According to 2001Census of India, there are 495 million women (48.27% of the total population) in India . Out of the total mainworkers population female workers comprise 22.5% and 68.89% are marginal workers. About one third populationof women (out of total population of women) is actively engaged in agricultural activities and play important rolein agricultural population. The women do more work than men, is a matter of common observation and population(Manekar, 1990). There is well known fact that women’s work remains largely invisible and under recorded. Thereal issue, therefore, is more serious i.e. despite their involvement in agricultural work in such a long magnitude,they have not been actively in main stream of agricultural development and there is hardly any appreciation andtheir extensive contribution. By and large, they have remained as “invisible workers ”.Key words : Women; Agricultural population;

The horticulture is one of the major disciplines ofagriculture where women play a crucial role in productionof horticultural crops, particularly, in upland areas ofthe country. The extent of total area with poor soil withlow water retention capacity poor vegetation, veryfrequently occurrence of drought, famine and frost,difficult to execute agro-techniques, poor transportation,communication and marketing facilities, etc.(Anonymous, 1997).

Despite various bio-physical constraints, unbandedupland Jharkhand offer ample scope for cultivation ofvarious horticultural crops. The horticultural scientistshave proved that there are various drought hardly,subtropical fruit and vegetable crops, which can begrown successfully giving very good yields and qualityof produce.

However, adoption of these horticultural crops isvery poor. Besides, reasons for low adoption ofhorticultural crops is unawareness and negligibleindependent involvement of farm women in horticulturalproduction system. The farm women totally depend ontheir husbands and elder men of their family. Theycannot take any decision in farming without consultinghusbands or elder members of family, while majority of

agricultural/horticultural operation are carried out byfemale partners of the farmers. The past social studiesreveal that female partners do more work than male infarming, specially in different agri-horti cropping systemin upland regions. In upland and hilly areasunemployment and food security are typical problems.Therefore, male members go here and there in searchof employment and earning money to sustain theirlivelihood and female members of the family take careof farming system including horticultural cropproduction. Hence , there is need to create awareness,knowledge among farm women about horticultural andemployment them for greening upland.Empowering Farm Women for Greening the Upland: There is ample scope of horticultural development inupland regions and it is crucial need of the regions.Majority of the male members of the farming familiesgo elsewhere in search of employment and earningmoney. In such condition female members of the farmfamilies remain at house and take care of agri-horticultureproduction activities/operation, hance, only femalepartners of the farming families are real and actualfarmers in upland regions.

However, in majority of the farm women are


unemployed or under employed. They have to liveaccording to established customs, traditions, ethos, edosand culture of the society. They cannot take any decisionindependently. The have to follow the instruction of theirhusbands or elder person of the family. The do not ownland, water resources, seeds, money and otherhorticultural inputs. Therefore, they can not use theirfields.

As swami Vivekananda said “ Just as a bird couldnot fly with only one wing, a nation would not marchforward if women are lift behind.’’ Mahatma Gandhialso said “ Women is the companion of man, gifted withequal mental and physical capacities ’’ hence to exploitfull mental and physical potential of upland farm womento greening upland through horticultural crop production,the upland farm women should be empowered toachieve following goals/objectives. To involve and connect farm women with main

stream of horticultural development particularly,in upland region.

To acknowledge farm women with their power,potential and influence.

To make farm women economically self sufficient. To motivate them for adoption of horticultural

crops. To improve their social states and honour. To educate and train them to become and self-

reliant. To create awareness, knowledge and skills among

them about advocated innovative horticulturaltechnologies, specially, for upland and hilly regions.

To increase participation of farm women indecision making and farm management

To create self-employment and entrepreneurialopportunities among upland farm women throughhorticultural development.

To make them resourceful and potential fruit andvegetable producers of the country

· To maintain the nutritional and food security inupland areas.

To harness insight, vision, knowledge, ideas, andworking potential of farm women.

To promote value- addition in horticulture.· To harnessing production potential of subtropical

horticultural crops. To create techno- economic revolution in

horticulture.

To promote export potential of horticulturalproducts

To make best utilization of natural resources inupland regions.

To maintain ecological balance in upland regions. To promote overall socio-economic development

of upland and hilly regions. To convert upland into green to evergreen.Impediments in empowering the farm women: There

are several impediments which hinder progress ofempowerment of farm women for greening uplandlead regions through horticultural crop productionand resource management paradigms.

