ForJohn

Thisebookeditionpublishedin2012by

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ebookISBN:978-0-85790-496-6ISBN:978-1-84158-475-1

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AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary

StoriesareenjoyableEveniftheyareonlyfablesSostoriesthataretrueIftoldentertaininglyGivedoublepleasureinthehearing.JohnBarbour,TheBruce,c.

1375

Contents

ListofPlatesListofMapsPrefacePrefacetothe2011ReprintAcknowledgementsListofAbbreviationsChronology

Introduction:Brushingoffthecobwebs

1Amanofhistime,amanofhisplace2Aninheritance,agrandfather’sambitionanda‘coveytous’king(1286–96)3ResistanceandsurvivalinoccupiedScotland(1296–1306)4‘Playingatkingsandqueens’(1306)

5‘ThroughtheMountainsandfromIsletoIsle’(1306–07)6Recoveringthekingdom(1307–11)7TheroadtoBannockburn(1311–14)8Triumphsanddisasters(1314–18)9Thestruggleforpeacewithhonour(1318–23)10Robert,KingofScots11EndgamewithEngland,

anddeath(1323–29)12Theimage,thelegendandthelongshadowofRobertBruce

Genealogicaltables1.AncestryandchildrenofRobertBruce…2.SiblingsofRobertBruce…3.ThesuccessiontotheScottishthrone4.TheComynsofBadenoch5.TheComynearlsof

Buchan6.PossibleMcDonaldfamilytree7.McDougallfamilytree

NotesonsourcesFurtherreadingBibliographyNotesandreferencesIndex

ListofPlates

1.RobertBruceandElizabethdeBurghfromtheSetonArmorial,15912.ThreearmonialdevicesassociatedwiththeBruces3.TheinterioroftheBannatyneMazer4.LochmabenCastle,

Annandale5.EdwardImakeshissonEdwardthePrinceofWales6.Sixteenth-centuryreconstructionofanEdwardian7.KingJohnofScotlandandhiswifeIsabelladeWarenne8.EdwardI’sarmyslaughterstheinhabitantsofBerwick,12969.StoneofDestiny,Jacob’sPillowortheTanistStone

10.TheCoronationofEdwardII11.DunstaffnageCastle,thechiefstrongholdoftheMacDougalls12.CoinshowingtheheadofRobertI13.EquestrianstatueofRobertBruceatBannockburn14.TheMonymuskReliquary15.TheDeclarationofArbroath,April132016.Brassmarkingthetomb

ofRobertBruce17.TheleadcontainerthatholdsRobertBruce’sheart18.ThecarveddevicedatMelroseAbbeyovertheplacewherehisheartisburied19.StatueofRobertBruceatStirlingCastle20.CastoftheskullofRobertBruce21.ReconstructionofRobertBruce’shead,basedonthecastoftheskull

1.RobertBruceandElisabethdeBurghfromtheSetonArmorial,

1591.InApril2006,apollof1,000

respondentswastakenbyStirlingUniversitytodiscoverwhois

consideredtobethegreatestScotofalltime.WilliamWallacecamefirstwith36%ofthevote,RobertBurnsnextwith16%andRoberttheBrucethirdwith12%.SevenhundredyearsafterhisseizureofthethroneofScotland,Robert

retainsanattractionandrelevanceformostScots.(FromtheSetonArmorial©Trusteesofthe

NationalLibraryofScotland)

2.ThesethreearmorialdeviceswereassociatedwiththeBruces.Thefirst,thebluelion(argentalionrampantazure),werethe

originalarmsoftheBrucesinthetwelfthcentury;thesecondshows

thearmsoftheLordshipofAnnandale(or,asaltireandchiefgules).ThethirdshieldshowsthearmsoftheearldomofCarrick(argentachevrongules).

(CourtesyofJeanMunroandDonPottinger)

3.TheinterioroftheBannatyneMazer.Thiswoodendrinkingbowlwasmeanttobepassedaroundthecompanyatafeast,andmayhavebelongedtoWaltertheSteward.Itillustratesthecloserelationship

betweenthelordandhis‘menie’,hisaffinityorretinue.Thebossinsidethecupshowsacrouchinglionencircledbythesixheraldicshieldsofhisvassals.(©TrusteesoftheNationalMuseumsof

Scotland)

4.LochmabenCastle,Annandale.

TheBrucesmovedthecaputorheadoftheirlordshipfromAnnantoLochmabensometimearound1200.ThestonecastlewasbuiltbyRobertBruceV,RoberttheNoble.HoweveroncapturingtheBruceCastlein1298EdwardIdecidedtodismantleitand,usingthestonesfromtheoriginalbuilding,builtthe

castleillustratednearby.(©TrusteesoftheNationalLibraryof

Scotland)

5.EdwardImakeshissonEdwardthePrinceofWales.EdwardI’shighexpectationsofhissonweredisappointed.Animportantfactor

inRobert’ssuccesswasthedifference,muchremarkedupon

bycontemporaries,inthepersonalitiesandcapabilitiesof

thesesuccessiveEnglishmonarchs.(BLCottonNeroDII,f.191v,©

BritishLibrary)

6.SixteenthcenturyreconstructionofanEdwardianparliamentbySir

ThomasWriothesley.TheillustrationshowstheEnglishkingflankedbyAlexanderKingof

ScotlandandLlywelynPrinceofWales.Itisfantasy,sincetherewasnosuchmeeting;yetasan

expressionofEdward’sambitions,itmaynotbetoowideofthemark.(WriotheslyMS,quireBTheRoyalCollection©HMQueenElizabeth

II)

7.KingJohnofScotlandandhis

wifeIsabelladeWarenne.JohnabdicatedaskingofScotlandbyadeedof10July1296,andwas

ceremoniallyunkingedbyEdwardI.ThearmsofScotlandwererippedfromhissurcoat.

Henceforthheborethenickname‘ToomTabard’,‘theemptysurcoat’.(FromtheSeton

Armorial,1591©TrusteesoftheNationalLibraryofScotland)

8.EdwardI’sarmyslaughterstheinhabitantsofBerwick,1296.TheLanercostChroniclerecordsthe

slaughterofthetownsfolk.Corpseswerethrownintotheseaorburied

inmassgraves.(MSSNo.ADD.47682Folio40©British

Library)

9.StoneofDestiny,Jacob’sPillowortheTanistStone.ThereisnodoubtthatEdwardIremovedthegenuineStoneofDestinyfromSconeAbbey.HepaidWalterofDurham,hispainter,tomakeawoodenthronetocontainit,andthiswascompletedby1300.Robertwasenthronedinthe

absenceoftheStone,butassoonashehadanheirin1324heaskedforitsreturn,andrenewedhis

requestin1328.OnthatoccasionhowevertheAbbotofWestminsterortheLondonmobpreventeditsremoval.In1950itwasremoved

bynationaliststudentstoArbroathAbbey,butreturnedto

Westminsterbytheauthorities.OnStAndrew’sDay30November1996,itwasofficiallyrestoredtoScotland,whereitiskeptwiththe

ScottishcrownjewelsinEdinburghCastle.(©Marianne

Majerus)

10.TheCoronationofEdwardII.EnglishandFrenchkingswere

crowned,anointedandenthroned,withsceptreandorbasthis

manuscriptilluminationshows.Priorto1329,however,ScottishandIrishkingswereenthronedbutlackedtheriteofcoronation.ThewinningofritesofcoronationandunctionforScottishkingswasamajordiplomatictriumphfor

Robert.(©CorpusChristiCollege,Cambridge)

11.DunstaffnageCastle,thechiefstrongholdoftheMacDougalls.

AlexanderMacDougallandhissonJohnofArgyllwereRobert

Bruce’sbitterestopponents.TheirstrongholdwaseventuallyreducedbytheBrucesin1309,buttheMacDougallscontinuedtheir

oppositionfromIrelandandMan.

12.CoinshowingtheheadofRobertI.Foranymedieval

monarchcoinagewascrucialasa

publicdemonstrationofroyalpower.RoberthoweverwasunabletominthisowncoinsuntilhiscaptureoftheBerwickmintin

1318.Consequentlycoinsbearinghisimagearerare.Pennies,

halfpenniesandfarthingsweremintedinRobert’sname.

(Courtesyofwww.londoncoins.com)

13.EquestrianstatueofRobertatBannockburn.PilkingtonJackson’sstrikingandimpressivestatueof

theherokingstandsonthesiteofabattlewhichwasapivotaleventintheWarofIndependence.Atastroke,Robertgainedthree

importantcastlesandavarietyofEnglishprisoners,valuableforransomsandexchangeforfamily

membersheldcaptive.(©MarianneMajerus)

14.TheMonymuskReliquary.EdwardI’slootingofthesacredtalismansofScotlandoverlookedtheBreccbennach,alittlesilverreliquary,whichcontainedabonerelicofStColmcilleandwasbelievedtotransmitpotencyin

battle.Thenametranslatesas‘thespeckledandpeakedone’,anapt

descriptionofthepuncheddecorationinitssilverpanels.ItwaspresentatBannockburn.(©TrusteesoftheNationalMuseums

ofScotland)

15.TheDeclarationofArbroathApril1320.Writteninthepapalcursus(orapprovedmetre)and

employingphrasesborrowedfromclassicalauthorsaswellasmanyquotationsfromtheVulgate,thefamousletteroftheScottishlordstoPopeJohnXXIIwascarefullycraftedtopushalltherightbuttonsatthepapalchancery.(TheNationofScotsandtheDeclarationofArbroath,©NationalArchivesof

Scotland)

16.BrassmarkingthetombofRobertBruce.ThediscoveryandexhumationofRobert’sbodyinDunfermlinein1819mayhavebeensomewhatchallengingtotheauthorities.Afterall,ScotlandwasaprovinceoftheUnitedKingdomthathadbeensubduedonlywithinthepastcentury.Howeverthatmightbe,thediscoveryofthe

tombthrilledcontemporaries,asitappealedtofashionableinterestinromanticaspectsofchivalry.(©UniversityofStAndrews)

17.LeadcontainerthatholdsRobert’sheartandthecarved

deviceatMelroseAbbeyovertheplacewhereRobert’sheartis

buried.

18.TheheartofRobertBruce,famouslyborneintobattlebySir

JamesDouglas,wastwiceexhumedfromitsrestingplaceinMelroseAbbey.In1921itwas

discoveredbyarchaeologists,whofoundanembalmedheartina

leadencone-shapedcasket.Theysealeditinaleadcontainerand

reburiedit.It1996itwasdiscoveredagainandreburiedon

24June1998.(©HistoricScotland)

19.StatueofRobertatStirlingCastle.ThisstatueofRobertBrucestaresacrossthevalleyoftheRiver

ForthattheNationalWallaceMonument.However,atatimeofpeacefulUnionwithEnglandathomeandrapidexpansionoftheBritishEmpireabroad,WilliamWallace’suncomplicatedmartialvirtuefittedthenationalmoodmoreeasilythanRobert’s

achievementofScottishnationalindependence.(©Historic

Scotland)

20.CastoftheskullofRobert

Bruce.AplasterofpariscastwastakenofRobert’sskullduringtheexhumationof1819,andmany

copiesofthisexist.Thecastistheprincipalevidenceinthedebateoverwhetherthekingdiedof

leprosyorsomeothercondition.(CourtesyoftheScottishNational

PortraitGallery)

21.ReconstructionofRobert’shead,basedonthecastofthe

skull.Thisreconstructionwasmadein1996byBrianHillofNewcastleDentalHospitalapplyingstandardsofttissuedepthmeasurementstothecastoftheskull.AthisdeathhoweverRobertislikelytohavebeenbadlyscarredfromhiswar

wounds,whichincluded:afractureoftheleftcheekbone,asevereinjuryonthetopoftheskullandfractureofzygomaticarch,ontheleftsideofthehead.(CourtesyoftheScottishNationalPortrait

Gallery)

ListofMaps

1.ThekingdomofScotlandin12862.Possessions,claimsandplacesassociatedwithBruceofAnnandale,12863.TheWarofIndependenceto13064.Edwardianinvasionsof

Scotland,1298–13045.RobertBruceseizesthethrone,13066.SurvivalinCarrickandGalloway,13077.TherecoveryofScotland,1307–148.ScottishraidsintoEngland,1307–149.BannockburnI,23Jun131410.BannockburnII,24Jun1314

11.ScottishraidsintoEngland,1314–1612.TheBrucesinIreland,1315–1813.ScottishraidsintoEngland,1318and131914.ScottishraidsintoEngland,132215.Thefinalvoyages,1327and132816.Thelastcampaigns,1327

Preface

Thisbookisintendedasaworkofpopularhistory;adistillationofsecondarysources,providingareliableand–onehopes–entertainingbiographyforgeneralreaders.TheoriginalideaforsuchabookwasJohnTuckwell’s,andIamgrateful

tohimforaskingmetowriteit.Itisimportanttomethatpeoplewhoreadthisbookenjoyit,andIhavetriedtoputintothewritingsomeoftheenthusiasmIfeelforthesubject.Ilovethisstory,ofaherowhosehumanitycomesacrosssostrongly;ofageniuswhomadesometerribleerrors,butwhowasvindicated;ofburningambitionrealised,butataterriblecost.

Inthisseven-hundredthanniversaryyearitisimportanttocommemorateonewhohadaprofoundimpactupondevelopmentsrightacrosstheseislands;onewho,fromwhatevermixtureofmotives,hasinspiredgenerationstostanduptoinsult,tyrannyandaggression.Asthebookisintendedfor

thegeneralreader,ratherthanthescholar,Ihavechosennot

topepperthetextwithreferences.Rather,notesdetailingsourcesandacknowledgingtheinsightsofotherauthorshavebeenprovidedonachapterbychapterbasisintheendmatter.Ihavealsoforsakenstrictlyaccuraterenderingofpropernamesfortheirpopularequivalents.

Belfast,August2006

Prefacetothe2011Edition

Fortechnicalreasons,Iamunabletoalterthemaintextofthebook,butHughAndrewatBirlinnhaskindlyofferedmethechancetoaddaprefacetothisreprintsothatIcanappendsomeof

whatInowknow.Icannotattemptathoroughupdateofthebookinafewpagesfortoomuchsubsequentresearchhadbeenpublished,butImustcorrectwhatInowknowtobeerrors.IwilldealwiththesepointsintheorderinwhichtheyrelatetoRobertBruce’scareer.Ihopetochangethetextitselfatthefirstavailableopportunity.RuthM.Blakely,inher

bookTheBrusFamilyin

EnglandandScotland1100–1295(BoydellPress,2005),p.75pointsoutthatthedeathoftheScottishqueen,Joan,in1238wouldhavethrownintohighreliefRoberttheNoble’spositionastheking’sclosestmalerelativeandmaythereforehavehadabearingontheoriginoftheBruceclaimtotheScottishthrone,describedonpage36ofthisbook.SinceIcompletedthis

book,AlexanderGrantpublishedanarticleentitled‘TheDeathofJohnComyn:WhatWasGoingOn?’intheScottishHistoricalReviewvol.LXXXVI,2:no.222October2007,176–224,whichreconsidersatlengththefatalmeetingbetweenRobertBruceandJohnComyninDumfriesinFebruary1306.Itlooksatthechronicletraditionsrelatingtotheincidentandincludesa

fulldiscussionastowhetherthekillingmighthavebeenpremeditated.Wewillneverknowwhatexactlytookplace;however,ifIwerewritingthebooknow,IwouldpaycloseattentiontoGrant’strainofthought.Onp.129ofthisbook,I

statethatthereisnorecordthatAymerdeValence’sforceof30horseencounteredBruce’sforceatGlenTroolinApril1307.Whenwriting,I

suspectedthattheencounterdescribedbyProfessorDuncaninTheBrucepp.284–88,properlybelongedtoJune1307.However,nowIthinkthatthereweretwoseparateactions.AsDuncanwritesinhisnoteonp.288ofTheBruce,BarbourappearstodescribeapreliminaryprobeintoGlenTroolinApril,duringwhichValencewasambushedbyRobert’smen.Iwouldnowrestorethat

ambushofApril1307toitsproperplaceinthenarrative,andstressthatthatfirstvictoryofRobert’sboostedthemoraleofhisisolatedbandofwarriors.Thesubsequentactionin

thevicinityofGlenTrooltookplaceinthemiddleofJune1307andisdescribedonp.134ofthisbook.Irefertoahorselist,calendaredinCDSVno.490whichshowsthat23warhorseswerekilled

inanactionthattookplacebetweenGlenTroolandaplacerenderedas‘Glenheur’.Thehorselistshowsthat23horseswerekilled,not‘men-at-arms’,asIhavewritten.Atthetime,Iacceptedthat‘Glenheur’referredtothevalleyoftheUrrWater;butProfessorBarrowdisputesthatidentification.HepointsoutthattheUrrWaterdoesnotformaglenandthatitismostunlikelythatRobert

BrucewouldhavefledinthedirectionofCarlisle.HeidentifiestheplaceastheBargalyGlenofthePalnureBurnanddiscussesthisinthefourtheditionofhisRobertBruceatp.467note31.Barrowsuggeststhat,sincesomanyhorsesbelongingtotheEnglishandtheAnglo-Scotswerekilled,RobertBruceismostlikelytohavebeenvictoriousand,therefore,thepursuer.IfindBarrow’s

interpretationconvincing.Icannotleavethesubject

ofGlenTroolwithoutacknowledgingthatIwasmostkindlyentertainedbyRichardandJudyCassandtheirfriendsinApril2007attheirhouseknownasTheBuchan,nearthesiteofthebattleontheweekendofits700thanniversary.ProfessorDuncandrewmy

attentiontoanarticlebyDavidHCaldwell,‘The

MonymuskReliquary:theBreccbennachofStColumba?’inProceedingsoftheSocietyofAntiquariesofScotland,131(2001),267–82,whichdemonstratesthattheMonymuskreliquaryisunlikelytohavebeentheBrecbennachofStColmcille,asIhavewrittenatpp.181–2andplate14ofthisbook.CaldwellconsidersthattheBreccbennachmaywellhavebeenabanner,ratherthana

reliquary,and,thoughhedoesnotdoubtthatitsawserviceonseveraloccasionswiththeScottisharmy,hepointsoutthatitspresenceinbattleisnotdirectlyalludedtoinanycontemporarysource.TheBreccbennachmaywellhavebeenpresentatBannockburnandAbbotBernardofArbroathalmostcertainlywasthere,buttheBreccbennachisprobablynotthereliquaryandmytext

needstobeamendedaccordingly.ThelinkbetweenRobert

BruceandtheBannatyneMazer,referredtoatplate3ofthisbook,isdisputed.ProfessorBarrowdrewtomyattentionhisarticleinMedievalArtandArchitectureintheDioceseofGlasgow,ed.RichardFawcett(BritishArchaeologicalAssociationConferenceTransactionsXXIII,1998),

122–27inwhichhearguesthatitwasmadetocelebratethemarriageofoneofthefitzGilbertfamily,LeoorGilbert,withtheyoungerdaughterandco-heiressofSirReginaldCrawford.ThemazerbecameanheirloominthefamilyofBannatyneofKames.Thetextatplate3shouldthereforebeamended.Robertdidnotdiean

excommunicate:onp.280,Istateerroneouslythathedid.