Poverty and illiteracy : Upland and resource poor,occurrence of drought and famines are very regularfeatures of the regions. These lead to cronic poverty,particularly amongst tribal women group of the society.The literacy rate among women is also very low. Forexample, farm women’s literacy level among majordistrict of Jharkhand state Godda Pakur and Sahibganjare less then 20%. Thus, poverty and low educationstatus of women in upland and hilly regions are majorimpediments in empowering farm women.No Self- decision Making Power: Not only in hillyregion but also throughout the country, the majority ofthe farm women do not have the power to take decisionfor adoption and production of any crop includinghorticultural crops. They depend exclusively on theirhusbands/ elder male person of the family. The womenare treated as farm labourers. Thus, farm women cannotparticipate in decisionmaking of crop production systemdue to male dominated family system, which leads tobackwardness of farm women.Traditional Belief and Folkways : The traditional belief,folkways, social ethos and ado also play a vital role inbackwardness and low status of farm women. Ourcultural heritages, social rule and superstitions haveprovided the higher status to male than female. Theparticipation and leadership of women in any decisionmaking is not considered as a good sign in rural families.Thus, women, particularly, farm women are avoided insocio-economic decision making of the family or society.Resistance to Social Changes: The social changeinvolve change in existing structure or function ofsociety. The rural societies have their deep faith in wellestablished traditional norms and values. They do notwant to change or resist change. The societies havedefined functions of male and female separately. The


majority of the decisions related to household are takenby male members of the family as norms and customsof society indicated. Thus, the society does not allowfor participations in decision making (Singh, 1997).Limited Access to Resources (Land): Access to assetsis single most urgent need for upliftment women ingeneral and farm women in particular. Though, Indialegislation permits equal rights of man and women,Women still does not have ownership on land and pattasare allotted in their husband’s name. Therefore,concerted efforts are needed to promote women accessto resources.Limited Access to Inputs and credit : Though womenmake substantial contribution to horticulturaldevelopment, their access to most crucial input ‘credit’is limited. Since, they are not land owners, the creditflow generally goes in the name of the male members(i.e. owners ). The women do not have any propertiesalso in their names that is why they neither can purchasehorticultural inputs themselves nor can sell anyhorticultural produce/input independently.Inadequate Technical Competency: Though womenare involved in almost all horticultural/ agriculturaloperations, yet, they have inadequate technicalcompetency due to their limited exposure to outsideworld. This has compelled then to follow age oldpractices with low efficiency.Poor Involvement in Research and Extension Work:The India has a very intensive and extensive welldeveloped agricultural research and extension system.But participations of women in this system is negligible.The women are more sincere and hard workers. Hence,there is urgent need of increasing participations ofwomen in horticultural research and extensionprogrammes.Household Responsibilities and Farm Drugery:Household responsibilities and overloaded farmdrugeries also play a vital role in backwardness of farmwomen. The 90% household works are managed byfarm women. Beside these, more than 60% agricultural/horticultural operations are carried out by femalemembers. In such conditions, the upliftment of farmwomen is becoming a very challenging and difficult task.Limited Exposure to Mass Media : Transfer oftechnology approach which mainly includes mass mediais also not paying due attention towards disseminationof adequate and timely agricultural information to farmwomen. At present coverage of agricultural /

horticultural programmes on Doordarshan in only 12%of the total time (in Hindi), out of which, the programmerelated to women are negligible. A few programmewhich are meant for women are telecast at a time notsuitable for them. The majority of the farm women donot have Television, Radio, and other means ofcommunication. The majority of the women are illiterate,can neither read nor write. Thus, means of the massmedia are helpless in empowering the farm women.Negligible participation of Farm Women inHorticultural Development Programmes : It has beenobserved that farm women are not involved inhorticultural development programmes. Therefore, Theydo not have any idea, knowledge and interest in theseprogramme.Untapped Women’s Potential : Though women havemany inherent capacities like high determination, séanceof responsibility, better managerial ability , yet theirpotential has not been identified by extension personnel.They are ignored and considered as inferior inknowledge, skill and ability. In ancient times, onlywomen carried out the different operations andmanagement works of the agricultural/ horticultural.Thus, women are mother of agricultural development .Lack of Organization/ Societies for Upliftment ofFarm Women : Farm women provide food for all butnobody provide them support for their upliftment andwelfare. There is no organization/ society which is fullydedicated to guide them, to help them and appreciatethem.Limited Access to Independent Social participations: The farm women are the poorest and innocent groupof the Indian society. They are most bounded anddependent. They can not participate independently insocial work /activities. They neither can meet nor cango any where without prior the permission of eldermember of the family or their husbands.Psychological Fear and Inferiority Complex : Thefarm women have several kinds of psychological fear,hesitation and inferiority complex in their mind. Theythink themselves as feeble and poor, the men are moreintelligent and no more then us. We can not does mencan ? We are uneducated and we do not know muchmore? The male persons are superior to us ? Such kindof thinking of farm women leads to underdevelopmentand backwardness among them.Strategic Intervention to Empowering Farm Women:The strategic interventions for empowering farm women