ThebullremovingthesentencewasissuedbythepopeinOctober1328anditarrivedinScotlandinJuly1329,CalendarofPapalLettersii,289.Robertdiedfullyvindicatedandjustifiedineveryrespect.SinceIcompletedthe

book,anumberofworkshavebeenpublishedthathaveasignificantbearingonthenarrativeofScottishhistoryinthistheheroicperiod.The

mainonesareasfollows:AmandaBeam’sTheBalliolDynasty,1210–1364(Birlinn,2008);SeymourPhillips’sbiographyEdwardII(YaleUniversityPress,2010);andtwostudiesofthebattleofBannockburn,DavidCornell,Bannockburn:TheTriumphofRoberttheBruce(YaleUniversityPress,2009)andMichaelBrown,Bannockburn:TheScottishWarandtheBritishIsles,

1307–1323(EdinburghUniversityPress2008).Alteringthetextofthisbooktotakeaccountoftheseandtheotherworkswillhavetoawaitanewedition.Withthesequalifications,I

amsatisfiedthatthetextstillrepresentsasoundpopularbiographyofagreatfigureinthehistoryofourislands.

ColmMcNameeBelfast,March2011

Acknowledgements

Itisapleasuretoacknowledgemygreatdebttolearnedacademichistorians.Hadthisbookbeen‘properly’referenced,therewouldhavebeenanendlessrepetitivereferencetotheworksofProfessorG.W.S.Barrow,andinparticulartohis

scholarlybiography,RobertBruceandtheCommunityoftheRealmofScotland(3rdedition,EdinburghUniversityPress,1988).ThefourtheditionisbeingpreparedasIwrite.ThisappliesequallytotheworksofProfessorA.A.M.Duncan,andinparticulartohiswonderfuleditionandtranslationofJohnBarbour’sTheBruce(Cannongate,1998).Toputpentopaperonthissubject

withoutconstantreferencetotheseworkswouldbetoproducefiction,nothistory.IammostgratefultoProfessorDuncanforpermissiontousehistranslationofBarbour’sTheBruce,andtoProfessorBarrowforpermissiontousehistranslationofdocumentscitedinRobertBruce,andtotherespectivepublishers.Therearemanyother

eminenthistoriansnowengagedinstudyingaspects

ofRobertI’slife:ProfessorRanaldNicholson,ProfessorSeánDuffyandProfessorMichaelPrestwich.Iwasfortunateenoughto

attendtheseven-hundredthanniversaryconferenceofhistoriansatStirlingUniversityinMarch2006,whereIlistenedtoandlearntfromallofthespeakers.Iwasinspiredandenthused.ImustmentioninparticularProfessorDuncan,Professor

AlexanderGrant,DrDavidCaldwell,DrMichaelPenmanandProfessorMichaelKaufman.Iamgratefultothemallforinspiration,stimulatingdiscussionsandmanyagoodread.MymapsofBannockburn

arebasedonthosedrawnbyJeanMunroandDonPottingerin1974,thoughIhavechangedaspectsoftheminlinewithrecentthinking.

IamverygratefultoHughAndrewatBirlinnforhisguidance,encouragementandunderstanding;toallatBirlinn,especiallyAndrewSimmonsandLauraEsslemont;andtoAlineHillwhomadeanumberofhelpfulcriticismsandsuggestionsandeditedthemanuscript.Iamalsogratefultothefollowingpeoplewhoassistedatvariousstagesinthewritingofthisbook:

ProfessorGrahamWalkermadeimportantbooksavailabletome;ProfessorChristopherWhatelygaveadviceonpost-medievalaspectsofthesubject;PhilipWinterbottom,DeputyGroupArchivistattheRoyalBankofScotlandgaveadviceoncoinage.IamalsoveryindebtedtothestaffatthevariouslibrarieswhichIused:theMainLibraryatQueensUniversity,theUnion

TheologicalCollegeandtheNorthernIrelandAssemblyLibrary.Thankstootomyfriendsandcolleagues:CrawfordMcIlveenandNikiMcKeownwhoproof-readformewhentimebecameshort;CarolynFullertonandJohnFisherwhoassistedinotherways.IamgratefulalsotoGerryMcNameeforhelpwithatranslationofanawkwardpassage.Finally,thanks,asever,to

myeffervescentsonJohnwhoshowedsomepatiencewhileIwrote,tomyfriendRonanforentertainingJohnwhenhispatiencegaveoutandtothewonderfulDorothyandtheremarkableKathleenforlivingwithmeandRobertBruceformostofourlives.IamsorryifIhave

forgottenanyone.

ListofAbbreviations

CCR CalendarofCloseRolls

CDS

CalendarofDocumentsRelatingtoScotlandCalendarofPatent

CPR RollsRRSv Duncan,TheActsofRobertI

SHR ScottishHistoricalReview

Chronology

1274 BirthofRobertBruce

1286

DeathofAlexanderIII,KingofScotsTheTurnberryBand,agatheringofthe

Brucefaction

1290

TreatyofBirghamDeathofMargaret,MaidofNorway,andheiresstotheScottishthrone

1291–92

TheGreatCause,atribunalpresidedoverbyEdwardIof

EnglandtodecidewhoshouldsucceedAlexander

1292

GreatCauseconcludes,decidingforBalliolandagainstBruceEnthronementofJohnBalliolasKingofScotsRobertbecomes

EarlofCarrick

1295

DeathofRobertBruceV(Robert’sgrandfather)TreatybetweenFranceandScotland

1296

WarbetweenScotlandandEnglandFirstinvasionofScotlandby

EdwardIScotsdefeatedatDunbar;KingJohndeposedRobertsideswithrebellionofWilliamWallaceRobert,theStewardandBishopWishartofGlasgowsurrenderat

1297 IrvineWallaceandAndrewMoraydefeattheEnglishatBattleofStirlingWallaceinvadesNorthumberlandandCumberlandSecondinvasionofScotlandbyEdwardI

1298

EdwardIdefeatsWallaceatBattleofFalkirkRobertandJohnComynappointedjointguardiansofScotland

1299 ScotstakeStirlingCastleRobertresignsorisexpelledas

1300 guardianThirdinvasionofScotlandbyEdwardI

1301 FourthinvasionofScotlandbyEdwardI

1302

RobertsubmitstoEdwardIEdwardIrewardshimwithhandinmarriageof

ElisabethdeBurgh.

1303

FifthinvasionofScotlandbyEdwardIJohnComyndefeatsEnglishatRoslinDeathofRobertBruceVI(Robert’sfather)Agreement

1304 betweenRobertandBishopLambertonPossiblyanagreementbetweenRobertandJohnComyn

1305 WallacecapturedandexecutedRobertkills,orwitnesses

1306

killingof,JohnComynRobertenthronedatSconeasRobertI,KingofScotsRobertdefeatedatMethven,StrathtayandDalryNigelBrucecapturedandkilledRobertfleesto

Rathlinand/orIslay,andthencetoWesternIslesRobertreturnstomainlandScotlandRobert’sbrothersThomasandAlexanderreturn,andaredefeatedand

1307

executedRobert‘ontherun’inGallowayDeathofEdwardIRobertdefeatsEnglishatGlenTrool,LoudonHillEdwardIIinvadesScotlandRobertand

DouglasbegintomountminorraidsonnorthernEnglandRobertdefeatsJohnComyn,EarlofBuchanandJohnMowbrayatOldMeldrum(traditionally‘theBattleof

1308

Inverurie’)RobertdestroysBuchanandcapturesAberdeenBattleofBenCruachan(traditionally‘theBattleofBranderPass’)Robert’sbrotherEdwarddestroysGalloway

1309

StAndrewsParliamentDeclarationoftheClergy

1310

EdwardIIinvadesScotland.RobertwithdrawstothenorthEdwardIIreturnstoEngland

1311 RobertraidsnorthernEngland,andextractstribute

1312

RobertraidsnorthernEngland,andextractstributeRoberttakesDundee,PerthandDumfriesRobertthreatenstoinvade

1313 northernEnglandandisboughtoffRobertcapturestheIsleofMan;attacksUlsterandextractsfoodstuffsScotstakeRoxburghandEdinburghcastlesBattleof

1314 Bannockburn:RobertdefeatsEdwardIIScotstakeStirling,BothwellandDunbarcastlesJohnofArgyllretakesIsleofManfortheEnglishRobertattacksArgyll;Edward

1315

BruceinvadesIrelandRobertbesiegesCarlisle;EdwardBrucebesiegesCarrickfergusFlandersrevoltsagainstFrance:FlemingsopenlyassistScottishprivateersontheNorthSea

EdwarddefeatsearlofUlsteratBattleofConnorEdwardenthronedasKingofIreland?EdwardBrucecampaignsinIrelandMorayandDouglasinvadeEngland

1316 PeacebetweenFlandersandFrance:openco-operationbetweenFlemingsandScotsontheNorthSeaceasesRobertandEdwardBrucecampaigninIreland

1317 MorayrecapturesIsleofManfortheScotsRobberyoftheCardinalsinNorthumberlandPopetriestoimposeatruce

1318

RoberttakesBerwickEdwardBrucediesatBattleof

FaughartMorayandDouglasinvadeEngland

1319

EdwardIIinvadesScotlandSiegeofBerwickMorayandDouglasinvadeEnglandasadiversion

BattleofMytonDestructionofWesternMarchbyMorayandDouglas

1320

Two-YearTrucewithEnglandDeclarationofArbroathsenttopopeSoulesconspiracy

againstRobertBlackParliament,trialofconspirators

1322

TruceexpiresRobert,MorayandDouglasdestroyDurham,WesternMarchEdwardIIinvadesScotland

RobertinvadesEngland,defeatsearlofRichmondatBattleofBylandsandputsEdwardIItoflight

1323

AgreementbetweenRobertandAndrewHarclayTruceof

Bishopsthorpe:athirteen-yeartrucewithEngland

1324

PapalrecognitionofRobert’skingshipBirthofDavid,heirtothroneofScotland

1326

TreatyofCorbeilbetween

ScotlandandFranceOverthrowofEdwardIIbyIsabellaandMortimer,inthenameofEdwardIIIMorayandDouglasraidDurham;encounteratStanhopePark

1327 RobertinnorthernIreland;makesapproachestogovernmentofIreland?Roberttakenill;returnstoScotlandRobertthreatenstoannexNorthumberlandTreatyof

1328

Edinburgh–Northampton(the‘ShamefulPeace’)betweenScotlandandEnglandMarriageofDavidBruceandJoan,sisterofEdwardIIIRoberttakenillagain?InstallsWilliamdeBurghasearl

ofUlster

1329

Robert’sfinalpilgrimagetoWhithornAbbeyDeath

1330

DouglastakesRobert’sheartoncrusadetoSpainDeathofDouglasinSpainRobert’sheart

buriedatMelrose

1819

DiscoveryoftombExhumationofRobert’sbones

1921 DiscoveryandexhumationofRobert’sheart

1996

RediscoveryandexhumationofRobert’sheart

Introduction

Brushingoffthecobwebs

OnWednesday10February1306agroupofperhapshalfadozenmenstoodaboutinGreyfriarsChurchyardatDumfries,cloakswrappedaboutthem,stampingtheirfeetagainstthebitterwind.

Outofthewintergloomtwohorsemenrodeup.Formalgreetingswereexchangedasthehorsesclatteredacrossthecobblesandtheridersdismounted,theforcedfriendlinessbetrayingahintoftension.Allpresentbore‘casual’weaponry.Tobreaktheicetheleaderofthewaitinggroupstrodetowardsthenewcomers,handoutstretched,andgreetedtheyoungerofthemwith

handshakeandkissonthecheek.Settinganexampleforhismen,RobertBruce,the32-year-oldearlofCarrickandlordofAnnandale,putanarmroundJohnComynandtogethertheyledthewayintothekirk,stoopingtoenterthelowdoorwayandcrossingthemselves.ComynhadriddenthesixmilesfromhiscastleatDalswintonescortedbyhisuncleSirRobertComyn.RobertBrucewas

accompaniedbyhisbrother-in-lawChristopherSetonandothersunnamed.Buttheprincipalsmaintainedtheirdistancefromtheirassociatesbywalkinguptheaisletothealtar.Intheconfidentialdarknessofthechapel,Bruce’schatswitchedtoearnestsolicitation.Theoldkingwasdying…togethertheyhadtheresources…itwasnowornever.Comynhadhearditallbeforeand

waswearyoflisteningtoBruce’sscheme:BruceknewthathecouldneverassenttoenthronementofanyoneelseasKingofScotswhilehisunclebymarriage,KingJohnBalliol,livedinexile.CarelesslyComynletslipsomebanter,somecoarseflippancy–andinstantlyregrettedit.BythecandlelightheregisteredBruce’sface,suddenlyincandescentwithrage.

Comynexcusedhimself,apologisedeven,buttoolate.BrucebeganshoutingthatComynhaddamagedhisstandingatcourt,thathehadbetrayedhimtotheEnglishking.Comyncounteredwithbitteraccusationsofhisown,butBruceroaredthatComynwasaliarandsuddenlylashedoutwithakickthatbroughthimtotheground.SirRobertComynrushedtohisnephew’sassistancebut

foundhiswayblockedbySeton,whounsheathedhisswordandstruckhimonthehead.SucharagehadstokedupinhimthatBruceentirelyforgothimselfanddrewhisownsword,heedlessofthesanctityofhissurroundings.HebroughtaclumsyblowdownontheprostrateComyn.Turninghisbackonthewoundedman,asthoughindisgust,Brucewalkedoutintothefadingdaylight,

leavinghismentofinishofftheComyns.Hismenfollowedhimout,andstoodaboutforseveralminutes,respectingtheirchief’ssilence.Brucestruggledtotakeinthedrasticimplicationsofwhathadjusthappened,andwishedhecouldrelivethoselastfewminutes.But,realisingthattherecouldbenogoingback,noexplanationsforwhathadhappened,noexcuses,he

announcedtohismenhisintentiontoseizethekingshipofScotland.Withthisimpulsiveactof

murder,treacheryandsacrilegeRobertBrucelaunchedhisbidforthethroneofScotland,acoursefraughtwithdanger,thatwouldcosthimdearinthelivesoflovedones,andpersonalinjury,yetwouldsafeguardtheScottishidentity,thenindangerof

extinction,andcarryhimintolegendasRobertIofScotland,ahero-kingunsurpassedinthehistoryoftheseislands.Fewhavelivedasfully,adventurouslyandheroically;indeed,Bruce’srollercoastercareerpromptssearchingquestions.HowtruearethetalestoldofRobertBruce?Howmuchcanonemancramintoalife?Howmanytimes,andinhowmanywayscanamanbea

hero?ForRobertBrucewasatonceavaliantknightandagreatlord,acleverpolitician,amurderer,oratleastanaccomplicetomurder,afugitive,aninspirationalcharismaticguerrillachief,amilitarygenius,awisestatesman,aself-declaredheroandfinally,intheeyesofScotsthroughtheages,thesaviourofanation.Tricks,rusesandhair-raisingescapes;highpolitics,grim

siegesandbloodybattles;assassinationplots;singlecombattothedeath,Bruceliveditall.Hollywoodcouldnotbegintoproducesuchascript!Evendebilitatingillnessattheendofhislife–wasitleprosy?–didnotpreventBrucewagingwarinIrelandandEnglandsimultaneously,whilebeingcarriedaboutonalitter.Hewasacolossusamongmen,andevennowScotlandlives

deepinhisshadow.Sevenhundredyearsago

RobertBruceseizedthekingshipofScotlandashisbirthrightand,defeatedinbattle,fledoverseas,preservinginhisownpersonthekingshipofScotlandfromextirpationbyEdwardIofEngland’sprecociousunitedkingdomoftheMiddleAges.Hemayhavesavedthe‘ideaofScotland’forfuturegenerations.Unusuallyfor

someonewholivedintheMiddleAges,weknowagreatdealaboutthisRobertBruce,andwhateverelsemaybeunclearaboutthisstill-controversialfigure,hewasaremarkableman.Theantithesisofanarmchairgeneralwhosendsothersintodangerswhichhedoesnothimselfshare,Bruceledfromthefront,riskingeverythinginpursuitofhisgoal.Hisskull,exhumedfivehundred

yearsafterhisdeath,stillbearsmarksoftheseriousheadinjurieshesustained.Undoubtedlyhedidterriblethings:hepresidedoverthebutcheringofatleastonegarrison;heinflictedadecadeofcruelwaronavirtuallydefencelesscivilianpopulationinnorthernEngland;andhewaspersonallyinvolvedinthemurderofJohnComyn,aswehaveseen.Heendured

deprivationandlostheavilyalongtheway:hisfourbrotherslosttheirlivesinhiscause;hissisterandhisputativeloverenduredyearsofhumiliationfortheirassociationwithhim.AndattheendofitallRobertdiedinhisbed,confidentthathehadsucceededinhisambitionsforhimself,hisfamilyandScotland,andhepassedintohistoryas‘theultimateheroanddefenderofScottish

nationhoodagainstEnglishimperialismwhileotherScottishpatriotsweremostunfairlyvilifiedbyhistorians’.Robert’slifehasalways

madecompellingreading,anditisentirelyappropriatethatheiscomparedbymedievalwriterstoOdysseusthefabledwanderer,AenaeasthelegendaryfounderofRomeandthebiblicalheroesJoshuatheIsraelitegeneral

andJudasMaccabeus,wholedtheJewishrevoltagainsttheSeleucidEmpire.Hisadventureswereamatchforanyofthem.HerevivedthekingshipofScotland,andliberatedherfromEnglishdomination;forcednorthernEnglandtopaytribute;and,aspiringtopan-Celticleadership,senthisbrothertoconquerIrelandandthreatenWales.InthehistoryoftheBritishIsles,RobertIstands

formorethanjustabriefScottishhegemony:herepresentsoneofhistory’sgreat‘Whatifs?’,analternativepathofdevelopment,analternativetoEnglishdominationnotjustforScotland,butforIrelandandWalesaswell.Evenasthingsturnedout,

historyhasbeenkindtoRobertBruce;tookind,perhaps,sincethemedievalpropagandistsforhisdynasty

havesuccessfullyairbrushedoverhisfaults.Yethehasnotalwaysbeenapopularfigure.Overthecenturieshispopularityhaswaxedand,inrecenttimes,waned.InhislifetimeRobertsparednoeffortstohaveposterityregardhiminthesamewayasheisportrayedbytheimageonhisownroyalseal:theverypersonificationofdivineorderintheworldandtheimpassivesymbolof

divinejustice.InthelaterMiddleAges,theBrucelegendofmiraculoussurvivalfromcatastrophetovindicateajustclaimprovidedforScotlandanecessarymythologyforresistanceandsurvivalduringherlife-or-deathstrugglewithherpowerfulsouthernneighbour.ThenthelegendlostitsimportanceaswarwithEnglandabated;andaftertheunionofEnglishandScottish

crownsin1707itpotentiallyhadthepowertoinspiresecessionandtreachery.InthelateGeorgianeratheBrucelegendwas‘rediscovered’intimetotakeadvantageofthegrowthoftourism,andBrucewaspackaged,alongwithtartan,kiltsandHighlandclans,formassmarketing.TheexhumationofBruce’sbonesin1819andsubsequentlySirWalterScott’srenditionof

hislifeinTalesofaGrandfatherdidmuchtoremindthenationofthedebtitowedtoitshero-king;butthatimagewasnotrefreshed,andinthetwentiethcenturyacquiredastuffyandshop-wornaspect,animagewithoutmysteryorhumanity,thatbelongedtoadistantandirrelevantpast.Morerecently,