for greening uplands through horticultural cropproduction may be divided in short term, and long termstrategic interventions. These interventions may be ofparamount importance for empowering farmwomen,particularly, in uplands amongst these strategicinterventions, some important ones are mentioned .Short-term Strategic Interventions : Emphasis in this phase is to fulfill their basic needs. Rapport building with farm women by econo-

technocrats Popularizing horticultural technologies among farm

women Creating awareness and knowledge and

confidence Family planning programmes and health education Make ready the farm women for direct and

independent involvement in horticulturaldevelopment programmes

Nutrition programme for mother and children Programme to eradicate gender among rural

societies Portable water and appropriate fuel for cooking Access to input resources for horticultural crop

production Access to household technology Introduction and training on horticultural crop

technologies Programmes for income generation in short termLong –term Strategic Interventions: Social andpolitical mainstream are important components ofempowerment of farm women at high level. Somestrategies which can be applied at this phase are asfollows.Increasing Literacy of Farm Women: Literacyprogramme is very important in the process of women’sempowerment. It is a base for any educationalprogramme. It enables farm women to acquire newknowledge and technology required for improving anddeveloping their tasks in all fields. Literacy helps farmwomen to bring up their children and carry outresponsibility of motherhood.Efficient Extension Approaches: Farm women wouldbenefit immensely from modern scientific knowledge,technology and skills. Till recent times, horticulturalpolicies and programme in most developing countrieshave generally ignored women’s need and concerns asfarmers. Only over the last decade, there has beenincreasing awareness of the extent and significance of

women’s activities in horticultural. Most developingcountries have now started trainings for farm womento upgrade their knowledge, attitude and skill to adopthorticultural new technologies. The following extension educational approaches

my be helpful and effective in empowering farmwomen.

Mobile courses instead of farmer’s training centre Utilization of educated girls and widows as female

extension worker Education of women through negotiation between

husband and wife or inter spouse communication. Tours and visits organized women’s group or

organization (cooperatives etc.) Set up separately organization for farm women Encourage extension agents to work with women’s

group Post female extensionists in pairs (husband and

wife as extension workers) Encourage and support establishment of women

local groups and organizations to take upresponsibility of communicating new science andtechnology to farm women

Promoting Alternative Source of Employment andIncome : Farming on marginal piece of land Encouraging livestock raising with horticultural

crops. Creating horti- livestock based value-addition entreprenureship for farm women

Collection of natural produces available in localities Encouraging participatory agri-business activities

for among farm women. Manufacturing at home or in sheds. Hawking, vending, trading. Appropriate strategies for utilization of extra hours

of farm women.One of the important means of achieving empowermentin status of women is to promote additional avenuesfor employment.Ownership and control over Resources : They needto have control over limited resources, like land andlivestock, so that they could make decisions andimplement them in the way required. It well thus help totake responsibility in family and local group activities.Access to Co-operatives and Local Women’sOrganisation : Collectivization has been recognized asa tenant of women’s empowerment. It has been defined


as a process of bringing a group of women together ata base to become an integral part of an economic activity.Some impact of collectivization on farm women are asfollows. Bring about identities the group. Facilitating their responsibilities through sharing

their information, knowledge, experience –skills,time farmer’s spaces and other resources likemoney.

Other Strategies and Actions for Empowering FarmWomen : Increasing their access to new information, credit,

labour markets and growing sector of economy. Furthering their social and political participation at

all levels and overcoming structural barriers toexploit women’s full potential.

Increasing Government assistance for family unit(child care, health care, F.P.P)

Facilitating establishment of organizationalstructures like farm women’s group and organizingthem gender sensitivity at all level of planning andimplementation of development programmes.

Increase economic self- sufficiency of womenthrough self- employment.

Increase their power of negotiation aboutredistribution of power resources withinhouseholds, civil society and state.

Strengthening educational and trainingprogrammes.

Increasing their access to an appropriatetechnology that can reduce the work burden.

Encourage direct involvement of farm women inhorticultural programming, planning andmanagement.

Effective collaboration with communityorgainsations.

Organizing and strengthening women’s groupsSensitisation and advocacy for gender just society.

Support for increasing farm women’s income andemployment.

Open training –cum –employment –cum –production centre at local level.

Strengthening supporting services for working farmwomen.

Explaining farm women, economic and otherbenefits of horticultural crops production.

Explaining them correct method of cultivation andbenefit from timely completion of essentialoperations.

CONCLUSIONGender sensitivity and systematic approach are

two important factors for rural development programmetargeted either at women or both women and men.Empowerment is a complicated process, whichcomprises short-term and long term strategies . Undereach strategy, several projects need to be formulatedand carried out seriously. The process of farm women’sempowerment is conceptualized in terms of personalassertions confidence and ability to project themselvesas women, attaining economic independence, ownershipof productive assets , ability to handle capital and assetsand provide leadership in both women and communityrelated issues at all levels. All strategies suggested inthis article if followed properly, will definitely help inempowering farm women leading into greening uplandof Jharkhand state


Entrepreneurial Interests and Training Needs of Tribal FarmWomen of Amirgadh and Danta Talukas of

Banaskantha District (Gujarat)

Kruti Thaker1 and Santosh Ahlawat2

1. Asstt. Prof. 2. Asso. Prof. Home Science Extension and Communication Management, ASPEE College of HomeScience and Nutrition, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (GUJARAT)

Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Amirgadh and Danta are predominantly tribal and most backward talukas of Banaskantha district in Gujarat asidentified by the Government of India. Being most deprived economic condition of tribal women, need of training toestablish small enterprises of their interest was felt. Hence a research study was conducted to identify theentrepreneurial interests, related training needs, factors associated with entrepreneurial interests and trainingneeds. Entrepreneurial activities were classified into nine categories. A test was developed and used for studyingthe types of enterprises tribal women were interested in and related training needs. Validity and reliability of thetest was checked by jury method and by pre testing respectively. Data was collected by personal interview technique.Frequencies, percentages, cumulative mean, ranks, correlation coefficient and ‘F’ test were used to analyze data.Results of study revealed that among different categories of enterprises tribal women expressed maximum interest inanimal husbandry and dairy based enterprises followed by food based and agro based enterprises. Difference in theinterest of different categories of enterprises was found significant at five percent level of significance. Floricultureand vermicompost making; preparation of milk products; making of maize dhani & pickle ; bandhni making anddress designing ; soft toy making and zari work; making of brooms from date tree leaves and plates from khakhraleves; mehndi & agarbatti making ;statue making and marble carving were the enterprises in which tribal womenexpressed maximum interest under different categories respectively. Training needs were expressed in accordancewith the entrepreneurial interests. Education and economic motivation showed significant correlation withentrepreneurial interest. Education, annual income and economic motivation showed significant correlation withentrepreneurial training needs. Highly significant correlation was found between the entrepreneurial interestsand entrepreneurial training needs.Key words: Eentrepreneurial; Floriculture;

The concept of entrepreneurship development hasa wide range of meanings. If seen on a continuum,income generation, self-employment and entrepreneur-ship can be considered as the initial, middle and finalstages of the entrepreneurial growth process. In theinitial stage of income generation one tries to generatesurplus or profit by starting some activities. The secondstage of Self-employment refers to an individual’sfulltime involvement in his/her own occupation.Entrepreneurship is the terminal stage wherein aftersetting up a venture one looks for diversification andgrowth. So, entrepreneurship is a philosophy, it is theway one thinks, one acts and therefore, it can exist inany situation be it business or government or in the field

of education, science and technology or povertyalleviation etc.

In fact, entrepreneurship development is basicallyconcerned with creating wealth through production ofgoods and services. It is one of the most critical inputsin the economic development of a regionEntrepreneurship development process result in theupward economic change whereby the real per capitaincome of a region and consequently of a country risesovertime and economic development takes place. Itspeeds up the process of activating factors of productionleading to a higher rate of economic growth, dispersalof economic activities and development of backwardregions. It analyzes the resource availability and proper


utilization of the same for the development of the area.It makes proper utilization of human potentiality. It givesspecial attention to take up new activities and createself-employment and generate employmentopportunities. It helps in eradication of the regionalimbalances for better economic gain. Thus by harnessingthe entrepreneurial talent, natural and man maderesources, a society comes out of traditional lethargy tomodern industrial culture, and consequently to socio-economic transformation. Ajani (2008) stated thatentrepreneurial talents and capabilities are latent in allcommunities but their translation to innovative actionsdepends on appropriate stimuli and environment andthese stimuli can be generated through training.