understandingofRobertBrucehasbeenundermined

byboththeCelticrevival(whichspurnedBrucequiteunjustlyasforeign,Anglo-NormanandFrench-speaking)andbythereleasein1995oftheHollywoodblockbusterBraveheart.Thefilm’sunfavourablecomparisonofRobertBruce,theuntrustworthynoble,withthenationalistproletarianWilliamWallaceisnotbasedonfact.Bruceisportrayedinthefilmasslyandunreliable,

dishonestanddishonourable,atraitortothenationalcause.AnactionmovieisofcourseinappropriateforseriousexplanationofBruce’sbehaviour.RobertBrucechangedsidesrepeatedlyinthedecade1296to1306foravarietyofreasonstoocomplexforexpressioninfilm:becausehewishedandwasexpectedtodefendthedynasticandlegalinterestsofhisfamily;because,insofaras

therewasa‘nationalcause’,contemporariesperceiveditonlyasequaltoorexceededinimportancebyswornpersonalloyalties;becausehewasfacedwithachoicebetweenaforeignkingforwhomhehadnolove,andaScottishking(Robertsawhimasausurper)whowoulddestroyhim;andfinally,becausehispeersandrivalswereallactingindefenceoftheirownfamilyanddynastic

interests.Thispasthundredyearsorso,ScotlandhasnotembracedthememoryofRobertBrucewiththesamewarmthashitherto.Perhaps,truetoherCelticnature,Scotlandprefersherheroesinthetragicmould,andRoberthasbeentoosuccessfulforsympathy.Despitecenturiesof

popularmythandmisunderstanding,andcenturiesofpropaganda

generatedbothbytheBrucesthemselvesandbytheirenemies,recenthistoricalendeavourhasbrushedawaythesecobwebs.BypatientworkinarchivesandlibrariesProfessorsBarron,BarrowandDuncan(andmanyotherstoonumeroustomentionhere)haverevisedRobert’swholecareerandshednewlightuponthehistoricalfigure.Throughtheirwork,adullandsombreoilpainting

isdaringlyrestoredtorevealhiddencomplexitiesandcharacteristics.Sourcesarecrucialtoaccuratehistory,andithelpsone’sunderstandingtoknowalittleofthenatureofthesourcesthatunderpintheaccuratemodernaccounts.ForScotlandinthisperiodtherearenotthedetailedhouseholdrecordsthatexistforthecontemporaryEnglishkings,EdwardsI,IIandIII.Butwe

dohaveArchdeaconJohnBarbour’ssuperb‘romance’TheBruce.1Completedin1375orthefollowingyear,itisaversechronicleofRobert’slife–somethirteenthousandlinesofrhymingcoupletsinthemedievalScotstongue–startlinglyaccurateinmanydetailswhencheckedagainstadministrativesourcesanddevotedtothechivalrous

exploitsofthehero-king.Barbourisnotinterestedindates,administrativemattersorpolitics:hewritesofwar,concentratingonBruce’svalour,hismartialprowessand,occasionally,onhisotherchivalricvirtues–magnanimity,generosityandwisdom.Prominentinthestory(rathertothedetrimentofBruce’smainlieutenant,ThomasRandolph,EarlofMoray)areBruce’s

companionsSirJamesDouglas(‘GoodSirJames’)andWalter,thehereditaryStewardofScotland,founderoftheStewartdynasty.Barbourconcentratesontheseindividualswithgoodreason:BarbourwaswritingforWalter’sson,RobertIIofScotland,andheseemstohavepossessedaverseaccountofDouglas’schivalricdeeds.TheBruceisauniquerecordofalifeinthe

MiddleAges;nothingquitecomparableexistselsewhere.Othernarrativesources

alsothrowlightonthelifeofRobertBruce:theAnnalsofJohnofFordun,whichexistedindraftin1363,andtheScotichroniconofWalterBower,writteninthemidfifteenthcentury,whichdrewuponmaterialscollectedbyFordun.TheseandotherScottishauthorsofthelaterMiddleAgeswerekeento

presentBruceandhisoffspringasthelegitimateandGod-givenkingsofScotland,andduringtheirlifetimesthedynastywaslockedinintermittentwarwithEngland.Whiletheirworkscontainawealthofhistoricaldetail,theseauthorswerealsoBruce’sapologistsandpropagandists.ForFordun,BrucewasasaviouronaparwithChristhimself:

TheEnglishnationlordeditinallpartsofthekingdomofScotlandruthlesslyharryingtheScotsinsundryandmanifoldways…ButGodinHismercy,asisthewontofhisfatherlygoodness,hadcompassion…;soHeraisedupasaviourandchampionuntothem–oneoftheirownfellowstowit,namedRobertBruce.Theman…puttingforthhishanduntoforce,underwentthecountlessandunbearabletoilsoftheheatoftheday…forthesakeoffreeinghisbrethren.

Theseareheavilypartisanaccounts,writtenbysupportersoftheBrucemonarchy.Hereindeedishistorywrittenbythewinners,notallofitinaccurate,but,asinthisexcerptfromBower,heavilybiasedandeffusiveinpraiseofthehero-king:

whoeverhaslearnttorecount[Bruce’s]individualconflictsandparticulartriumphs–thevictories

andbattlesinwhichwiththehelpoftheLord,byhisownstrengthandhisenergeticvalourasaman,heforcedhiswaythroughtheranksoftheenemywithoutfear,nowpowerfullylayingthemlow,nowpowerfullyturningthemasideasheavoidedthepenaltyofdeath–hewillfind,Ithink,thathewilljudgenoneintheregionsoftheworldtobehisequalsinhisowntimesintheartoffightingandinphysicalstrength.

Evidenceofferedbythesepropagandistsinsupportof

BruceisbalancedbythatoftheEnglishnarrativesources,heavilybiasedagainsthim:theScalachronicaor‘LadderChronicle’writteninthemidfourteenthcenturybyaNorthumberlandknight,SirThomasGray;thenear-contemporaryLanercostchronicle,amorebalancedandinformativenarrativeoftheperiod,andtheothernear-contemporarychroniclewrittenbyWalterof

Guisborough,alongwithmanyothermonasticwriterswhocontributefromtheEnglishpointofview.Manx,IrishandFrenchcontemporaryauthorsalsohelpilluminateaspectsofBruce’sremarkablecareer.Alllendtheirparticularslanttothestory,andmosthaveanaxetogrindinthetelling,but,alongwithquantitiesofmisinformation,allbearaspectsofthatelusivequality,

historicaltruth.Administrativesources

carrylesspropaganda.NotmuchsurvivesfromtheScottishgovernment’sbureaucracy,exceptforinvaluableExchequerRollsforthelatterpartofRobert’sreign.TherearenorecordsofroyalorprivateestatesinScotlandfromthisperiod;administrativeevidencefromScotlandmostlytakestheformofchartersortitle-deeds

toland,whichtendtoberetainedinfamilies.Enormousstrideshavebeenmadeinscholarshiplately,andProfessorDuncanhaseditedandassembledtheextantdeedsofKingRobertI.Weareunlikelyevertohavetheking’scompleteacta–allhischarters,deedsandletters–butwedohaveamuchclearerpicturethaneverbefore.Bycontrast,theEnglishgovernmentofthe

periodproducedavastarchive,whichisstilllargelyintact.ResearchinthePublicRecordOfficecontinuestothrowupdocumentsilluminatingeventsinthosepartsofScotlandsubjecttoEnglishruleandtheEnglishking’swareffortagainstthe‘patriot’Scots.Rollsofparchment–theRotuliScotiaeorScotchRolls,thePatentRolls,CloseRolls,PipeRollsandMemoranda

Rollstonamebutafew–containthousandsofcopiesofindividualdocumentswithabearingonthesituationinScotlandandonthemanagementofawarwhichstretchedtheimpressiveEdwardianadministrativemachinetothelimitofitscapacity.ToavoidusingthecumbersomeWestminster-basedexchequer,the‘ThreeEdwards’usedaselecteddepartmentoftheroyal

household,theroyalwardrobe,asamobilewarfinanceoffice,dedicatedtothefundingoftheircampaigns.WardrobeBooks,oftenbeautifulintheircalligraphy,provideannualrecordsofpaymentsfromtheEnglishroyalhouseholdforcampaignsagainsttheScots–expenditureoncastlegarrisons,allmannerofsupply,paymentstoinfantryandcavalry,royalgiftsand

messengers–indetailthatprovidesvaluableinsightintowhatwashappeninginScotlandandothertheatresofwar.Thereareothersourcestoo.SomerecordsoftheIrishcolonialgovernmenthavesurvivedthecatastrophicfireof1922,andthereisawealthofmaterialaccumulatedbymonastichousesandotherreligiousinstitutionsinnorthernEngland:bishops’registers,collectionsof

chartersandoccasionalestaterecords.Aparticularlywell-preservedsourceisthemonasticarchiveatDurham,whichprovidesinsightsintoRobert’sexactionoftributefromthenorthofEnglandandhowthemonastery’sestatesfaredduringhisdestructiveradis.Thesourcesthenarefuller

thanonemightexpect,yettheyonlytakeussofaronourjourneytounderstandthe

characterofRobertBruce.WithhindsightwemayjudgethatBrucemadesomeappallingblunders:hismurderofComynandcertainofhisinterventionsinIrelandmayqualifyinthisrespect.Butweperceivetheenergywithwhich,indefianceofthegreatestmilitarypoweroftheday,Brucepursuedhisburningambition;hisfrustrationashesidesfirstwiththepatriotsagainstthe

mightoftheforeignoccupyingpower,thensubmitstoprotectvitalinterests,andthenalienatesbothsidesinhislungeforthethrone.Wecansensehisdespairatdefeatandhishumiliationatbeinghoundedoutofarealmtowhosekingshipheaspired.Therearealsoindicationsofthepersonalgriefhesufferedatthebrutalexecutionsofhisbrothersandthepublic

humiliationofthosedeartohim.Themosttelling

illustrationofRobert’scharacterhowevermaylienotintruehistory,butinanecdote,misattributedtohimlongafterhisdeath.ThestrengthofcharacterrequiredtoclawbackfromthreecrushingdefeatsisaptlyrepresentedbythetiredimageofRobertBruceandthespider.Destitute,the

would-bekingsitsaloneanddejectedonRathlinIsland(orJura,orArran,oratKirkpatrick,oratUamh-an-Righ,orahostofotherplacesforwhichclaimsarestakedinthetouristbrochures),idlywatchingaspidertryingtospinaweb.Timeandagainthespiderfails,yeteventuallythroughblinddeterminationitsucceeds,inspiringBrucetotryoncemoretoregainthethroneofScotland.Asmost

peopleknow,thespiderstoryisalatefabrication.ItwasrelatedbySirWalterScottintheTalesofaGrandfather,butoriginallyinventedbyDavidHumeofGodscroftinhisHistorieoftheHouseofDouglas(1633),whereitisSirJamesDouglaswhowitnessesthespider’sdoingsandrelatesthemtoBruce.Thetalemaynotbehistory,butthepointiswellmade:thatBruce,thoughlongdead,

compelsouradmirationthroughhisdeterminationandtenacity,throughhisheroicefforttorebuildfromcatastrophehisowndynasticfortunesandthoseofScotlandherself.ThroughtheworkofscholarsthefigureofRobertBrucehasemergedfromthedarkcaveoflegendandmythintothehalf-lightofhistory,anditistimetoreassessthiscruciallyimportantfigureandaccord

himhisdueplaceinpopularculture.

1Amanofhistime,amanof

hisplace

Scotlandinthelatethirteenth

century

RobertBrucewasbornon11July1274.Hisaristocraticfamilyhadextensiveholdingsinsouth-westScotland,wheretheyhadbeenlordsofAnnandaleforgenerations.Turnberrycastle,theheadofhismother’searldom,isthemostlikelyplacehisofbirth.Hewasprobablynotbornonthefamily’sestatesinEngland,butwasrather

‘Scottishbybirth’aswewouldunderstandit,sincehesubsequentlyclaimedtheScotsas‘hisownpeople’.TheBruceswereofmorethanjustlordlyrank:theyweregreatmagnates,thesocialequalsofearls.Indeed,bymarryinghismother,hisfatherhadacquiredthetitleofearlofCarrickinrightofhiswife.ThedevelopmentoftheBrucedynastywillbediscussedinthenextchapter;

forthepresentRobert’searlylifewillbediscussed,togetherwiththecontextsintowhichRobertwasborn.LifeintheMiddleAges

wasdominatedbyideasandassumptionsthatnolongerexistinquitethesameway,andcommonmisunderstandingsofRobertBruceareoftenrootedinfailurestounderstandhowamanofBruce’stimeandsocialclasscomprehended

life,relationshipsandtheworld.‘Thepastisanothercountry’andoneshouldnotgotherewithoutaguide,howeverbrief,howeversketchy.Todootherwiseistoriskinfectingthepastwiththeassumptionsofthepresentage,creatinganachronismsandinvestinghistoricalpersonalitieswithattitudesandassumptionsthattheycouldneverhaveembraced.Theperiodweare

dealingwithisthelatethirteenthandearlyfourteenthcentury,andthebackdroptoRobert’searlylifeisknownastheHighMiddleAges.ThiswasbeforegunpowderwascommonlyusedinWesternEurope(thoughgreatlordswerebeginningtoexplorethepotentialofprimitiveexplosives).ItwasbeforetheBlackDeathwipedoutathirdofEurope’spopulation.It

wasatimewheneconomicgrowthandagrarianexpansionwaslevellingoff,orperhapsjustbeginningtorecedeinmanypartsoftheBritishIsles.EconomictrendswerenotofcourseclearlyevidenttoRobertorhiscontemporaries.Perhapsbecausetechnologyhadnotchangedsignificantlyinathousandyears,peopleintheMiddleAgesdidnotusuallyconceiveofsocietyas

dynamicorevolving.Ithasbeensaid,withjustification,thatmedievalpeoplehadnoconceptofevolution.Itwouldbeincorrecthowevertosaythattheydidnotintroducenewideasandinventions;rathertheyshowedatendencytorepresentinnovationasareturntoanearlierstateofaffairs.Medievalpeopleweremuchmorerespectfulofthepastthanweare,andlookedto

tradition,customandlineagetoprovidejustificationfordecisionsoractions.Tothem,societyandeconomywereastheyalwayshadbeen,timeoutofmind.ThemarriageofRobert’s

father,RobertBruce,thesixthlordofAnnandale,around1272,isthesubjectofanengagingvignetteinFordun’schronicle,inwhich,duringachanceencounterwhileshewasouthunting,

thelady,Marjorie,CountessofCarrick,vampsherman:

Whengreetingsandkisseshadbeengivenoneachside,asisthewontofcourtiers,shebesoughthimtostayandhuntandwalkabout;andseeingthathewasratherunwillingtodoso,shebyforce,sotospeak,withherownhand,madehimpullupandbroughttheknight,althoughveryloathe,withhertohercastleofTurnberry.Afterdallyingtherewithhisfollowersforthespaceoffifteendaysormore,hesecretly

tookthecountessashiswife.Friendsandwell-wishersofbothknewnothingaboutit,norhadtheking’sconsentinthematterbeenatallobtained.Whateverthechroniclesays,Robert’sfatherisunlikelytohavebeenbrowbeatenorforcedintomarriagewitharichwidowandacountessinherownright.Rather,FordunisprotectingthefatherofhisherofromaccusationofabductingMarjorie.Enraged,KingAlexanderIII,whoserightitwastoapprovemarriagesbetweenhistenants-in-chief,tookTurnberryandallthe

countess’spossessionsintohisownhand;butagiftofmoneysoonplacatedhim.Themarriagewasaveryfruitfulunionandmayhavebeenalovematch,quiteunusualfortheMiddleAgeswhenmarriagewaspredominantlyviewedasapropertycontract,tobenegotiatedbetweentwofamilies,oftenwhiletheprincipalswerestillveryyoung.

WithrespecttoRobert’searlyfamilylifewehavenofirmevidence,butwecanhazard

somegeneralisations.2RobertBruceVI,hasbeencharacterisedas‘spineless’and‘colourless’byProfessorBarrow,butthisisbycomparisonwithRobert’scolourfulcrusadergrandfather,RobertBruceV,knowntocontemporariesasRoberttheNoble,andtohistoryas‘BrucetheCompetitor’,becausehecompetedwithothersforthe

throneofScotlandatthehearingsknownastheGreatCausein1290–91.ThisgrandfatherseemstohavebeenanimmenseinfluenceonRobert.Thatisevidentnotonlyfromhisconvictionofthejusticeofhisclaimtothethrone,aclaimpioneeredbyRobertBruceV,butalsofromhisdeath-bedcrusadingaspirations,derivedfromtheexampleofhisgrandfather.Marjorie,themotherof

Robert,thefutureking,beingthedaughterofNeil,thelastGaelicearlofCarrick,wasaGaelicnoblewoman.HermarriagetoRobertBruceofAnnandalebroughtthatlordtheearldomofCarrickaswehaveseen,andsoitwasthatRoberttheking-to-beinheritedthetitleearlofCarrick.RecentlySeánDuffyhassuggestedthatRobert’smaternalgrandmother,thewifeofNeil,EarlofCarrick,

mayhavebeenadaughterofanO’NeillkingofTyrone.ItmaythereforebenoaccidentthattheChristiannameNeilrecursintheBrucefamily.TheO’NeillsofTyroneharbouredpretensionstowardsthekingshipofIreland,andifitwerethecasethattheBruceswereconnectedbybloodwiththeO’NeillsitwouldhaveprofoundimplicationsfortheBruceclaimtobeofroyal

blood.ItispossibletoothatfromNeilofCarricktheBrucesinheritedaclaimtolandsinCountyAntriminIreland,grantedinthetwelfthcenturytoNeil’sfather,DuncanofCarrick.Bethatasitmay,tieswiththeGaidhealtachd,theGaelic-speakingcrescentthatextendedalongthewestandnorthoftheBritishIsles,wereclose,andGaelicwasquiteliterallyRobertBruce’s

mothertongue.WemaybecertainthatallthechildrenspokeFrenchandGaelic;possiblysomeLatin,thelanguageofprayer;andScots,theEnglishdialectusedbytheLowlandpeasantry.Thefamilywillhavemovedbetweenthecastlesofthelordship:Lochmaben,themaincastleofthelordshipofAnnandale;TurnberryandLochDoonoftheearldomofCarrick.