Hence, for the socio-economic transformation oftribal women who are educationally and economicallydisadvantaged and socially suppressed, it becomesimperative to empower them technically. Due to theirdisadvantageous position and lack of independent incomesource in her hand, they have a little say in the decisionmaking process. Entrepreneurship development throughtraining enables them to cope up with the changing timeand help them productively use their free time and skillsfor setting and sustaining enterprises. So to seek theentrepreneurial interests, training needs and torecommend future strategies for entrepreneurshipdevelopment among tribal women a study wasconducted with the specific objectives:1. To study the personal, social, economic,

communication and entrepreneurial characteristicsof tribal women

2. To study the entrepreneurial interests of the tribalwomen

3. To determine the entrepreneurial training needsof the tribal women to set-up the potentialenterprises of their interest

4. To ascertain correlation between personal, social,economic, communication, entrepreneurialcharacteristics of tribal women and entrepreneurialinterests

5. To ascertain correlation between entrepreneurialinterests and entrepreneurial training needs of thetribal women

METHODOLOGYThe research study was carried out in purposively

selected Banaskantha district identified as one of themost backward district of Gujarat State by the planningcommission based on the backwardness index. Out of

selected Banaskantha district two talukas (Amirgadhand Danta) and six villages (three from each taluka)under NAIP component -111 were selected purposively.Two hundred tribal women of selected villages wereselected as the respondents for the study. Proportionaterandom sampling procedure was followed to select therespondents. Personal, socio-economical andcommunicational variables were studied as independentvariables. Entrepreneurial interests and theentrepreneurial training needs of the tribal women werestudied as dependent variables. A teacher madeinterview schedule was developed to studyentrepreneurial interests and entrepreneurial trainingneeds. Entrepreneurial interests were measured interms of the degree of likeness of the tribal womenabout nine major entrepreneurial activities. Responsesof the respondents about entrepreneurial interests wererecorded on three point scale i.e., most liked, some whatliked, not at all liked and were quantified as 3, 2 and 1.Similarly entrepreneurial training needs were measuredon two point scale i.e. training needed or not needed bythe tribal women for setting the potential enterprisesand responses for the same were scored as 2 and 1,respectively. Validity of interview schedule was checkedby expert’s jury method. Reliability was checked bypre testing the schedule on twenty non sampledrespondents of non sampled villages. Data werecollected by personal interview technique. Frequency,percentage, ranks, coefficient of correlation and “F”tests were used to analyze data and draw the inferenceson stated objectives.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONPersonal, socio-economic and communicational oftribal women :Results regarding personal variablesrevealed that majority of tribal women belonged to youngage group (65.00 per cent). Majority (61.00 per cent)of them had medium level of risk taking ability, decisionmaking ability (75.00 per cent), achievement motivation(82.50 per cent), self confidence (66.00 per cent),market orientation (56.00 per cent) and economicmotivation (76.50 per cent).The results regarding socio-economic characteristics revealed that majority ofrespondents (76.00 per cent) were having nuclear typeand large sized family (66.50 per cent). Majority (78.50per cent) of respondents had medium level of socialparticipation.

Family income of majority of the respondents (85.50per cent) was low. Majorities (69.50 per cent) of the


respondents were engaged in farming and animalhusbandry occupation and majority (74.50 per cent) ofthem were having land holding up to 1.00 ha. Majorityof tribal women (82.50 per cent) were found havinglow level of mass media exposure.Entrepreneurial characteristics of Tribal Women:Findings regarding the entrepreneurial characteristicsof the tribal revealed that majority of respondents (61.00per cent) had medium level of risk taking ability. Highmajority possessed medium level of decision makingability (75.00 per cent) and achievement motivation(82.50 per cent).Majority of respondents (66.00 percent) had medium level of self confidence. Slightly morethan fifty per cent of respondents (56.00 per cent) hadmedium level of market orientation. Where as highmajority of respondents (76.50 per cent) had mediumlevel of economic motivation.Category wise Entrepreneurial interests of tribalwomen: From the mean scores and ranks given in Table1, it is evident that among agribased enterprises tribalwomen expressed maximum interest in floricultureenterprises, followed by vermicompost makingenterprises and nursery raising enterprises. Theyexpressed least interest in sugarcane juice mill and beekeeping enterprises. Among the animal husbandry anddairy based enterprises tribal women expressedmaximum interest in milk and milk products makingenterprises, followed by poultry keeping enterprises.They expressed least interest in goat keeping enterprise.Further, among the food based enterprises tribal womenwere most interested in maize dhani enterprises, followedby pickle making enterprises, and masala (spices)making enterprises. Least interest was expressed injam, jelly and mouth freshener making enterprises.

Maximum interest in maize dhani makingenterprises might be due to high production of maize inthe selected talukas of study. It is evident from the ranksgiven in table No.2 that among the textile basedenterprises tribal women were most interested in bandhnimaking enterprises, followed by dress designing and fallbeading enterprises. They expressed least interest indying work and carder cotton enterprises. The resultsrevealed that tribal women were most interested inenterprises which meet their day to day living demandsand provide economic security also.

Among the handicraft based enterprises tribalwomen were found most interested in soft toy makingenterprises, followed by zari work and carpet makingenterprises.

Table1. Category wise Entrepreneurial interestsof tribal women

Enterprises Mean score Ranks

Agribased enterprisesFloriculture 2.16 IBee keeping 1.12 VIIISugar cane juice mill 1.04 IXMushroom cultivation 1.65 IVNursery raising 1.80 IIIVermin compost making 2.01 IIFlour mill 1.25 VIOil mill 1.21 VIIDal mill 1.26 VAnimal husbandry &dairy basedMilk and milk products making 2.06 IPoultry keeping 1.99 IIGoat keeping 1.47 IIIFood based enterprisesVadi and papdi making 1.63 VIMaize dhani 2.04 IDrying fruits and vegetables 1.36 IXPickles making 2.02 IISauces, murabba 1.47 VIMasala (spices) making 1.78 IIIMango papad 1.64 VIGarlic powder 1.46 VIIIMaking of jam and jelly 1.11 XIISalted ground nuts 1.45 IXSalted cheeps 1.65 IVMukhwas/ mouth freshener making 1.27 XI

They expressed least interest in paper Masse andbead work enterprises. It can be concluded that tribalwomen were most interested in such handicraftenterprises in which they can use their handicraft skills,can meet their economic, personal and children’s needsalso. Further among the forest based enterprises tribalwomen expressed maximum interest in broom makingwith date tree enterprises, followed by making dish andother items using khakhra leaves and bidi making. Leastinterest was found in bamboo, cane stick and ornamentsmaking enterprises. It can be inferred that tribal womenwere more interested in enterprises for which they canget raw material from local forests, have good marketingopportunities.

From the mean scores and ranks given in Table.3it is revealed that among the chemical based and beautyproduct enterprises tribal women pointed out maximum


interest in mehndi making, followed by agarbatti makingand kumkum making enterprises.

Table 2. Textile based enterprises


Textile based enterprisesBandhni making 1.73 IDyeing work 1.07 VIICoir rope 1.16 VDress designing 1.30 IISari design and finishing 1.21 IVFall beading 1.29 IIICarder cotton 1.1 VIHandicraft based enterprisesStitching and tailoring 1.8 VIEmbroidery and knitting 108 IXPainting 1.09 VIIIGreeting making 1.06 XIBeed work 1.05 XIICarpet making 1.39 IIIToy making 1.15 IVKite making 1.14 VEnvelop making 1.11 VIHand printing 1.07 XZari work 1.47 IIPaper matte 1.04 XIIISoft toy making 1.60 IForest based produceMaking dish and other things 1.57 IIusing khakhra leavesBamboo and cane stick 1.12 VIMaking ornaments 1.28 VWinnowing basket 1.32 IVWooden toys and paper making 1.09 VIIBidi making 1.40 IIIMaking broom with date trees 1.75 I

Least interest was expressed in candle making anddifferent types of inks making. It can be inferred thattribal women were most interested in enterprisesproducts of which are required for religious ceremony&prayer purposes.

Among the printing and stationary basedenterprises tribal women were most interested in packingbox making enterprises, followed by book binding andpaper bag making enterprises. They expressed leastinterest in paper lamination enterprises and paper toymaking enterprises. Among the metal based enterprisestribal women expressed maximum interest in idol or

statue making enterprises, followed by metal ornamentsmaking and bangle making enterprises. Main reasonsof expressing more interest in idol or statue and marblecarving might be due to more availability of marble inthe selected taluka especially in Danta and Amirgadh,tourist place of Ambaji might be another reason for goodmarket opportunities.

To find out the categories of enterprises in whichtribal women were most interested, cumulative meanscores were calculated for each category of enterpriseand were compared based on the ranks assigned. Resultsregarding the same are as follows.