Roberthadeightorninesiblings,butsincehisfathermarriedasecondwife(presumablyonthedeathofMarjorie)someoftheyoungerchildrenmayhavebeenhalfbrothersandsisters.Theboys,atleastRobertandEdward,werefosteredaccordingtoGaelictradition,spendingasubstantialpartoftheiryouthatthecourtsofothernoblemen.Thefoster-brotherofRobertisreferred

tobyBarbourassharingRobert’sprecariousexistenceasanoutlawinCarrickduringtheyears1307and1308,whileEdwardwas,accordingtoonesource,invitedtoIrelandby‘acertainIrishmagnatewithwhomhehadbeeneducatedinhisyouth’.ItispossiblethenthattheywerefosteredtoGaelicIrishmagnates.TalesofFinnMacCoolarereferredtoinTheBruceand

perhapsthechildrenabsorbedthetraditionalGaelicstoriesattheirmother’sknee.ElsewhereinthepoemRobertissaidtohaverecitedthetaleof‘Ferambrace’(‘IronArm’),theCharlemagnianhero,toraisethespiritsofhismen;thisillustratesthefamily’sdominantfrancophone,chivalricbackground.Thechildrencouldwellhavebeentaughttoreadinsomeoftheir

languages,thoughthosedestinedforknighthood(Robert,Neil,EdwardandThomas)mayhaveconsideredthatwritingwasbestlefttoclerks.Oneoftheyoungerbrothers,Alexander,wasgroomedforacareerinholyorders.Asheir,Robertwillhavebeenschooledbyspecialisttutorsinalltherefinementsofcourtlyetiquette–manners,elocution,musicperhaps,and

dancing–andhewillhavewaitedasapageathisfather’sandgrandfather’stables.Hewillhavereceivedsomeschoolinginlaw.Specialattentionwillhavebeenpaidtothemartialartsofhorsemanship,swordsmanshipandjousting.Leisureactivitiesincludedaprodigiousamountofhuntingandfalconry.AloveofshipsandseatravelthatemergesinRobert’slaterlifemayhave

beeninstilledinhisyouth.Theimportanceofpiety

willhavereceivedgreatstress.MedievalChristianityissaidtohavebeenakintopolytheisminthateveryday,everylocalityandeverysituationhaditsownparticularsaint.Saintscouldbejealousoftheirduedevotionsandwrathful.StMalachy,asweshallsee,mayhavebeenperceivedbythefamilyasmalevolent.The

childrenwillhavebeentaughttoreverecertainsaintsaboveothers:Columcille,andalsoAndrew,whoseculthadgrownoverthepasthundredyearsattheexpenseoftheCelticsaints.Relicsandpilgrimagesfeaturedprominently.StNinianmayhavebeentheprincipallocalsaint,anditwastoStNinan’scavethatRobertmadehisfinalpilgrimage.HischartersalsosuggestdevotiontoSt

Fillan,whoseshrinewasmaintainedintheAbbeyofInchaffray,andtoStKentigern,thepatronofthebishopricofGlasgow.Also,inlaterlife,RobertshowedsomepartialitytowardsStKessog,whofoundedthecommunityofInchtavannach,ontheIsleoftheMonksinLochLomond.Itiseasiertogeneralise

aboutRobert’searlylifethantodescribetheworldhewas

borninto.InScotlandtherewasaconsciousnessofbeingasmallandrelativelypoorkingdomontheveryedgeofChristendom;theDeclarationofArbroathrefersto‘PoorlittleScotland,beyondwhichthereisnodwellingplaceatall’.Thevastmajorityofherhalfamillioninhabitantswerepeasantfarmerslivingoffcattleandtheland.Outsidethecoreareasofmedievalfarming–suchas

Lothian,theeasterncoastalplainandtheLowlandsgenerally–medievalpopulationwaseitheratitsheightor,perhaps,justbeginningtodecline.Inregionssuchassouth-westScotland,wheretheBrucelordshipwascentred,grainfarmerswerebeginningtoabandonunprofitablesoilsandpasturesasthedemandforfood,andhencethepricethefarmercouldexpect,was

notquiteashighasithadbeen.Farmersinsouth-westScotlandwerefortunateinthattheyhadextensiveareasofhighmoorlandwhichprovidedseasonalpastureonwhichcattlemightgraze.CattleweremoreimportantthantillageinsuchpartsofScotland,andthiswasreflectedinthesocialorganisationofGaelicScotland,wherethepopulationmovedwiththe

cattlebetweenseasonalpastures.OveralargepartoftheBritishIsles,RobertBruce’swarshelpedtoacceleratethedownturningrainfarmingand,viewedinthelongterm,toterminatemanyfeaturesthattypifiedtheHighMiddleAges.Iftillagewasbeginning

perhapstofalter,tradewasflourishing,thoughitwasallonafairlysmallscale.Therewerenotmanytownsor

‘burghs’intheScotlandofRobert’sdayandthosethatexistedweresmallandoftensituatedonthecoast.Butkingsandlordshadrealisedthattownsgeneratedincomethroughconcentratingthepopulationandcreatingmarkets,andsothedevelopmentofburghshadbeenencouragedbythegreatlordsthroughgrantsofprivileges:rightstotaketolls,andholdfairsandmarkets.

Scottishkingshadcreatedthirty-sixroyalburghs,manyofwhichdevelopedurbancharacteristics.ThemaintownswereBerwick,Edinburgh,RoxburghandStirling.Mostofthelargertownswereontheeastcoastwheretherewasagrowingexporttradeinwool,leather,hides,fishandtimber.WoolinparticularwassoldtoFlemishandItalianmerchantswhosuppliedthegreatcloth-

manufacturingcentres.TheothergoodswereexportedtoEnglandandalsofartherafieldtoFlanders,theNetherlandsandtheGerman-speakingtownsoftheBaltic.TherewasconsiderableFlemishinterestandsettlementintheleadingportsofAberdeen,PerthandBerwick–wheretheFlemingshadaheadquarters(probablysomethingofacommunitycentreandplant

forprocessingexports)attheRedHall,whilethemerchantsofColognemaintainedasimilarpresenceattheWhiteHall.Thesortofsocietythat

Robertgrewupincanperhapsbemostbrieflyexplainedbylookingatsomeofthecleavagesthatexisted.SocialdivisionsatthetimeofRobertBrucewerefine,manyandcomplex;butitwillhelpifwelookfirstatthat

betweenthenoblesandthechurlish,andsecondlythatbetweentheGaelicandtheAnglo-Norman.Gentillesseornobilitycouldonlybeconferredbybreeding;onehadtobebornagentleman,nobleoraristocrattopossesstheappropriatemanner,speechandair.Gentillessealsoimpliedlandedwealth,anestatesufficienttomaintainanoblehousehold.Itwasnotenoughjusttohave

money;atthisperiodveryfewrichtownsfolk–ifany–madeitintothecharmedcircleofgentillesse.Itwasneverthelessabroadsocialcategory,andstretchedfromthekingandthehighestaristocratsintheland(suchastheBrucesofAnnandale)topoorknightsandsquireswithonlyamanorortwototheirnames,suchthefamilyofWilliamWallace.

Therelationshipbetweennoblesissometimesdescribedashierarchical,andcertainlythereweredifferentdegreesofrank,theprincipalranksbeingking(attheapexofthesocialpyramid),earls,barons,knightsandgentlemen.Everyonehadtohavealord,apatron,aprotector,ofwhomheheldhisfiefofland,andtowhomheperformedtheactof

homageandfealty.Thiswasasolemnoccasion.Thevassalkneltwithhandsjoinedbeforethelordinthepresenceofwitnesses;thelord,standingup,claspedthevassal’sjoinedhands,andthevassalrecitedaformulaofwordspromisingundyingloyalty.Theactwassealedbythegiftofafiefofland,forwhichthevassalcompletedsomenobleservice:knightservice,shipservice,oreven

anominalservicesuchasgiftingaroseatmidsummerorapairofsparrowhawks.Thebondofhomagewasnotlightlybroken.InTheBruceBarbourwaxeslyricalonthevirtueofloyalty,thebondthattiesamantohislord,andthesocialcementthatkeepssocietytogether:

LoyaltyistolovewholeheartedlyByloyaltymenliverighteously.Withloyaltyandbutoneother

virtueAmancanstillbeadequate,ButwithoutloyaltyheisworthlessEvenifheisvaliantorwise.ForwhereloyaltyislackingNovirtueisofsufficientpriceTomakeamangoodSothathecanbecalledsimplya‘goodman’.

WhenthetimecameforRoberttoassertinarmshisclaimtothekingshipofScotlandhehadofcoursetopersuadeotherstobreak

oathsofhomageandfealtytheyhadtakentothekingsofEngland.Malise,EarlofStrathearn,issaidtohavescornedtocomeovertoBruce’sside,declaringthathisoathofloyaltywasnot‘fragilelikeglass’.Besidestheinterplayoflordsandvassals,therewereotherdimensionstonoblesociety.Themarketinlandallowedanearltoholdlandofaknightwhereitwasdesirable,

knightstorentroyaldemensnefromtheking,andmonasteriestoletouttheirlandstonoblesofallranksforprofit.Noblerelationsthenresembledanetwork,ratherthanthefamiliarfeudalpyramidoftheschoolhistorybooks.Rivalnetworksofmagnateinterestsprangupandviedwithoneanotherforinfluenceinlocalitiesoratcourt:formostofthethirteenthcenturythe

influenceoftheBruceshadbeeneclipsedatcourtbythedominanceoftheirgreatrivalstheComyns,whohadcontrolledmostofthehighofficesinthelandforthebestpartofthethirteenthcentury,andhadbuiltupapowerfulnetworkofcastles,estatesandinterestsacrossthekingdom.Thefrancophone,chivalric

societyofnorthernEuropeprovidedthemaincultural

inputtotheBrucefamily.Asaristocratstheyconsideredthemselvesnaturalleadersanddisplayedthatarrogantdisdainofthelower‘churlish’socialordersandprideintheirownancestrycommontoallaristocracies.Fromtheirpositionnearthetopofthesocialhierarchy,asmagnatesortenants-in-chiefoftheking,theycontrolledlesserbaronialorknightlyfamiliesthroughgrantsof

landandotherbestowalsofpatronage.AsthekingdemandedtaxationandknightservicefromtheBruces,sotheyinturndemandedfoodormoneyrentsand(intimeofwar)knightservice,shipservice,castle-guardandotherassistancefromtheirnobledependents.Ecclesiasticallivingssuchasparishesandvicarages,werealsousedaspatronage,tobedispensedtosocialinferiors

inreturnfortheirloyaltyandtheirservices.Perhapsunusuallyforamagnatefamilyofsuchhighstanding,theBruceshadnotfoundedamonasteryinScotland;rather,theycontinuedtopatronisethemonasteryofGuisboroughinYorkshire,whichheldthetombsoftheirancestors.WhenRobertbecamekinghepatronisedmanyScottishreligioushousesandseveralEnglish

ones,buthewasespeciallygeneroustotheCistercianfoundationatMelrose,wherehisheartnowliesburied.Itwasexpectedofall

magnatefamiliestodisplaytheirwealthandprivilegedstatusinavarietyofways.TheBruceslivedostentatiously;diet,dressandmannersweredistinctfromandsuperiortothoseofsocialinferiors.TheirmainseatwasatLochmaben,buttheywill

havemaintainedseveralgrandhousesandmovedbetweenthemperiodically,accompaniedbyalargegroupofnobleretainers,knownasaretinueormeinie.IncommonwitharistocraciesrightacrossnorthernEuropeatthistime,theydisplayedarmorialdevicesillustratingtheirpedigree.TheBrucesflauntedtheirmartialvalourintournaments,listenedtotroubadourballadsonthe

themesofcourtlylove,andenjoyedArthurianliterature,allofwhichwereinvogueduringthis,thegoldenageofchivalry.Thechurlsontheother

hand,werethevastmajorityofthepeople,excludedfromgentilsocietyandeachboundtoalordbyeconomicandsocialobligationsofabaserkind:chieflythepaymentofrentsanddues,andtheperformanceoflabour

services(includingmilitaryserviceintimeofwar).Thissocialcategoryincludedmenofgreatlyvaryinglegalstatus,fromprosperousfreeholders,throughbondmentonatives,boundtothesoilandburdenedwithallsortsofservices,paymentsandobligations.Thecorollaryofthechurl’ssubmissionwasthatthelordwouldprovideprotectionintimesofdanger,settlementofdisputes,justice

fortheaggrievedandthedistributionoflargesse:rewards,grants,giftsandcharity.Thelord’sofficials,thestewards,bailliesorreeves,dispensedjusticeinthelord’scourt,enforcedsocialbonds,punishedevil-doersandthosewhodefiedsociety’staboos,andprovidedprotection.RobertBruce,WilliamWallaceandtheirpeersinthelordlyclass,tookvirtuallynoaccountof

theopinionsorneedsofthecommonpeople.Thereareexamples,asweshallsee,ofRobertactingcharitablyandhumanelytowardschurls,ashewasobligedtobyChristianity,butbeyondthathewillhavehadlittleinterestinthewelfareoropinionsofcommonpeople.AnumberofhisactsaskingshowRoberttohavebeensociallyconservative,keenthatbondmenshouldremainon

theirlords’estatesandnotdesertthemforthetowns,andkeengenerallythatindividualsshouldknowtheirplaceandnotaspiretoriseabovetheirrank.Thesecondprincipal

divisioninsocietywaslinguisticandcultural.Scotlandattheendofthethirteenthcenturywasfarfromculturallyhomogeneous.Untilabout1200,theprincipalcultureand

languageofScotlandhadbeenGaelic,and,thoughslowlyonretreatbeforeEnglish,Gaelicwasstillspokenwidelyinthewestandnorth,intheHighlandsandIslands.InthenorthandintherecentlyacquiredterritoriesofManandtheWesternIsles,therehadforcenturiesbeenextensiveNorwegianinfluenceandNorselanguageandcustomswillhavepersistedinplaces.

InLothian,onthecoastalplains,andaroundthelargereast-coasttownstheScotsdialectofEnglishpredominated,anditwasslowlygaininggroundattheexpenseofotherlanguages.FlemingsandsomeGermanshadsettledinthelargetownsoftheeast,attractedbytheprosperityofScottishtrade.Finally,everywhere,thelordlyclassspokeAnglo-NormanFrenchandthiswas

thelanguageoftheScottishcourt;itwasalsocommontomostofthecourtsofwesternChristendom.OnlyinthewestdidGaeliclordscontinuetousetheirtraditionaltongue.Gaeliccultureabsorbed

Anglo–Normanelements,suchasknightserviceandhomageandfealty,butitretaineddistinctivefeaturessuchaslivinginkinshipgroupsorclans,fosterage,

andthemaintenanceofstrongsocialtieswiththeGaelickingdomsofnorthernandwesternIreland.TheGaeliclordsoftheWesternIslesandArgyllwereoftenreferredtoas‘kings’intheirownlanguage,butas‘baronsoftheScottishrealm’inFrench.TheMacDougalls,MacDonaldsandMacRuaridhswerethethreemostpowerfulkingroupsofthewestand,thoughall

claimeddescentfromasingleancestor,warfareandrivalrybetweenthemwasconstant.TheirmercenariesfromtheWesternIsles,knownas‘galloglasses’,traversedthenorthernsealanes,seekingseasonalemploymentintheendlesswarsoftheIrishkings.RobertBruce,however,

wasprimarilyanAnglo-Normanmagnate,andhisfamilyhadbeeninstalledin

thetwelfthcenturyonthebordersofthekingdomofScotlandtoprotectitfromraidsbytheGaelicpeopleofGalloway,whowereresistingabsorptionintoScotland.Situatedonaninterfacebetweentwocultures,theBrucesdidnotremainunaffectedbysocialinterchangewiththeirpeersoftheotherculture,andconsequentlyby1274thefamilyhadlongbeenexposed

toGaelicmannersandcustoms.ThroughlivingcheekbyjowlwithGaelicformsandtraditionsforhundredsofyears,withoccasionalinter-marriageanddevelopmentofsocialandeconomicinterchange,acculturationsetin,andtheBrucesofAnnandaleabsorbedaspectsofGaeliclifeandmanners,justascrusaderslivingalongtimeintheHolyLandshoweda

tendencytopickupArabicandevenIslamictraits.SimilaritiesbetweenGaelicandAnglo-Normancultureweremuchmoremarkedthanthedifferences:bothsocietiestoleratedconsiderableviolence,andbothputenormousstockonloyaltytoone’slordasthemostfundamentalofsocialbonds.Withsuchapolyglot,

multiculturalpopulation,onemaybeexcusedforasking

howfarScotlandwasasingleentity.Butthequestionhastobeansweredintheaffirmative:Scotlandwasverydefinitelyasinglekingdomin1274.ThereweremanyScottishculturesandtongues–apointthatmakesnonsenseoftheallegationthatRobertBrucewassomehowlessScottishbecausehespokeFrench–yetScotlandwasapoliticalentity,akingdom.Theimage

ofthenationofScotlandbeingweldedtogetherbywarwithEngland,forgedundertheblowsofEdwardI,theHammeroftheScots,isquitefalse.Rather,bythelatethirteenthcenturyScottishkingshadalreadyforgedfortheirterritoriesanidentitysufficientlystrongforittobeabletoexistwithoutaking,asitdidduringtheinterregnumof1286–92.Thesuccessioncrisesthat

occurredin1286and1292,whenfirstKingAlexanderIIIandthenhisonlyheirbothdiedinquicksuccession,demonstratedthatthecombinedeffortsofpreviousmonarchshadbeensuccessfulinforgingapoliticalidentityornationhood,‘thecommunityoftherealm’,whichwascapableofauthoritativedecision-makingduringinterregnum,andcommandedtheloyaltyofthe

greatmajorityofScots.Constantlyaugmentedbywaranddiplomacy,thekingdomofScotlandbythisperiodhadvirtuallyattaineditsmodernfrontiers;OrkneyandShetlandaloneremainedNorwegianterritoryin1274.Scotlandwasasmucha

unityasanymedievalkingdom,yetallsuchkingdomswereassemblagesofdiverseregionslinkedtoamonarchybypersonalbond

oflordship.TheterritoriesruledoverbytheScottishkingwereinhabitedbypeoplesofEnglish,Gaelic,Norse,Manx,Flemish,andNormandescent.Itwastounitethesedisparatepeoplesthatthemonarchybegancarefullytocultivateideasof‘Scottishness’thatfullyembracedallitsloyaladherents.Duringthecourseofthethirteenthcenturytheroyalgenealogy,solemnly

recitedinGaelicattheenthroningofeachsuccessivemonarch,wasrevisedtoembracePictishaswellasScottishancestors.Thoughregionaldifferencespersisted,itisfairtosaythatbythecloseofthethirteenthcenturythemonarchyhadachieveditsgoalofpoliticalunity.Scottishkingshadpreviouslyaddressedcharterstothedifferentpeoplesbyname,asFrench,Scots,Englishand

(rarely)asGallovidians,butthishadceasedby1190.Nevertheless,themenofGallowayhadtheirownuniquerelationshiptotheScottishthrone,completelydifferenttothatofthemenofLothianorFife.Thiswasboundtobethecase,sincetheformationofthekingdomhadbeenafarfrominexorableorevenprocess.Galloway,forexample,hadneverquitebeenabsorbed

intothekingdomasfullyasotherprovinces.Galloway’ssubjugationbeganaround1164;itwaslong,bloodyandnotentirelycompletedevenbythetimeofRobert’sbirth.Gallowayretainedseparatisttendencies.ScottishclaimstoCumbriaandterritoriesinNorthumbriaprovedunsustainable,andtheseterritorieswerecededtoEngland.TheWesternIslesandManwereobtainedfrom