Table 3. Chemical based and beauty product enterprises


Chemical based and beauty productHair oil 1.19 VIAgarbatti making 1.69 IICandle making 1.03 XIKumkum making 1.63 IIIKajal making 1.12 VIIHerbal cosmetic 1.27 VAyurvedic churn making 1.3 IXMehndi making 2.09 ISealing wax 1.10 VIIIRose powder and water 1.35 IVDifferent types of ink making 1.04 XPaper printing and stationary basedPaper bag making 1.3 IIIPaper lamination 1.06 VPacking box 1.44 IBook binding 1.12 IIPaper toy making 1.2 IVMetal basedMarble carving 1.12 IIIIdol or statue making 1.19 ICrockery/ceramic decoration 1.05 VBangle making 1.08 IVMaking metal ornaments 1.13 II

It is evident from ranks given in table.4 that amongthe different types of entrepreneurial interest categoriesof enterprises tribal women were most interested inanimal husbandry and dairy based enterprises, followedby food based enterprises and Agri based enterprises.Last ranked categories of entrepreneurial interest weremetal based enterprises and paper printing and stationarybased enterprises.

It can be inferred from the findings of study thattribal women were most interested to strengthen their


presently taken up activities and were wanted to convertthe same activities into income generating enterprises.

Table 4. Comparison of interests of tribal women indifferent categories of enterprises (N = 200)

Categories of enterprises Cumulative RanksMean Score

Agri based enterprises 1.50 IIIAnimal husbandry and dairy based 1.84 IFood based enterprises 1.57 IITextile based enterprises 1.26 VIHandicraft based enterprises 1.23 VIIForest based enterprises 1.36 IVChemical and beauty product based 1.34 VPaper printing and stationary based 1.22 VIIIMetal based enterprises 1.11 IX

Critical difference in entrepreneurial interests oftribal women : To see whether the difference in theentrepreneurial interests of tribal women in differentcategories of enterprises was statistically significant ornot the procedure of randomized block design with testof significance was done by applying “F” test.

The result given in Table.5 revealed that thedifference in the different categories of entrepreneurialinterests was significant at five per cent level ofsignificance, which means the difference was real andnot due to any error.

Similarly, to find out in which categories ofenterprises the tribal women expressed maximum

training need; cumulative mean scores were calculatedfor each category of enterprises. Cumulative meanscores of each category of enterprises were comparedbased on the ranks assigned. It is evident from thecumulative mean scores and ranks given in table. 6 thattribal women expressed maximum training need inanimal husbandry and dairy based enterprises, followedby food based enterprises and agribased enterprisesand last ranked category of entrepreneurial training needwas metal based enterprises and paper printing andstationary based enterprises category.

Table 6. Comparison of entrepreneurial training need ofthe respondents in different Categories of

enterprises (N = 200)

Categories of enterprises Cumulative RanksMean Score

Agribased enterprises 1.42 IIIAnimal husbandry and dairy based 1.89 IFood based enterprises 1.48 IITextile based enterprises 1.23 VIHandicraft based enterprises 1.19 VIIForest based enterprises 1.30 IVChemical and beauty product based 1.28 VPaper printing and stationary based 1.18 VIIIMetal based enterprises 1.16 IX

Critical difference in the different types ofentrepreneurial training need : To see whether thedifference in the entrepreneurial training needs incategories is statistically significant or not the procedure

Table 5 : ANOVA for critical difference in different categories of entrepreneurial interests (N = 200)

Source d.f. S.S. M.S. ‘F’ cal. ‘F’ Tab. S.Em. C.D. Test

Replication 199 8.67 0.044 1.07Treatment 8 261.63 32.704 799.95Error %1592 65.08 0.041 1.940 0.01 0.04 *Total %1799 335.39 C.V. % = 13.81

Table 7. ANOVA for critical difference in different categories of entrepreneurial training needsof tribal women (n = 200)

Source d.f. S.S. M.S. ‘F’ cal. ‘F’ Tab. S.Em. C.D. Test

Replication 199 4.22 0.021 1.16Treatment 8 87.95 10.994 603.13Error %1592 29.02 0.018 1.940 0.01 0.03 *Total %1799 121.19 C.V. % = 10.05

Table 8. Correlation between entrepreneurial interest and level of entrepreneurial training needof tribal women (n=200)

Correlation Coefficient of correlation (‘r’ value)

Entrepreneurial interest and entrepreneurial training need 0.658**


of randomized Block Design with test of significancewas done by applying “F” test. Results given in Table.7revealed that the difference in different categories oftraining need was significant at five per cent level ofsignificance, which means the difference was real andnot due to some error.

Correlation between entrepreneurial interests andentrepreneurial training needs of the tribal women wasalso studied results regarding the same are given belowin table 8. The data presented in Table.8 clearly indicatethat highly significant correlation was found betweenentrepreneurial interest and entrepreneurial training needof tribal women. Hence, the null hypothesis that thereis no correlation between entrepreneurial interests andentrepreneurial training need was rejected.Correlation between personal, socio-economic,communicational, entrepreneurial characteristics ofthe tribal women and their entrepreneurial interest:This was ascertained and tested by calculatingcorrelation co-efficient (‘r’ value). Findings of the studyrevealed that out of personal characteristics, onlyeducation was found having positive and highlysignificant correlation at 0.01 levels with the overallentrepreneurial interest level.