NorwaybytheTreatyofPerthaslateas1266.Magnus,thelastkingofMan,submittedtoAlexanderIIIonlyin1264.EventhentheislandersrevoltedagainstScottishrulein1275,andScotsandGallovidianstogetherruthlesslysuppressedtherebellion.TheseparatismsofManandGallowayweresubsequentlyencouragedbyEnglandwhenitsuitedhertodoso.ManyScottishnobles

heldlandsinEnglandandinotherkingdoms,illustratingthatthebondsoflordshipcutacrossthefrontiersofkingdoms.Furthermore,whilecustoms,laws,privilegesandtraditionswerejealouslypreserved,suchcustomswereoftenhighlylocalised.Lawwasnotasinglepointofreference;thereexistedawidediversityoflaws,whichincluded:theLawoftheMarchesthat

prevailedontheborders,theLawsofGalloway,peculiartothatregion,theForestLawthatappliedintheextensiveroyalhuntingpreserves;theLawof‘theFourBurghs’ofBerwick,Roxburgh,EdinburghandStirling;andBrehonLawthatprevailedinGaelic-speakingregions.Itwasthemonarchy,then,

andthenetworkofloyaltiesandobligationsthatflowedfrommonarchy,thatdefined

Scotland.Thethronedescendedbymaleprimogeniture,thatis,totheeldestsonofeachsuccessiveking.Solongasthekinghadcapablemalechildrenthearrangementworked;butif,asoccurredin1286,thekingdiedwithoutchildren,thepreciserulesofdescentwereopentosomedispute.ProfessorDuncanhasrecentlyexaminedtheScottishtraditionofking-

making.Theceremonyofking-makingwasverysolemn,andwearefortunatetohaveadepictionofitonthesealofSconeAbbey.Centraltotheinaugurationceremony(aswithallGaelicking-making)wasthesettingoftheking-to-beonaspecialstonethrone,ataspeciallocation.Scottishkingswereneitherceremoniallycrownednoranointedatthisdate,buttheydidaspiretobothand

triedunsuccessfullytoobtainfromthepapacytherighttoincorporatethemintotheceremony.TheabsenceoftheseritualsgavecredencetotheEnglishclaimthattheScottishmonarchywassubordinate.TheceremonybeganwiththecandidatebeingacclaimedaskinginthechurchofSconeAbbey.Hetookoathsonthegospelstodefendthechurch,maintainrightandjusticeand

keepgoodlaws,andhewasgirdedwithasword.Fortheopen-airceremonyofenthronement,thecandidatewasthenledtoacrossinthechurchyard,wherestoodawoodenbench-thronecontainingtheStoneofScone.TheearlofFifeorhisrepresentativeledthecandidatetothethrone.Onceenthroned,thekingwouldreceiveasymbolofauthority,anelaboratesceptre.Hewas

alsoceremoniallycloakedwithamantleandstolebytheabbotofSconeandanothercleric,symbolisingendorsementbythechurch.Hemayhavewornacrownallalong,butitwascertainlynotacentralpartoftheceremony.RobertBrucehadtodowithouttheStoneofDestinywhenhewasenthroned;perhapsforthatreason,whenin1328hewasoffereditback,hedidnot

makestrenuouseffortstorecoverit.Finally,thenewking’sgenealogywasreadoutbyaGaelichistorian,demonstratingthatthenewkingwasdescendedfromthePictishandGaelickingsofold,rightbacktoIberScot,thefirstScotsman.Afeastfollowed,andfealtiesweretaken.Thekingwaslordofthe

royalestates(orroyaldemesne),buthehadto

factorintoallhisdecisionstheopinionsandinterestsofthearistocracy.Thiswasledbygreatlandowners,themagnates.Primogeniturewastheinheritancecustomcommonlyfollowedbyallthenobility:thefirst-bornsonwouldinheritthewholeoftheestate.Iftherewerenoson,thepropertywouldbeequallydividedamonghisdaughters.Chiefamongthemagnateswerethethirteenearldoms:

Fife(whichwasthemostprestigiousoftheearldoms,andwhoseearlassistedattheenthronementofthemonarch),Mar,Angus,Buchan(heldbytheComyns),Strathearn,Atholl,Ross,Sutherland,Caithness(whichwasheldjointlywiththeNorwegianearldomofOrkney),Menteith,Lennox,Carrick(whichBrucehimselfinherited),andMarch.Besidesearldoms,therewere

othergreatlordshipscomparabletoearldoms,includingthelordshipofAnnandale(heldbytheBruces),Garmoran(bytheMacRuaridhs)andthelordshipofGalloway(bytheBalliols).Aswehaveseen,therewere,inaddition,threegreatGaelickingroupswhichexistedinthewest,besidesamyriadoflesserGaelickingroups.Onspecialoccasions,when

akingwantedtofocustheattentionofthewholerealmonbusinessofparticularimportance–aroyalmarriage,ademandforspecialtaxation,oranimportantsetofdecrees–aparliamentwouldbesummoned.Parliamentwasaspeciallyenlargedcouncilwhichalltheleadingnoblesandprelateswereobligedtoattend.Therewasnoquestionatthisdateofmereknights

attending,asalreadyoccurredatsomeEnglishparliaments,butparliamentsdidformallyconcedegrantsoftaxation(intheformofleviesonassessedmoveableproperty)tothemonarch.Thepowersofmedievalmonarchycoulddependverymuchuponthepersonalityandcharacteroftheking.Ingeneralhoweveritwasagreedthat,onthedeathofatenant-in-chief,akingwouldtakecustodyof

theestateuntiltheheirwasofagetoinherit.Usuallyanunder-ageheirwouldbecomearoyalward,andoninheritinghispropertytheheirwouldpayalargesumtotheking,knownasarelief.Shouldatenant-in-chiefbetrayhisoathsofhomageandfealty,heforfeitedhisinheritance.Thekinghadasayinthemarriagesofthechildrenofhistenants-in-chiefandoftheirwidows,as

wehaveseenwithrespecttothemarriageofRobertBruceVIandMarjorie,CountessofCarrick.Customdecreedhoweverthatnokingshoulddisparageawidow,thatis,marryherofftosomeoneoflowerrank.Bythelatethirteenth

centurytheScottishmonarchyhaddevelopedaspecialisedofficialdomtohelpitrunthekingdom.Royaljusticewasdispensed

throughthreejusticiars:ofScotia(inthenorth);Lothian(intheprosperoussouth-east);andGalloway(inthewest).Sheriffsweretheprincipalagentsofroyalauthorityinthelocalities.Twenty-eightsheriffs,someofthemhereditary,manycontrolledbythegreatmagnates,supervisedroyaldemesneandservedaschiefaccountingofficersforroyalincomeandexpenditure.

Theyheldcourtswhereintheyinsistedonroyalrightsandcollectedtheprofitsofjustice:fines,andforfeitures.Sheriffspaidroyalincometotheking’schamberlain,asingleofficerwhocentrallymanagedtheking’sfinances,andwhosefirstdutywastoprovidefortheroyalhousehold,themostlavishofallthelordlyestablishments.Theroyalhouseholdwasorganisedalongtheclassic

Carolingianmodel.Itwasdividedintothreemaindepartments:the‘chapel’orchancery,staffedbyclerks,functionedastheking’sbureaucracy;the‘chamber’functionedasthetreasury;andthe‘hall’lookedafterprovisioninganddailynecessitiesofthelarge,itineranthousehold.Fromthechancerythekingissuedwrits,ordersandgrantsbearinghisgreatseal,the

stampofroyalauthority.Itwaspresidedoverbytheroyalchancellor,chiefoftheking’scouncil.Thechancellorandthechamberlainprobablybothalsosatontheexchequer(anadditiontotheoriginalhousehold),whichwasessentiallyacourtofaudit.Royalofficialswerecalledbeforetheexchequerannuallytoanswerfordebtsowingtotheking,andtherethey

claimedwhatallowancestheycouldtosetagainstthatdebt.Awordaboutthecurrency

andmonetaryvaluesingeneralwillbehelpfulatthispoint.ThemainunitofcurrencyinusethroughouttheBritishIsleswasthesilverpenny,whichwascountedinpounds,shillingsandpence(£sd).Themarkhoweverwasalsousedasaunitofaccount.Thiswastwo-thirdsofapound,or13s4d.There

isnopointinsuggestingafactorormultiplierwhichwouldallowonetoexpressmedievalvaluesintermsoftoday’sprices.Relativevaluesofcommoditieshavechangedbeyondrecognition.IntheMiddleAgesfoodpricesespeciallyfluctuatedgreatlyaccordingtoharvest,andsuchfluctuationsaffectedotherpricestoo.Howeverthefollowingexamplesmightserveasaroughguideto

monetaryvalues:anearl’sincomecouldamountto£5,000perannum;awarhorsewouldcost£30to£40;inwartimeaknightearned2sperdayfromroyalservice;andafootsoldiercollectedadailywageof2d.Nomedievalkingdom

couldconductitsaffairsinisolationfromitsneighbours,and,althoughithaddiplomaticrelationswithallthekingdomstouchingthe

NorthSea,theneighbourwithwhichScotlandsharedalandborderwasofpre-eminentimportance.WhenweaskhowindependentofEnglandScotlandhadbeenuptothispoint,wemustbearinmindthat‘independence’,like‘nationality’,isanothermodernconceptthatsitsuneasilywhenimposeduponthemedievalworld.ThekingdomsofwesternChristendomwerenot

independentofoneanother,butratherinterdependent.Allpaidlipservicetothetheorythatasupra-nationalpapacywassupremeinmattersrelatingtoreligion(alargesliceoflifeintheMiddleAges),andalltheroyalfamiliesofEuropeintermarried,causingkingdomstointerfereofteninoneanother’saffairs.Sincethetwokingdoms

alreadyhadahistoryoffive

hundredyearsofsharing‘onepoorisland’,itisbarelysurprisingthattherelationshipbetweenScotlandandEnglandwascomplex.Therehadbeenpeacebetweenthekingdomsforseventyyears,andmanyScottisharistocrats,includingtheKingofScotshimself,heldestatesinEnglandaswellasScotland.TheBrucesheldsubstantialestatesinEssex,Middlesexandinthe

BishopricofDurham.JohnBalliolheldmanorsinseventeenEnglishshires.BesidesbeingmuchlargerthanScotland,Englandwasmuchmorepopulousandwealthy.Englandmighthavesustainedtwoandahalfmillionpeopleatthisdate;Scotlandwouldscarcelyhavehadapopulationofhalfamillion.Woolexports(theonlyeconomicdataavailableforcomparison)suggeststhe

samesortofproportion:Scotlandexported5,000sacksin1327,andEnglandroughlyfivetimesthat.Giventhisorderofdominance,itisbarelysurprisingthat,assoonasonecouldreasonablyspeakofanEnglishkingdom,thatkingdomclaimeda‘superiorlordship’overthewholeofBritain.InthetwelfthcenturycertainScottishkingshadacceptedthelordshipofHenryIand

laterofHenryII,bothparticularlypowerfulkingsofEngland,butresistedattemptsbylesspowerfulEnglishmonarchstoimposeuponScotland.Bythethirteenthcenturythecustomhaddevelopedwhereby,shortlyafterthecoronationofeachkingofEngland,theKingofScotswouldvisithimtoperformaceremonyofhomageandfealty,wherethevassalkneltbeforethelord

andacknowledgedhislordship.WasthisdoneinreturnforthekingdomofScotlanditself,ormerelyforthelandswhichtheScottishkingheldinEngland:thelordshipsofTynedaleandPenrith?Theinterpretationplaceduponthisceremonybytheparticipantsappearstohavedependedlargelyuponthepersonalitiesinvolvedandupontheebbandflowofthepowerrelationshipsbetween

thekingdomsandbetweenthekingsthemselves.AlexanderIIIissaidtohaveinsistedcategoricallythatheheldhiskingdomfromGodalone;otherScottishmonarchsmightnothavebeeninapositiontobesounequivocal.Thesourcesonthisceremonyareeithervague,orwereintendedaspropagandaforonesideortheother.Thevaguenesssurroundingtheceremony

allowedeachkingtointerprettheactofhomageashepleased,anditfacilitatedthepeacefulco-existenceofthekingdomsformostofthethirteenthcentury.EdwardI’sinsistenceuponclarityanddefinition,whichspoiledthiscomfortablefudge,isoneofthefactorsthatledtowarin1296.Medievalpeopledidnot

conceiveofsocietyasdividedintoreligiousandsecular

realms;rathertheScottishChurchandreligiousbeliefgenerallyinformedeveryaspectoflife.Theclergyrepresentedahighpercentageofthepopulation:perhapsatenthofallthemenandwomeninScotlandwereinclericalordersofsomekind.Therewereregularclergy(ordersofmonksandnunswholivedbytheRuleofStBenedict)andsecular,ordiocesanclergy.Themost

powerfulregularorderwastheCistercians,whoseabbeys(Melrose,Arbroath,Paisley,KelsoandHolyrood)maintainedvastherdsofsheepintheuplandsandsoldthewooltoItalianandFlemishmerchants.Inadditiontherewerefriars,regularclergywholivednotinmonasteriesbutinthecommunity;theDominicanandFranciscanfriarswerewellrepresentedinthelarger

towns.ThekingdomofScotland

hadalsotomaintainrelationswiththepapacy.HowevertheChurchwasfirmlyunderthecontroloftheking,whocouldalmostalwayshavehisservantsappointedtokeybishoprics,abbaciesandotherecclesiasticaloffices,andhecouldcalluponthechurchforsubsidiesandfinancialaids.ThepapacycouldonlytaxtheScottishChurchwiththe

king’sagreement,anditalmostalwayshadtosharetheproceedswiththemonarch.Whereastheco-operationandgoodofficesofthepapacyweremuchtobedesired,thepowerofthepapacywasnotsuchthatapopecouldimposehiswillonanunwillingmonarchoranunco-operativekingdom.RobertBrucehimselfruledformanyyearsaskingwhileignoringsuccessive

excommunications.FortheirloyaltytoBruce,theScotsthemselvescheerfullysufferedthefullforceofpapaldispleasure,includingavarietyofharshecclesiasticalpenalties:excommunication,ageneralinterdictimposeduponallofScotland,prohibitionfromholdingecclesiasticalofficeforthemselvesandtheirrelatives.TheywereallignoredbytheScottish

hierarchy.AsinmostofthekingdomsofChristendom,thepapacyhadinfluencebutnotpower.NeverthelesstheChurchof

Bruce’sdayaspiredtoandusuallyenjoyedanespeciallycloserelationshipwiththepapacy.WiththehelpofthepapacythepretensionsofthearchiepiscopalseeofYorktocontroltheScottishChurchhadbeenresisted.TheprocesshadleftScottish

churchmenwithasenseofgroupsolidarity,andfromtimetotimethenationalChurchassembledinProvincialCounciltoapproveRome’sdemandsforgreatercentralisationandecclesiasticaltaxation.AlthoughScotlandlackedanarchbishop,leadershipwasprovidedbythetwopremierbishopricsofGlasgowandStAndrews.Theabsenceofanarchbishopwasconsideredan

advantage:apapalbullof1192hadestablishedtheScottishChurchasthe‘specialdaughterofRome’,therebeingnointermediarybetweenthepopeandtheScottishbishops.ThisfosteredeffectivechannelsofcommunicationbetweentheChurchandthepapacy,forScottishchurchmenbecameskilledinlobbyingattheRomancuria.Bothitssenseofsolidarityasa‘national’

church,anditsclosetieswiththepapalcuria,madetheScottishChurchaformidableopponentofEdwardI’sattemptstointegrateScotlandintohiskingdomandavaluableexpressionofScottishidentitywhichRobertBruceutilisedtothefull.SuchwastheScotlandof

thelatethirteenthcentury:apolyglotandhighlydiverseterritoryandpeople,yet

consciousofitselfasaunity,evenifonlybegrudginglysointhecasesofManandGalloway.Societywasdeeplyconservative,tradition-boundandresistanttochange.Scarcelypeacefulinanyquarter,sinceviolencewasendemicinasocietydominatedbyquarrelsomelordsandrivals,Scotlandhadneverthelessbeenatpeacewithitsneighbouringkingdomforseventyyears.

SuchwasthecountryandsocietyinwhichRobertBruceVIIreachedadolescence,mercifullyoblivioustothecatastrophethatwaitedaroundthecorner.

2Aninheritance,agrandfather’sambitionanda‘coveytous’king

(1286–96)

RobertBrucefirstsurfacesinthecontemporaryrecordashisfather’sson,awitnesstoanundatedcharterofAlexanderMacDonaldofIslay,along-timeallyoftheBruces.TheMacDonaldwereapowerfulkinshipgroupinsouth-westScotlandwhichlookedtotheBrucesforleadership;otheralliesincludedtheMacRuaridhs,theStewartsandtheearlsofAtholl,MarandMarch.Asa

youngman(andprobablybeforehisinvestitureasearl)Robertwasknighted.Knighthoodcouldbebestowedbykingorearl,butwedonotknowwhoknightedRobertBruce.Theknightingoftheheirinvolvedthefamilyinhugeexpense,withthenewknightkittedoutwitharmour,horses,servantswithspecialisedabilities(fromnoblesquirestogroomsandstableboys)and

moreprosaicequipmentforanindependenthousehold.A‘feudalaid’orseigneurialtaxcouldbeleviedfromthetenantstoassistwiththeexpense.Knighthoodwasanhonourableandexclusivestatustowhichallnoblemen,whetherkingsormeregentry,aspired:onthedeathofRobertBruceasKingRobertIofScotlandin1329oneScottishchroniclercouldthinkofnothingfinertosay

ofthedeadherothanthat‘hewas,beyondalllivingmenofhisday,avaliantknight’.AsayoungknightRobert

wouldbewellawarethathisfamilyhadrivalsandenemiesaswellasallies.ChiefamongtheserivalswerethepowerfulComyns,whohaddominatedlifeattheScottishroyalcourtfortwogenerations.3TherewerethreeprincipallineagesbearingthesurnameComyn,

for,earlyinthethirteenthcentury,WalterComynhadmarriedtwice,producingtwosetsofoffspring.TheoffspringofhisfirstmarriagebecameknownastheComynsofBadenoch(ortheRedComyns),thatofhissecondmarriage,toMarjorie,CountessofBuchan,becametheComynearlsofBuchan(theBlackComyns).ThethirdlineageofComyns,acadetbranchoftheComyns

ofBadenoch,wasknownastheComynsofKilbride.Allthreebranchesoperatedpoliticallyasaunit,andtogethertheyhadbuiltupapowerfulalliancewithextensivelands,widespreadpatronageandaformidablenetworkofcastles.InalliancewiththeComynsweretheBalliollordsofGallowayandtheMacDougalllordsofArgyll,traditionalenemiesoftheMacDonalds.

However,beforeweexamineyoungRobert’sactiveroleintheaffairsofthekingdom,itisnecessarytoconsiderthelegacyofaspirations,property,landsandtraditionsbequeathedtohimbyhisancestors.Hisinheritanceincludednotonlysprawlingestates,considerablemonetarywealth,andlegalprivilegesandrightsbutalso,fromhismotheraninterestinthe

Gaelicworld,andfromhisgrandfather,aburningambitionthatembracedaspirationstokingship.Thescionofaproudaristocraticlineage,‘our’RobertBrucewasonlythelatestinasuccessionofnoblesbearingthatname.4Thefamilyname,renderedinNorman-FrenchasdeBrusordeBruys,derivesfromBrixnearCherbourginNormandy.

RobertBruceIwasaprotégéofHenryIofEngland(1100–35)whohadrewardedhimforhisserviceswiththelordshipofClevelandinnorthYorkshire.TherethefirstRobertBrucefoundedtheAugustinianPrioryofGuisboroughandendoweditwithvastestatessothatthemonkswouldexertspiritualinfluenceonbehalfofhimandhisfamily.FromearlyinhiscareerRobertassociated

withanotherofHenryI’sprotégés,David,thesonofMalcolmIII,KingofScots,whoheldtheEnglishearldomofHuntingdon.OnseveralofDavid’schartersRobert’snameislistedamongthosewitnessingthedeed.ThisisastrongindicationthatRobertservedDavidashisvassal,oratanyratewascloselyassociatedwithhim.In1124DavidbecamekingofScotland,anditwasprobably

ontheoccasionofhisenthronementinthatyearthathegrantedRobertthelordshipofAnnandalewithitscastle.DavidwasactivelypursuingapolicyofbestowingupondependablewarlikeNormanfamiliesestatessituatedonmarcherterritoriesofhiskingdom.SuchgrantsweremadetoNormanfamiliesbecauseNormanscouldprovide‘knightservice’,whichmeant

supplyingmounted,armouredknightsfortheroyalhost.AnnandaleborderedbothEngland,apotentiallyhostilebutusuallyfriendlyneighbour,andGalloway,aCelticregionatthattimeunsubduedbythekingsofScotland.TheBruceswerethenhonour-boundtodefendtheborders(or‘marches’astheyareusuallytermed)oftheScottishkingdomonthemonarch’sbehalf.

ThefirstRobert’sfriendshipwithKingDaviddidnotsurvivetheScottishinvasionofEnglandin1138,andRobertmadeasolemnrenunciationofhishomagetoDavid,averyrareanddrasticstepinmedievalsociety.HefoughtwithdistinctionagainsttheScotsattheBattleoftheStandard.However,beforethisbreachoccurred,thefirstRobertseemstohavepassedthelordshipof

Annandaleontohissecondson,asupporterofDavid.ThusRobert,a‘cross-borderbaron’withlandsoneachsideoftheAnglo-Scottishborder,skilfullyminimizedtheeffectsofwarbetweenthekingdomsonthefortunesofhisfamily.AnnandalewassavedfromforfeiturebytheKingofScotsonthisoccasion.Robertdiedin1142,andwasburiedatGuisboroughPriory.Hisfirst

son,Adam,inheritedthegreatestatesinYorkshire;hissecond,Robert,retainedthelesserfiefofAnnandale.Fromacharterofthis

periodwelearnthatRobertBruceIIheldAnnandalebyserviceoftenknights;thatis,hehadtocontributetenknightstotheroyalhostintimeofwar.Duringhistimehoweverthereoccurredanincidentthatcastashadowoverthefortunesofthe

Bruces.In1148thegreatIrishsaint,archbishopandecclesiasticalreformerStMalachyO’More,passingthroughScotlandonhiswaytoRome,favouredthesecondlordofAnnandalebystayingathiscastle.DuringthevisitMalachyintercededonbehalfofathiefwhomRoberthadsentencedtohang.Magnanimouslythelordgavewaytothepleadingoftheholymananddeclaredthat

thethief’slifewouldbespared.InreturnMalachyblessedthelordandhisfamily.Butthefollowingmorning,ashesetout,MalachysawthebodyofthethiefswayingonthegallowsandrealisedthatRoberthadhangedthemanregardless.Herevokedhisblessingandlaidinsteadaterriblecurseuponthelordandhisoffspring,andonthetown.ThecurseofaholymanofSt

Malachy’sstaturewasaseriousimpedimenttofortunesofanymedievaldynasty.TheLanercostchroniclerelatesthat‘threeofhisheirsperishedinsuccession’andindeedRobertBruceIIgrantedahouseinLochmabentoStPeter’sHospitalinYorkforthesoulsof(amongothers)‘hisinfants’.Furthermore,amisfortuneappearstohaveoccurredaroundtheyear

1200atAnnanforcingthefamilytomovetoLochmaben.IthasbeensuggestedthattheRiverAnnanwashedawayapartofAnnanCastle,forcingthefamilytomovetheheadofthelordshipfromAnnantoLochmaben.ThatmisfortunemayalsohavebeenattributedtothecurseofStMalachy.Whateverthehistoricaltruthofthesetroubles,theBrucesthemselves,includingKing

Robert,appeartohavebelievedinthecurse.RobertIIfacedmisfortuneofanothersort:warbetweenthekingdomsflaredupagainin1173–74,forcinghimtochoosebetweenallegiances.RoberthadconsiderablepropertyinEngland:HartnessinthebishopricofDurham,andthemanorofEdenhallinCumberland.HechosetosupportHenryIIofEnglandagainstKingWilliamthe

Lion,bringingimmediateconfiscationofAnnandale.TheBrucepatrimonywas,however,restoredaftertheconflict,andrelationswiththeScottishcourtimprovedtotheextentthatWilliamtheLionmarriedhisillegitimatedaughtertoRobertBruceII’ssonandheir,Robert.UnfortunatelythisRobertpredeceasedhisfather,whodiedin1194.Thethirdlordof

Annandalewasthereforeayoungerson,William,butofWilliamthereislittletotell.Hediedin1211or1212.Hissonandheir,RobertBruce,thefourthlord(thoughthethirdofthename),madeaverysuccessfulmatchbymarryingintotheScottishroyalfamily.5HisbridewasIsabel,seconddaughterofDavid,EarlofHuntingdon.Thiswasdefinitelyan

advanceonmarriagetoaking’sillegitimatedaughter,andrepresentedaconsiderableincreaseinthefamily’sfortunes.Imbuedbothwithakeensenseofservicetothemonarchyand,naturally,toitsownlong-terminterest,thefamilycarriedoncollectingestatesthroughthebestowalofroyalpatronageandastutemarriages.WithinScotlandtheyacquiredonethirdofthe

lordshipofGariochandtheburghofDundee;theyalsoenlargedtheirholdingsinEnglandthroughmarriage.BythetimeofourRobert’sbirththeirEnglishestatesincludedthemanorsofWrittleandHatfieldBroadoakinEssex,onethirdofthemanorofTottenhaminMiddlesex,andHartnessinthebishopricofDurham.TheyseemalsotohaveclaimedterritoriesinUlster:

the‘Gallowaylands’inCountyAntrimgrantedtoDuncanofCarrick.Claimstolandandtitleswereguardedjealouslyandpursuedwhereverpossibleinappropriatecourts,foritwasamostlitigiousageandnoclaim,howeverdistantorfar-fetched,couldbeallowedtolapse.Thefamilywasacutely

awareofitspositionvis-à-visthemonarchiesuponwhich

itsfortunesdepended.ItwasRobertBruceV,thegrandfatherofthefutureking,whofirstaspiredtoroyaldignityinScotland.ThisRobert,whomcontemporariescalledRoberttheNoble,wasamostcolourfulandenergeticmagnate.TheLanercostchroniclerecordsinabriefobituarythat‘Hewasofhandsomeappearance,agiftedspeaker,remarkablefor

hisinfluence…asnobleabaroninEnglandasinScotland.’Nodoubthehadcharisma,

buthewasalsoaschemer,achancerandaverydeviouscharacter.Bornaroundtheyear1225,hemarriedintothefamilyoftheEnglishearlsofGloucester;andsouthoftheborderheparticipatedinthebitterstrugglesbetweenHenryIIIofEnglandandhismagnates.Hefoughton

HenryIII’ssideattheBattleofLewesin1264.KingHenrylostthatbattletohisover-mightysubjectSimondeMontfortand,asaconsequence,Robertwascapturedandhadtoappealtohissontoarrangearansomforhisrelease.Captureinbattlewasacatastropheoftengreaterthandeath,forransomscouldeconomicallycrippleevenamagnatedynasty.Robert,however,

waswellresourced:besidesAnnandaleandHartness,hehadinheritedonthedeathofhismotherin1251or1252herestatesinEssexandtheGarioch.WiththisaccessionofwealthhebuiltalargestonecastleatLochmaben,andthedynastysurvivedthepaymentofhisransom.

TheBruces’aspirationtotheScottishthroneoriginatedinanincidentwhich,RoberttheNoblealleged,occurredduringthereignofAlexanderII.Robertclaimedthat,atatimewhenKingAlexanderwasstillchildlessandwaspreparingtoleadanexpeditiontotheWesternIsles,thekinghadrecognisedhimashisheirpresumptive.Theincident,ifitoccurredat

all,appearstobelongtotheyear1238.Robert’scontemporariesmayhaveknownofit,butthereisnohistoricalevidencebeyondRobert’swordthatthisrecognitionwasevermade.ProfessorDuncanisdeeplyscepticalabouttheclaim.Thehistoricityofthese

eventshoweveronlybecameofcriticalimportancewhenthethroneofScotlanddependeduponit.Forthe

presentRoberttheNoblepursuedothermeansofself-promotion.Eveninthesmall,distantandimpoverishedkingdomofScotland,noblefamiliesfeltpartofthefrancophone,chivalricsocietyofEurope;testimonytothisistheparticipationofRoberttheNobleinthatambitiousbutingloriousenterpriseofmedievalEurope,thecrusadetopreservetheHolyLandfromIslamiccontrol.Along

withBretonsandmenoftheLowCountries,hejoinedtheexpeditionledbyEdmund‘Crouchback’ofLancaster,youngersonofHenryIIIofEngland.Robertwasalreadyfiftyyearsold.Theysailedintheautumnof1271,toreinforceapreviousexpeditionledbyEdmund’selderbrother,PrinceEdwardofEngland.ThisEdwardwasto

becomeafigureoftowering

importanceinthelivesoftheBruces.HewastobecomeEdwardI‘theHammeroftheScots’,andheborethenickname‘Longshanks’becausehislankystature(hestoodanimpressivesixfoottwoinchesinheight)enabledhimtostayinthesaddlewhenothermenwouldhavebeentoppled.Thecharacterofthiskinghasbeenvariouslyinterpreted,andScottishhistorianshave,not

surprisingly,tendedtoberatherharsherintheirassessmentofhimthanothers.Butthereisagreementonmanyaspectsoftheman.Edwardwasbrilliantinmanyways:askilledreformeroflaw,acourageousgeneralandaleaderofmen.Hedemandedclarityanddefinitioninlaw;andhestrikesoneashavingbeencrispanddecisiveinmanner.Itwasthisquestfordefinition

thatledhimtodisturbtheconvenientvaguenessoverAnglo–Scottishrelationsthathadpreservedpeacebetweenthekingdomsforseventyyears.Edwardhadashortfuse,anddisplaysofhisviolentilltemperarewelldocumented.Hewouldmercilesslybrowbeatthosewhoopposedhiswill;thecombinationofhisoverbearingrageandhisheightcouldreduceamanto

anervouswreck.MuchofhisgrievanceagainsttheScotswhoopposedhiswillwasfoundedonhisperceptionofthemasdisloyal,orhavingbrokenoathsoffealty.Conventionalinmostrespects,andmuchadmiredasaking,therewasundoubtedlyastreakofcrueltyinEdward’scharacter.Thecrusaderssailedfirstto

Tunis,thenwinteredinSicilybeforesettingoffagain,via

Cyprus,toAcre,thecapitalofthecrusaderstateinPalestine,knownasOutremer.Theyenjoyedlittlemilitarysuccess,butEdwardmanagedtoshoreupthebeleagueredChristianstatebynegotiatingatruceforit.Significantly,onthereturnjourneyRobertvisitedthemonasteryatClairvaux,whereStMalachyisburied,presumablytoseekthesaint’sforgivenessforhisfamily;furthermore,onhis

return,hegrantedlandtotheAbbeyofClairvauxtoprovidethreecandlesatStMalachy’sshrinetoplacatetheangrysaint.EdwardofEngland

returnedtoathrone,sincehisfatherhaddiedinhisabsence,andRobertBrucetheNoblecontinuedtoservehim,holdingofficeinEnglandassheriffofCumberlandfrom1283to1285.Robertmadeasecond

marriage.Hisnewbride,thoughnotashigh-bornashisfirst,wasalreadytwiceawidowandthereforebroughtintothefamilytwodowerportionsfrompreviousalliances,alllandsinCumberland.Thefatefulyear1286

probablymarkedthebirthofseriousBrucepretensionstothethroneofScotland;indeedtheeventsofthatyeargeneratedsimilaraspirations

andambitionsinmanyaristocraticheartsinScotlandandfurtherafield.Foron18March1286KingAlexanderIIIdiedastheresultofafallfromhishorse,leavingashisonlydescendantasicklythree-year-oldgirl,residentinNorway,Margaret‘theMaidofNorway’.6Anymedievalkingdomwouldhavebeenshakenbysuchacalamity,foritthrewintodoubtthe

futureoftheroyalsuccessionandjeopardisedthesecurityandtranquillityoftherealm.Althoughthethronewasnotactuallyvacant,theeventmusthaveinspiredclerksandlawyersalloverScotland,andfurtherafield,toresearcholddeeds,genealogiesandchroniclesonbehalfofnoblefamiliestodiscover,resurrect,orifnecessarymanufactureaclaimtothethroneofScotland.Any

claim,howeverunlikelyorfar-fetched,mighthaveavalue,ifitwereconsideredworthbuyingoffbymoreseriouscontenders.Forthetwoleading

magnatedynastiesinScotlandtheeventopeneduptherealpossibilityofabsolutepower.TheseweretheBrucesthemselves,who,aswehaveseen,ledawideallianceofmagnatefamiliesinthesouth-westofScotland,and

theComyns,whoformostofthethirteenthcenturyhadcontrolledthegovernmentofScotland.JohnBalliol,LordofGallowayandofBarnardCastle,wasthecandidateforkingshipbackedbytheComynsandtheirallies.Attheking’sfuneralon29MarchthemagnatesattendingdecidedtosendanembassytoEdwardIofEngland.ThemagnatesrecognisedinEdward,themonarchofa

friendlyneighbouringkingdom,apotentialallywhoseenormousmilitaryandfinancialresourcesmightbeusefulinpreservingorderinScotlandandwardingoffthedistantbuttroublingprospectofacivilwar.Hewasperhapstheonlypowercapableofcontrollingthesimmeringambitionsoftherivalmagnatealliances.ItisnotknownwhetherthisembassyreachedEdward

(whowasinFrancefrom13May1286)orwhetheritwassubsequentlyrecalled.ThekingdomofScotland

wassufficientlyrobusttofunctionforatimewithoutaking,andtheinstitutionsofstatecontinuedtooperateinthenameof‘thecommunityoftherealm’.Inofficialdocumentsthiskingdom-without-a-kingreferredtoitselfas‘thecommunityoftherealm’,andthephrase

maybevariouslyinterpretedas‘thegoverningelite’,‘thenobles’or‘thosewhohadastakeinthekingdom’.AparliamentwassummonedtoSconefor2April1286,wherethemagnatesoftherealmsworefealtytoMargaretofNorwayandundertooktokeepthepeace.AtthiscouncilRoberttheNobleflungdownthegauntlettohisadversariesandboldlystatedhisclaimto

theScottishthrone,baseduponatheory(orperhapsitwasmerelyanopinion)thatafemalecouldnotsucceedinScotland.Atoncethetensionincreased.Thoughtheclaimwouldnothavebeenunexpected,thecommunityoftherealmmusthaverealisedthatcivilwarhadcomeastepcloser.Theparliamentseemstohaveadjournedtoconsidertheimpactofthisclaim.It

reassembledaround28AprilandatthispointitislikelythatJohnBalliollodgedacounter-claimthat,bytheacceptedrulesofinheritance,heandnotBrucewasthetrueheir.Hewas,afterall,adescendantoftheelderdaughterofDavid,EarlofHuntingdon,andBruceoftheyounger.However,QueenYolandeclaimedtobeexpectingachild,adeclarationwhichtookthe

heatoutofthedebateforthepresent,andnervouslythemagnatessettleddowntoawaittheoutcomeofthepregnancy.Inthemeantimethe

parliamentsetaboutestablishingthenecessarystructuresforthegovernmentofthekingdomduringtheinterregnum.Firstly,tomanageaffairsofstate,itsetupacouncilof‘keepersofthepeace’or‘guardians’.We

mightcallitaregencycouncil.Thiscouncilofguardianswascomposedoftwoearls,twobishopsandtwobarons.Analysisoftheindividualsselectedrevealsthatinitspersonneladelicatebalancewasobservedbetweenthetwomagnatefactionsthatdominatedthekingdom.BishopRobertWishartofGlasgowandJames,thehereditarystewardofScotland,weresupporters

oftheBruces;BishopWilliamFraserofStAndrews,AlexanderComyn,EarlofBuchanandJohnComynofBadenochweresupportersofBalliol.EarlDuncanofFifemayhavehadequalattachmenttobothsides.Secondly,theparliamentdecidedthatallthenoblesshouldswearanoathofloyaltytowhosoevershouldobtainthekingdomofScotlandbyreasonof

nearnessinbloodtoKingAlexanderIII.Thiscommittedthemagnatestoacceptingtherightfulheirwhoeverthatshouldturnouttobe:Alexander’sposthumouschild,or,failingthat,Margaret,theMaidofNorway,or,failingthat,whoeverwasadjudgedtobenearestinbloodtotheking.Itwasaformulaeveryonecouldsignupto.Thusnodecisionwastaken,butthecontending

partieswereboundtoacceptanultimatedecision,andcivilwarwaswardedoff–forthetimebeing.Duringthesummerof

1286however,thegovernmentbegantopanic.On7AugustasecondembassywasdispatchedtoEdwardwithallhastetoseekhiscounselandprotection.Evidentlythequeenhadlostthechild,butunderstandablynewsofthemiscarriagewas

keptsecretasalongaspossibleforfearthattherivalmagnatecampswouldresorttoarms.ItisnotsurprisingthattheBruces,whomusthaveknownthattheirlegalclaimwastheweaker,reactedviolentlyasrumourofthemiscarriagespread.RoberttheNobleandhissonRobertBruceVIassembledtheirprincipalalliesinSeptember1286atTurnberryCastle–Patrick,EarlofMarch,and

hissons;WalterStewart,EarlofMenteith,andhissons;JamestheStewardandhisbrotherJohn;andAngusMórMacDonald,LordofIslay,andhissonAlexander–andboundthem,togetherwithtwoIrishmagnates,RicharddeBurgh,theRedEarlofUlster,andThomasdeClare,inapactofmutualassistance.7Thisarrangement,knownasthe

TurnberryBand,mighthaveinvolvedsomecommitmenttoanexpeditiontothewestofIreland,whereboththeearlofUlsteranddeClarehadinterests.MuchmoresignificanthoweverwastheimplicationthattheseIrishmagnateswerecommittedtohelpingtheBrucefactionintheeventofcivilwarinScotland.TheBrucefactionwaspreparingtobringinIrishalliestosupportRobert

theNobleinhisbidforthethrone.Inthewinterof1286–87

theBrucesseizedcontrolofthreecastlesinthesouth-westofScotland–theroyalcastlesofDumfries,WigtownandtheBalliolcastleofBuittle–securingtheSolwayFirthforthereceptionoftheirIrishallies.ThisviolencewasclearlyintendedtomenaceorintimidateJohnBalliol.Butthecoupfailed.NoIrish

alliesarrived,andJames,thehereditarystewardofScotland,chosenottostandbyhiscommitmentstotheBruces,butinstead,actingasguardian,assistedinregainingthecastlesandputtingdowntheBruces’aggression.ByMay1287itwasallover.Theactionhadamountedtolittlemorethananaggressivegesture.BesidesthoseinvolvedintheTurnberryBandtherewere

othermagnateswhomighthavejoinedtheBrucesbutdidnot:theearlsofFife,March,Atholl,LennoxandMar,BishopWishartofGlasgow,nottomentionlordsofthesecondrank,suchasSoules,LindseyandBiggar.RoberttheNoble,havingresortedtoarmsprematurelyandwithoutthesupportofhiscoalition,seemstohavewithdrawntemporarilyfromScotland.It

wasnowclearthatMargaretofNorwaywouldinheritthekingdom.ItwasdesirablefortheguardiansofthekingdomfirstlytohaveherresideinScotland,andsecondlytoarrangeamarriageforher,inorderthatScotland’sfuturebesettled.EricofNorwaywaskeenthathisdaughterinheritthekingdom,andwasprobablydelightedtolearnthatmarriagetoEdwardofCaernarfon,thesonof