Similarly out of the entrepreneurial attributes onlyeconomic motivation was found having positive andsignificant correlation at 0.05 levels with the overallentrepreneurial interest level of respondents. Othervariables like age, risk taking ability, decision makingability, achievement motivation, self confidence, marketmotivation, type of family, size of family, socialparticipation, annual family income, land holding size,family occupation and mass media exposure were foundhaving no correlation with entrepreneurial interest oftrial women.

The data presented in Table.10 revealed that thenull hypothesis that there is no correlation between thepersonal, socio-economic, communication, entrepre-neurial characteristics of tribal women and theirtraining need was rejected because education andsocial participation were found having significantcorrelation at 0.05 levels. Where as economicmotivation showed highly significant correlation at 0.01level of significance with the entrepreneurial trainingneed of the tribal women. All other personal, socio-economic, communication and entrepreneurial variableswere found having no correlation with the entrepre-neurial training need of tribal women.

Table 9. Correlation between personal, socio-economic,communicational, entrepreneurial characteristics

of the tribal women and their entrepreneurialinterest (N= 200)

Variables Correlationcoefficient (‘r’ value)

Age (X1) 0.0634NS

Education (X2) 0.1269**Risk taking ability (X3) -0.0628NS

Decision making ability (X5) -0.0226NS

Achievement motivation (X5) 0.0001NS

Self confidence (X6) -0.0039NS

Market motivation (X7) -0.0482NS

Economic motivation (X8) 0.691*Type of family (X9) -0.0254NS

Size of family (X10) -0.0217NS

Social participation (X11) 0.0107NS

Annual family income (X12) -0.0486NS

Land holding size (X13) -0.641NS

Family occupation (X14) 0.0665NS

Mass media exposure (X15) -0.0169NS

NS = Non Significant.*, ** Significant at 0.01 and0.05 level of significance, respectively.Correlation between personal, socio-economic,communicational and entrepreneurial characteristicsof tribal women and their training need:

Table 10. Correlation between personal, socio-economicand communicational characteristics of the respondents

and their entrepreneurial training need (N = 200)

Variables Correlationcoefficient (‘r’ value)

Age (X1) -0.0633NSEducation (X2) 0.1238*Risk taking ability (X3) -0.0437NSDecision making ability (X5) 0.0029NSAchievement motivation (X5) 0.0641NSSelf confidence (X6) 0.0641NSMarket motivation (X7) 0.0135NSEconomic motivation (X8) 0.7529**Type of family (X9) 0.0710NSSize of family (X10) -0.0107NSSocial participation (X11) 0.1238*Annual family income (X12) -0.0251NSLand holding size (X13) -0.0935NSFamily occupation (X14) -0.0489NSMass media exposure (X15) 0.0114NS

NS = Non Significant.*, ** Significant at 0.01 and 0.05 level of significance,respectively.


CONCLUSIONIt can be inferred from the findings of study that

majority of tribal women were having low socio-economic, communication characteristics and mediumlevel of entrepreneurial attributes. It can be concludedthat they were ready to take medium level risk if itimprove their economic conditions. Possession ofmedium level of decision making ability, self confidence,decision making ability, medium to high level ofachievement motivation, low market orientation indicatedpositive sign for rapid development of entrepreneurialattributes through training. From the entrepreneurialinterests they expressed ,it can be inferred that theywere interested in those entrepreneurial activities likeanimal husbandry and dairy based enterprises followedby food based and agro based enterprises which alreadywere taken up by them as source of their livelihood andwanted to convert the same into potential enterprises.

Training needs were expressed in accordance with theentrepreneurial interests. Education and economicmotivation showed significant correlation withentrepreneurial interest. Education, annual income andeconomic motivation showed significant correlation withentrepreneurial training needs. Highly significantcorrelation was found between the entrepreneurialinterests and entrepreneurial training needs. Finally itcan be concluded that for socio-economic transformationof tribal women systematized and need basedentrepreneurship training programmes should beorganized with more emphasis on market orientation.Further tribal women should be encouraged andsupported for establishing small enterprises of theirinterest which subsequent lead to their prosperity.Strategies should be planned to establish links withinstitutions which provide economic and training supportfor entrepreneurship development in tribal areas.

role stressed and constraints faced by women entrepreneurs · 2013-01-28 · 264 indian research...

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