EdwardofEngland,wasalsoapossibility.HesentambassadorstoEnglandtodiscussthepossibilities.SuchamatchalsoseemedanattractiveprospecttotheScottishguardians,whowereanxioustoinvolvethepowerfulEnglishmonarchinScotlandtopreventanyrecurrenceofviolence.Howeverthereweretwodangers:theEnglishkingmightusetheopportunityto

exercisethefeudaloverlordship,whichheclaimedtobehisright;andtherewasalsoadangerthatScotland’sseparatelaws,customsandinstitutionsmightbeswallowedupaltogetherifthekingdomswereunitedbyasuchamarriageofheirs.WedonotknowhowEdwardIhadrespondedtotheguardians’requestforcounselandprotection.Tojudgefromhis

lateractions,heprobablyofferedtodoallhewasaskedonconditionthathisoverlordshipofScotlandwasacknowledged.Ratherthanassenttosuchacondition,theguardiansdecidedtomanagewithouthishelp.TheyinitiateddelicatetripartitenegotiationswiththeNorwegiansandEnglishaboutthemarriageoftheabsentMargaret,theacknowledgedLadyof

Scotlandwhomallpartiesagreedshouldinheritthekingdom.EricwasreluctanttosendhisdaughtertoScotlandwhileitwasunstable.ThebriefrebellionanditssuppressionhadbeenablowtotheBrucesandforaperiodofabouttwoyearstheylostinfluence.Unrestcontinuedhowever.Lateinthesummerof1289Duncan,EarlofFife,wasambushedandslainbyhisown

relatives,theAbernethys,aneventwhichisnotsatisfactorilyexplained.TheearlofBuchanalsodied,but,probablytoavoidexacerbatingthesituation,theseguardianswerenotreplaced.Theremainingguardians

developedaplantohavethesix-year-oldMargaretmarryfive-year-oldEdwardofCaernarfon,EdwardI’sheir,wholaterbecameEdwardII;

bysucharoyalmarriageScotlandmightenterintounionwithEnglandyetsafeguardtheindependenceofhercustomsandinstitutions.RoberttheNoblemayhaveretiredtohisEnglishlandsaroundthistime,buthemanagedtosecureappointmentasoneoffourenvoystotreatwiththeNorwegianambassadors.InNovember1289theambassadorsagreedthat

MargarettheMaidshouldcometoScotlandorEnglandwithinayear,intothecustodyofhergreat-uncle,EdwardI,whowouldsendhertoScotlandassoonasthecountrywassettled.ThisarrangementisknownastheTreatyofSalisbury,and,ashasbeenpointedoutbyProfessorNicholson,itwasthefirstrecognitionbytheScotsthatEdwardIcouldinterveneinScottishaffairs.

TheScotshadtopromisenottoarrangeanymarriagefortheMaidwithouttheadviceandconsentofbothNorwegianandEnglishgovernments;buteventuallytheysucceededinnegotiatingamarriageagreementcalledtheTreatyofBirgham,on18July1290.Thesettlementheraldedaunionofthecrowns,anditwasadiplomaticcouptotheextentthatitavoidedhavingto

acknowledgetheoverlordshipclaimedbyEdwardI.Bythis,theMaidwastomarryyoungEdwardandwouldbegivendowerlandsinEngland,buttheScottishkingdomwastoremain‘separate,apartandfreeinitselfwithoutsubjectiontotheEnglishkingdom’.AlthoughthethronesofScotlandandEnglandwouldbeunitedinthepersonofonemonarch,eachrealmwouldremain

separate,and‘therights,laws,libertiesandcustomsofthesamerealmofScotlandtobepreservedineveryrespectandinalltimecomingthroughoutthesaidrealmanditsborders,completelyandwithoutbeingimpaired’.UndertheunionEdwardIcouldbeinvolvedinmaintainingpeaceinScotlandbutdeniedacontrollinginterest;andwhen,intime,themarriageproducedan

heir,thecrownsofScotlandandEnglandwouldbejoinedinaunioninwhichScotlandwouldbeanequalpartner.AmongthestipulationsofthetreatywereprovisionsguaranteeingthattherewouldbenotaxationoftheScotsexceptforScottishneeds;tenants-in-chiefoftheScottishcrownneeddohomageonlyinScotland;electionsoftheclergyweretobefreefrominterference;and

appointmentstothecustomaryofficesoftheScottishgovernmentwouldcontinue.TheonlyqualificationtotheScottishachievementisthattheseprovisionswereagreedsubjectto‘therightofoursaidlord[EdwardI]’,soallalongEdwardwassafeguardinghisclaimtobeoverlordofScotland.8Againstconsiderableodds,

theguardianshadthensucceededinlandingafutureforScotlandthatinvolvedneithercivilwarnorsubjectiontotheEnglishcrown.WithoutdoubtScotssawEdwardIasabenevolentandpotentiallystabilisinginfluence,whomtheywereanxioustoinvolveinScotlandtostaveoffunrest.ButalreadyEdwardwasbeginningtoencroachuponScottishrightsandcapitalise

upontheweaknessofhisnorthernneighbour.Sometimebetween1286and1290,theearlofUlstertookpossessionoftheIsleofMan,andin1290anassemblyofislandersmadeoverthelandofMantothekingofEngland,takingnoaccountoftheScottishclaim.TheScotsappeartohavelodgednoformalprotest.EdwardalsoappointedthepowerfulbishopofDurham,Antony

Bek,tosupervisethegovernmentofScotlandonbehalfoftheinfantmonarchs-to-be,requiringtheguardianstoobeyBek.InOctober1290the

situationofScotland,andtheattitudeofEdwardIofEngland,weretransformedbyacalamitousevent.Margaret,theMaidofNorwayandLadyofScotland,diedinOrkneyonherwaytoScotland.Therisk

ofcivilwarbetweentheprincipalclaimantstoScotlandnowescalated;patentlytherewasanurgentneedforauthorityofsomekindtopreventthesituationdegenerating.Theobvious,andindeedperhapstheonlysourceofsuchauthority,wasEdwardI,whobegantosethisowntermsforactingasprotectoroftheScottishrealm.NooneinScotlandraisedanyobjectiontohis

involvementasadjudicatorinthequestionofwhowastosucceedtotheScottishthrone.Intriguingly,thereexistedaprecedentforappealtoanoutsidemonarchtojudgeinacaseofdisputedsuccession.FrederickBarbarossa,theGermanEmperor,hadsatinjudgementinthecaseoftheDanishthroneintheeleventhcentury,butitisthoughtthatEdwardwasprobably

unawareofthis.Edwardwasstillbeing

drawnintotheScottisharenaasopposedtoforcingintervention,fortheScottishfactionsweremakingapproachestohim.BishopFraserwroteinOctober,warningEdwardthattheBrucefactionhadalreadytakenuparms,thatRoberttheNoblehadcometoPerth,nearScone,withapowerfulretinue;FraseraskedEdward

tocometothebordertopreventbloodshed,andtoplacetherightfulheironthethrone.HeimpliedstronglythatBalliolwasthatrightfulheir.ThedocumentreceivedfromtheBrucefactionisknownastheAppealoftheSevenEarls.TheAppealisablendofinvention,traditionandantiquarianmyth,anditrepresentsBrucepropagandaofanunsubtlevariety.ItsoughtEdward’shelpagainst

BishopFraserandJohnComyn,anditrevealsthatthecommitteeoftheguardianswasnowdominatedbytheBalliolinterest.Itallegedthattheguardians’officerswereravagingMoray.ThekernelofthedocumenthoweverisahithertounheardofconstitutionaltheorythatthesevenearlsofScotlandhadtherighttochoosetheking.Balliol’ssupportersadvancednosuchtheoriesandputtheir

faithintheacceptedlawsofprimogeniture.Thatsaid,BalliolwasnotaboveslippingatimelybribetoEdwardI’sright-handman:as‘heirtothekingdomofScotland’.HesealedachartergrantingEdwardI’soverseer,AntonyBek,landsheldbytheScottishkinginEngland,or,shouldEdwardIrefusetoallowthat,500marks-worthoflandinScotland.Althoughbothlettersto

EdwardIprobablyexaggeratetheextentofdisorder,thedangerofcivilwarwaslooming.Probablytoeveryone’sreliefEdwarddecidedthatthedisputeoverthethroneofScotlandshouldbedecidedbyhimself,buthewouldactonlyinthecapacityofScotland’soverlord.InMarch1291heorderedEnglishmonasteriestosearchtheirchroniclesforinformationonthehistoric

relationshipbetweenthetwokingdoms.TosomeScotsitmayhaveseemed–asitnowseemstous–thatEdwardwastakingadvantageofthevacancyoftheScottishmonarchytoclarifytohisownadvantagetherelationshipbetweenthekingdoms.EdwardtravelledtoNorham,ontheEnglishbankoftheRiverTweed,arrivinginMay1291,wheremagnates,notariesand

lawyersassembledforthecourtcasetosettlewhoshouldinheritthekingshipofScotland.ItisknowntohistoryastheGreatCause.TheEnglisharmywastomusteratNorhamon2June,andthefleetmadereadytoblockadeScotlandsothatEdward’sjudgementmightbeenforcedshouldthisbecomenecessary.Edwardbeganby

establishingrightsof

jurisdictionoverScotland.HepointedoutthatScottishkingswereneithercrownednoranointedandrepresentedthisasproofthattheyweresubordinate.Heasked‘thehighmenoftheScots’–probablytheguardians–toacknowledgehimasoverlord.TheScotsrefused,onthegroundthattheyhadnoknowledgeofhisclaim,andthatonlyakingofScotlandcouldrespond.Edwardthen

soughtsuchanacknowledgementfromtheclaimants(or‘competitors’)tothethrone.Thiswasforthcoming,andneitherRoberttheNoblenorJohnBalliol,noranyoftheotherclaimants,madedifficultyaboutacknowledgingEdward’ssuzeraintyoverScotland.FurthermoretheyagreedthatEdwardmighttaketherealmintohisownhands,solongashethen

grantedittothesuccessfulcandidate.Edwardaccepted,and,notwithoutsomecaginessonthepartofthecommanders,theroyalcastlesofScotlandwerehandedovertohiskeeping.ItisunlikelythatEdwardtheninstalledEnglishgarrisonsinScottishcastlesgenerally,thoughhemayhavedonesointhecaseofBerwick.Edwardthentookthehomageandfealtyoftheguardians,bishopsandallthe

magnatesoftherealm,andarrangedthatoathsoffealtyfromasmanynoblesaspossiblebecollectedonhisbehalf.InJune1291theguardiansacceptedthattheirprovisionalgovernmentderiveditsauthorityfromEdwardassuperioroverlord,afatefulconcessionthatcarriedtheimplicationsthatScotlandwasasub-kingdomratherthanfullyindependent,andthatthenextkingof

ScotswouldbeavassalofthekingofEngland.Edwardthenmadeashorttourofthemaintownsofhissub-kingdom,takinginEdinburgh,StAndrewsandPerth.HistakingcontrolofcastlesandhistourofinspectioncannothavebeenwellreceivedbyScotsofanyclass.Thisvictory,wonwithoutaswordbeingdrawn,Edwardwouldshortlysquander,transformingitintoarunning

sorethatwouldplaguethelastdecadeofhislife.RobertBruceVII,theking

tobe,wassixteenyearsofagewhenMargaretofNorwaydiedandhesurelyfollowedtheseeventswithbreathlessinterest,perfectlyawarethathisownfatewouldbeprofoundlyaffectedbythesuccessorfailureofhisgrandfather’sclaim.Aswehaveseen,itisaroundthistimethathewasknighted,

andbegantoappearonthepoliticalstageintheBrucedynasticinterest.OnEdward’sreturnto

Berwick,hearingsbeganthereinAugust1291,andacourtof104auditorswassetup,40chosenbyRoberttheNoble,40byBallioland24byEdward.TheGreatCausewastolastayearandahalf,thoughthisincludedanine-monthadjournmenttoallowforresearch.Atotalof14

claimantshadnowsteppedintothering,mostofwhomweredismissedatanearlystage.OneofthesewasJohnComynIIofBadenoch,oneoftheguardiansandleaderofthemightyComynfaction.TherebuttalofComyn’sownfairlyweakclaimcameneitherasasurprisenorasmuchofasetbacksincehewasmarriedtoasisterofJohnBalliol,theodds-onfavourite.

Fourseriouscompetitorsemerged:Bruce,Balliol,FlorentCountofHollandandJohnHastings,anEnglishbaron.FlorentV,CountofHolland,lodgedaverystrongclaim,basedonhisdescentfromadaughterofEarlHenry,thesonofDavidI,buthelackedsufficientdocumentaryevidencetosubstantiateit.InfactFlorenthadbeenencouragedtoenteraclaimbyBruce.Awarethat

hisownclaimwasweakerthanthatofBalliol,butalsothatFlorentdidnothavethenecessarydocumentationtoprovehisstillstrongerclaim,Brucecutadealwiththecount.Wehavethetextoftheagreement,sealedon14June1292.IfeitherBruceorFlorentgainedthethrone,thesuccessfulpartywouldgrantonethirdoftheScottishroyaldemesnetotheother,tobeheldasafiefforserviceofa

merefiveknights;andifBrucewereawardedthethrone,hewouldgranttoFlorentlandsinEnglandequivalenttoonethirdoftheScottishroyaldemesne.Florenthadclearlylittleindependentmotivation.Bruceappearedtobeofferinghimachancetogaingreatwealthatnorisk,andsohehadagreedtoassistBruceinhisscheme.Forhispart,thedeviousRobertwasclearly

anxioustocreateobstaclesinthewayofBalliolsuccess.Anotherofthelessercompetitors,alsoencouragedbyBruce,wasKingEricofNorway.Hisfar-fetchedclaim,madelateintheday,wassoondismissed.However,byencouragingEric’sinvolvementRoberttheNoblemanagedtogainsomethingforhisson,andinNovember1292RobertBruceVIjourneyedtoNorwayto

arrangethemarriageofhisdaughterIsabeltoKingEric.TheguileofRoberttheNobleistobemarvelledat:hehadpreparedtwostalkinghorses,FlorentandEric,andlater,inresponsetoevents,hehaddevelopedafallbackposition–thatthekingdommightbepartitioned.HewasutterlydeterminedtogetsomethingoutoftheGreatCause.ThehearingsoftheGreat

Causegroundon.Thethree

mainclaimantswerealldescendantsofdaughtersofDavid,EarlofHuntingdon(d.1219),thegrandsonofDavidIofScotland.JohnHastingsclaimeddescentfromtheyoungestdaughter,Ada,andarguedthatScotlandwasnotatruekingdom,butsimplyalordshipsubjecttothekingsofEngland,and,assuch,theterritoryshouldbepartitionedamongthedescendantsoffemaleco-heiresses,thethree

daughters,asanylandedestatewouldbedividedwhenmalelinefailed.AtthispointRoberttheNoblearguedvehementlythatthekingdomcouldnotbepartitioned,thoughlaterhewastochangethatposition.ThecourtrejectedtheHastingsargumentonthegroundthattheunityofthekingdomofScotlandshouldbepreserved.OnlyBruceandBalliol

remained.Mostauthorities

concurthatJohnBalliol’scasewasstronger,andthatBalliolenjoyedwidersupportamongthenobilityandtheclergythantheBruce.Balliol’scasewasbasedonthesimplelawofprimogeniture:thekingdomcouldnotbedivided,andthereforehadtobeawardedtothedescendantofDavidofHuntingdon’seldestdaughter,Margaret,namelyhimself,hergrandson.Balliol

thereforehadabettercasetothethronethaneitherRobertBruce,thesonofthesecondofdaughter,Isabel,orJohnHastings,thegrandsonofAda,thethirdandyoungestdaughter.Seniorityofline,notnearnessofdegree,waswhatmattered,intheBalliolview.RoberttheNoblewasnot

dauntedbythesimplicityoftheBalliolclaim.Hislawyerstooaccepted(initially)that

thekingdomcouldnotbedivided.Buttheymaintainedthat,accordingtotheestablishedlawsandcustomsofScotland,alivingyoungersonhadastrongerclaimtosucceedthanthesonofadeceasedelderson,andthatBruce,asthesonoftheseconddaughter,shouldsucceedinsteadofJohnBalliol,thegrandsonoftheeldestdaughter.Onthisbasisheclaimedtobe‘nearerin

blood’.Furthermore,andaswehaveseen,RoberttheNobleclaimedthat,atatimebeforeAlexanderIIhadchildrentosucceedhim,thatkinghadappointedhimashisheir,shouldhecometogriefinwar.Asfarashistoricalprecedentwent,thereislittleevidencetosupportBruce’sassertions.Themostrecentworksuggeststhatitwas‘ahopeentertainedbythefamilywhichmayhavebeen

builtuponhints’madebyKingAlexanderIIaround1238,thatBrucehadapossiblerighttothethrone.ThereisnothingthatsuggeststhatBrucehadanythingbutcompleteconvictioninthejusticeofhisowncase.Itwasuniversallyaccepted

howeverthattheScottishthronedescendedbymaleprimogeniture,andmostrulesandprecedentsfavouredtheBalliolclaim.Astheysawthe

caseslippingawayfromthem,Bruce’slawyersindesperationconcededafterallthatthekingdommightbedividedandthatthedescendantsofeachofthethreedaughtersofEarlDavidshouldobtainhisthirdofthelandandincome.ThislatechangeofpleahascontributedtothechargethattheBruceswereunpatrioticandself-seeking.Notonlyweretheypreparedto

acknowledgetheoverlordshipofEdwardI,theyalsowerepreparedtoacquiesceinpartitionofthekingdom.WemustbearinmindhoweverthateverycompetitorhadacknowledgedEdward’soverlordship,andthatnomedievalmagnatewouldturndownthechanceofonethirdofakingdom.Withdefeatstaringhimin

theface,RoberttheNoblemayhavebegunseeking

assurancesfromhisallies.InOctober1292William,EarlofSutherlandattestedthathehadswornanoathtoSirRobertBruceofAnnandaletoassisthimwithalladviceandpowertoprosecutehisclaimtothethroneofScotland.WheninNovember1292itbecameclearthatthewritingwasonthewallforRoberttheNoble’sclaim,thiswastheoccasionofareshuffleofresponsibilitieswithinthe

Brucedynasty.PossiblytoavoidthepersonalindignityofrebuffbythecourtatNorham,theCompetitorresignedhisclaimtohissonandtohisheirs:‘Weinformallofyouthatwehavegranted,andtotallysurrendered,toourwell-belovedsonRobertBruce,EarlofCarrick,andhisheirs,thewholerightandclaimthatwehad,orcouldhavehad,tosuefortherealmofScotland

…wegiveandgrantofourfreewill,tooursonandhisheirs,fullandfreepowertosuefortherealm…’Dayslaterthatson,Robert

BruceVI,theEarlofCarrickinrightofhiswife,resignedtheearldomtohisson,RobertBruceVII,thefutureking.Infactsuchadeedcouldnotbelegallybinding:anearldomwasnotintheearl’sgiftandwassomethingthatonlyakingcouldbestow.Butit

showsonegenerationoftheBrucedynastypassingonthetorchtothenext.MuchthoughtnowwillhavegoneintofindingasuitablematchfortheyoungearlofBrucedynastyCarrick.Everymarriageamongthenobilityrepresentedanallianceandeverybridebroughtdowerlandintothefamily.Intheyear1296orthereaboutsRobertmarriedIsabel,daughteroftheearlofMar;

shortlyafterwardsadaughterwasborntothem,whomtheynamedMarjorie,probablyinhonourofRobert’smother.EdwardIpronouncedin

favourofJohnBalliolon17November1292,bringingtheGreatCausetoaclose,andbringingbitterdefeattotheBruces.OnStAndrew’sDay1292(30November),JohnBalliolwasenthronedontheStoneofDestinyatSconeinthetime-honouredfashionas

KingofScots,beingsolemnlyledtothethrone,notintraditionalformbytheearlofFife,whowasaninfant,butbySirJohndeStJohnastheearl’srepresentative.KingJohndidhomagetoEdwardashisoverlord.TheComynfamilyresumedthecontrolofgovernmentthatithadenjoyedforhalfacentury,andthespoilsofhighofficeandroyalpatronagewentto

themandtheirallies.AtKingJohn’sfirstparliament,inFebruary1293,AlexanderMacDougallofArgyllbecamesheriffofLorn,theroyalagentcontrollingthesouth-westcoastline,confirmationofadominancethathadexistedinthepreviousreign.Bycontrast,hisrival,AngusMórMacDonald,asupporteroftheBruces,absentedhimselffromthegathering.Atthe

subsequentStirlingparliamentofAugust1293,thenineteen-year-oldRobertBruceVIIwasestablishedinhismother’searldomofCarrick.HewassponsoredbyJamestheStewardandtheearlofMar.HecannothaveavoidedpayingareliefandperforminghomageandfealtytoKingJohnBalliol,buthisgrandfatherandhisfatherwereconspicuousbytheirabsenceontheoccasion

andneithereverdidhomagetoBalliol.Tothedelightofthe

Bruceshowever,relationsbetweenJohnandEdwardsoonbegantodeteriorate.Naturally,theBruceswouldsidewiththeEnglishagainstKingJohnandhisComynallies.ButthegreatpatriarchoftheBrucefamily,RobertBrucetheNoble,diedagedaboutseventy-fiveatLochmabenon31March

1295,justayearbeforewarbetweenEnglandandScotlandbrokeout.HewasburiedwithhisancestorsinGuisboroughPrioryon17April.Thegenesisofthiswar

betweenthekingdomslayinEdwardI’sdeliberateprovocationoftheScots,andalsotoanextentinhisneedformilitaryservice.EdwardhaddefinedtherelationshipbetweenScotlandand

Englandtohisownliking:hehaddefinedthestatusofthekingdomofScotlandandhehadchosenitsking.Thatkingenjoyedwidespreadsupportandtheloyaladherenceofthelong-establisheddominantmagnateinterest,theComyns.YetthoughhehadputBalliolinthesaddle,Edwardnowrefusedtolethimridebyhimself.Insteadheallowed,andevenencouraged,individualScots

toappealovertheheadoftheirnewkingtohimselfasoverlord.Predictably,oneofthosewhoappealedovertheheadofKingJohntothesuperiorlordwasAlexanderMacDonaldoftheIsles,thesonofAngusMórandaninveterateenemyoftheMacDougallswhowerenowintheascendantinthewestofScotland.ThetwofamilieshadrecentlybeenlinkedbythemarriageofAlexander

MacDonaldtoJulianaMacDougall.9KingJohnhadarbitratedbetweenAlexanderandhiswife’sfamilyinabitterdisputeoverJuliana’sdowerlandatLismore,hadgivenjudgementagainsthim,andwasnowenforcingthatjudgementbytakingtemporarypossessionofthatland.Accordingly,Alexanderandhiswife,Juliana,tooktheircomplainttoEdwardI,

allegingthatKingJohnhadoccupiedapartofLismoreandwasrefusingtohanditovertothem.Notsurprisingly,EdwardfoundinfavourofMacDonaldandcalledthenewKingofScotstoaccount.AnothersuchappellantwasMalcolmlefitzEngleys,elsewhereknownasMacCulianorMacQuillan,alordofKintyrewhosimilarlyclaimedthatKingJohnhaddeniedhimjustice.These

weretwoofadozensimilarappealsmadebyScotstoEdwardI,mostofthempoliticallyinspiredtoembarrassthenewKingofScots.TherewasnotraditionofappealsfromScottishcourtstocourtsoutsidethekingdom(except,rarely,tothepapalcourt).Edwardnodoubtconsideredthathewasmerelyexercisinghisrights,butbyentertainingsuchappealsEdwardwasinsulting

thedignityoftheScottishkingandneedlesslyrubbingthenosesofScotsinthediminishedstatusoftheirmonarchy.ScotswerewellawareofEdward’ssubjugationofWalesin1282–84,anddrewtheinevitablecomparisonthattheirhomelandwasalsobeingreducedtoamereappendageofEngland.KingJohn,asmightbe

expected,refusedto

acknowledgethelegitimacyofsuchappealsandignoredboththemandtheinevitablesummonsbeforetheEnglishcourtofKing’sBenchinMay1293.EventuallyhoweverhewaspressurisedintoappearingbeforetheparliamentofEnglandintheautumnofthatyear.FacingthewrathfulEdwardbeforeahostileaudiencemusthavebeenaterrifyingordeal.Johndeclaredthathehadnopower

toanswerthechargesoranythingtouchinghiskingdomwithouttheadviceofhispeople.Thenhebegantovacillate,renewinghishomageandfealtyandpromisingobedience.EdwardmerelyraisedthestakesandincreasedtheprovocationbydemandingthepersonalmilitaryserviceofKingJohninthewarwhichnowloomedbetweenEnglandandFrance,aswellastheserviceoften

earlsandsixteenbarons.KingJohnpreparedtosubmit.NokingofScotlandhadperformedoverseasmilitaryserviceatthebehestoftheEnglishkingforahundredandthirtyyears,andtheScottisharistocracywerescandalised,aswellasoutragedthattheyhadbeensummonsedasvassalstofightEdward’sbattlesforhim.KingJohn’sComyn-

dominatedcouncilhowever,inspiredperhapsbyaWelshrevoltin1295,resolveduponastanceoffirmresistancetoEdward’sdemands.John’sobjectionswereovercomebydrasticactiononthepartofhiscouncillors.AtaparliamentheldinStirlingon5July1295theytookmanagementofrelationswiththeFrenchoutofKingJohn’shands.Inanunprecedentedmove,acounciloftwelve,

bentonresistancetoEdward’sdemands,wasappointedtorulethecountryandtheysentadeputationtoKingPhiliptheFairofFrancewhichnegotiatedanalliancebetweenthegovernmentofKingJohnandKingPhilip.ScotsandFrenchdraftedatreatyinParisinOctober1295,providingforthemarriageofPhilip’sdaughterJeannewithJohn’ssonEdwardBalliol.Thetreaty

thusprovidedfortheFrenchtohaveapermanentinterestinalliancewithScotland,somethingthatnomonarchofEnglandcouldtolerate.EdwardI,wellawarethat

matterswerecomingtoahead,demandedinOctober1295thesurrenderofBerwick,RoxburghandJedburghcastlesuntiltheendofhiswarwithFrance,andheinsistedthatneitherFrenchmennorFlemmings

shouldbepermittedtoenterScotland.HemetwithrobustrefusalandgaveordersinJanuary1296fortroopsfromEnglishcountiestoassembleatNewcastleon1March.ThecouncilactinginthenameofKingJohnmeanwhilesummonedtheScottishhosttomeetatCaddonleeontheTweedon11March.AlongwiththeBruces,twootherScottishearlssupportedEdwardI:Gilbertde

Umfraville,EarlofAngus,anEnglishman,andPatrick,EarlofMarch.TheBrucefamilywithdrewtemporarilyfromScotland.RobertBruceVI,havingsucceededtoAnnandaleonhisfather’sdeath,wasobligedtoabandonhisfamilyestate.TheLanercostchroniclerecordsthattheScottishmagnates‘pronouncedforfeitureofhispaternalheritageuponRobertdeBrus

theyounger,whohadfledtoEngland,becausehewouldnotdohomagetothem.AlsotheyforfeitedhissonintheearldomofCarrick,whereinhehadbeeninfeft,becauseheadheredtohisfather.’JohnComyn,whohad

succeededhisfatherAlexanderin1289,bothasearlofBuchanandasconstableofScotland,tookcontroloftheBrucepatrimony;hehadprobably

beengranteditasaforfeiturebythecouncil.EdwardIhad,however,providedasaferefugefortheBrucesbyappointingRobertBruceVItothecommandofCarlisleCastleinOctober1295.AlmostthefirstblowinthewarbetweenEnglandandScotlandwasadirectattackontheBruces.On26MarchsevenScottishearls–Buchan,Menteith,Strathearn,Lennox,Ross,Atholland

Mar–madeasurpriseattackonthewalledcityofCarlislefromacrossthefordsoftheSolwayFirth.ButforthepresenceoftheearlofMar,itisclearthatthiswasnotsomuchawarbetweenEnglandandScotlandastheComynfactionattackingitstraditionalenemies.10TheScotsburntthesuburbsandtriedtoburndownoneofthegates,andaspywithinthe

citycreatedafirewhichpanickedthecitizensforashortwhile.Thecitizens,however,brokedownthebridgeovertheEden,andfromthecitywallswomendroppedstonesandpouredboilingwaterontheScotsbelow.NextdaytheScotsgaveuptheattackandretiredtoAnnandale.YoungRobertBrucewillhavehelpeddefendCarlisleonthisoccasion,andwillhave

gainedfirst-handknowledgeofthecity’sdefences.ThenexttimeCarlislewasbesiegedhewouldbeleadingtheattack.Ontheeasternrouteinto

England–the‘EastMarch’–theEnglishhostcrossedtheTweedtoconfrontBerwick,thelargesttowninScotland.OneoftheEnglishchronicles,therhymingchronicleofPeterLangtoft,containssnatchesofpopular

songthatcapturethebitterlychauvinistic,rabidlyxenophobicmoodinwhichthiswarwasfought.11HerecordsthetauntsandjeersoftheScotsatBerwick.‘LethimPikeandLethimDyke’,sangtheScotsasEdwardmethodicallybuiltfortifications–aditchandapalisade–priortohisattack.ThenEdwardunleashedadevastatingattackonthe

poorlydefendedtown.Bower’sScotichronicondescribesgreatslaughter:‘theaforesaidKingofEnglandsparednoone,whatevertheageorsex,andfortwodaysstreamsofbloodflowedfromthebodiesoftheslain,forinhistyrannousrageheordered7,500soulsofbothsexestobemassacred.’Chronicles,writtentoentertainandedifyaswellastoinform,arepronetoexaggerationand

statisticscitedinthemarenottobetakenseriously.Nevertheless,wegatherthatthestormingofthetownwasaccompaniedbygreatbloodshed.LangtoftrecordsthesongoftheEnglishfootaboutthemassacre:

ScatteredaretheScots,Huddledintheirhuts,Neverdotheythrive.RightifIread,TheyaretumbledintoTweed,

Whodweltbythesea.

TheScottishcavalry,ledbyRoss,MenteithandAtholl,meanwhileraidedNorthumberland,butwhenthetwomainhostsengagedatDunbaron2Apriltherecouldbenodoubtastowhichwouldprevail.EdwardI’scavalry,commandedbyJohn,EarlWarenne,andseasonedinrecentWelshandGasconcampaigns,overwhelmedtheflowerofScottishchivalry

andslaughteredtheinfantry.TheEnglishfootsangrowdilyoftheirvictory,andjeeredattheScotsforrobbingthecorpsesofnoblesonthebattlefield:

ThefootfolkPuttheScotsinthepoke,Andbaredtheirbuttocks.BythewayNeverheardIsayOfreadierboysTorobTherobesoftherich

Thatfellinthefield.Theytookofeachman;MaytheroughraggedfiendTeartheminhell!

Afterthisshatteringdefeattherewasverylittleresistanceexceptinthewest.ThereHighlanders,underAlexanderMacDougall,LordofLorn,hadtobequelledbyanexpeditionfromIreland.Otherwise,Scotlandwastooshockedtoresist.That

summerEdwardspentinmakingastatelyprogressthroughthetownsandcastlesoftheeastcoast,takingcontrolofEdinburghafteraweek’ssiege,thenStirling,Perth,Aberdeen,Banff,andevenreachingElginlateinJuly.EdwardinsisteduponanabjectsurrenderfromKingJohn,andobtainedit.CeremoniallyKingJohnwasstrippedofregality,andbecameknownas‘Toom

Tabard’.Thenickname–‘theemptysurcoat’–conveyedthatJohnhadbecomeanullity,orperhapsinmodernEnglisha‘stuffedshirt’.ThekingdomwashandedovertoEdwardIasoverlord,andJohn,theunmadeking,wassentsouthasaprisonertotheTowerofLondon.TheearlsofAtholl,RossandMenteithwerealsosentintocaptivity,alongwithJohnComyntheyoungerofBadenoch.Lesser

prisonersweresenttoothercastlesinEngland.AlmostonehundredScotsofthegentilclassesweremadeprisoner;manytobereleasedonpaymentofaransomorsureties,othersofhigherrankimprisonedpartlytoimpressuponthemtheforceofEdward’slordship,partlytoguaranteegoodbehaviourfromtheirtenantsorkinsmen,andpartlyastrophiestoimpressandgratifythe

English.Thetreasury,jewels,plate

andregaliaofthekingsofScotlandwereloadedontobaggagetrainsforEngland,buttrophiesofanothersortwerealsocaptured.Thesewerethesacredrelicsofthekingdom:theBlackRoodofStMargaret,ajewelledreliccasecontainingapieceofthecrossofChrist;andtheStoneofDestiny,onwhichScottishkingshadbeenenthroned

timeoutofmind.InEnglishtownsandcitiesthemobswerejubilantlyrecitinganti-Scottishlampoonsandscurrilousjeeringsongs,recordedinthechronicleofPeterLangtoft:

ThesorceryOfAlbanyCannotprevail.[St]Andrewisdead,Orhesleepsattheminster.

Theirking’sseatofScone

IsdrivenoverdownsCarriedtoLondon.

Edwardwasinterestedinacquiringthemagicalpropertiesoftheseobjectsforhimselfandhisdynasty.InthepasthehadacquiredthemostsacredofWelshrelics,afragmentofthetruecrosscalledYGroesNaidorthe‘CrossofNeath’andthecrownofArthur,andhadparadedthemthroughthe

streetsbeforeaddingthemtotheshrineofStEdwardtheConfessor,thesaintwhomEdwardregardedashisspiritualmentor.Hehadbroughtthe‘CrossofNeath’withhimonhistriumphaljourneythroughScotlandin1296,andheobligedBishopWisharttoswearfealtytohimonthatveryrelic.ToWishart,Scotland’sleadingchurchmanandpatriot,themessagewasclear:Edward

hadappropriatedtohimselfallthepowerofScotland,temporalandspiritual,ashehadalreadyappropriatedthatofWales.Itwasjustasimportantto

sendoutanunmistakablesignaltotheScotsthattherewouldbenosubsequentScottishkingunlessEdwardconsented.HedecidedtoruleScotlandas‘superiorlord’,withoutintermediary,andthroughmereofficials.With

thewarwonandScotland’shumiliationcomplete,EdwardwasdelightedtopassoverresponsibilityforScotlandtoalieutenant.Warennewasappointed,andashetossedWarennethegreatsealofScotlandEdwardcheerfullyremarked,‘Whenyougetridofaturd,youdoagoodjob.’AttheAugust1296parliamentinBerwickanordinanceforthegovernmentofScotlandwas

drawnup,detailinghowEdwardwouldhenceforthrulethekingdom.WhatthenoftheBruces?

Bowerrecords,andwehavenoreasontodoubtit,thatRobertBruceVIchoseanopportunemoment,approachedEdwardIanddelicatelyremindedhimthat,nowtheBalliolclaimtothethronehadbeenoverthrown,asrunner-upintheGreatCausehewasinlinefor

employmentasvassal-kingofScotland.Thisdemeaningrequestelicitedtherichlydeservedandcrushinglyscornfulresponse,‘DoyouthinkIhavenothingbettertodothanwinkingdomsforyou?’

3Resistanceandsurvivalinoccupied

Scotland(1296–1306)

Edward’sconquestofScotlandin1296hadbeenapushover,and,asScotswerewellaware,hehadjustfinishedprosecutingthelastofthreebitterwarstosubdueWales.ThekingshipofBritainwasbeckoning,asPeterLangtoft,CanonofBridlington,acknowledged:

Nowaretheislandersalljoinedtogether,AndAlbanyreunitedtothe

regalitiesOfwhichKingEdwardisproclaimedlord.CornwallandWalesareinhispowerAndIrelandthegreatathiswill.ThereisneitherkingnorprinceofallthecountriesExceptKingEdward,whohasthusunitedthem.

Amangroundedinhardpoliticalrealities,Edwardhimselfcanhardlyhavebeenundertheillusionthathis

subjectionofScotlandwascomplete,butfornowhehadtoswitchhisattentiontoFrance,afarmorepowerfulenemy.Scotsalsoknewthatthe

humiliationoftheirhomelandwasgoingdownratherwellinEngland.Anintenselyconservativepeople,theyhadjustwitnessedastoundingchangeintheacceptedorderofthings.Mostwillhavebeenprofoundlyshockedat

thedegradationofScottishkingship,thehumiliatingdefeatoftheirlairdsinbattleandthesacrilegiousremovalofthesacredrelicsofthekingdom.TheyregardedthetermsoftheTreatyofBirghamasthestandardforanacceptableunionwithEngland,butEdwardIhadignoredthoseterms,trampledalloverScottishsensibilitiesandmadeeveryefforttodestroyScotland’sseparate

identity.HadtheEnglishpresence

beenlimitedtotheimpositionofafewdisciplinedcastlegarrisons,itispossiblethattheScotsmighthavetolerateditforatime.Hadthechangeofregimehadlittlepracticaleffectonthegreatmassofthepeople,itmighthavelasted.Infacttheneworderpresentedthreeseriousthreatstothewell-beingofthepeople:securityoflanded

propertywasjeopardised;financialexactionsimpoverishedeverysocialclass,andthehorrendousprospectofenforcedmilitaryserviceoverseasloomed.Totheseelements,whicharetheprincipalcausesoftheuprisingof1297,thewidespreadsenseofoutrageatEnglishtriumphalismandlossoffreedommustsurelybeadded.Anythreattosecurityof

landedtenurewassuretoprovokeaviolentreactionfromthepropertiednobleclasses,andanatmosphereofuncertaintyprevailedearlyintheautumnandearlywinter.EdwardhadimprisonedmanyoftheScottishleaders,andtheyremainedinprisonwellinto1297.Itremainedtobeseenwhethertheywouldberestoredtotheirlands.Already,inthesummerof1296,Edward’sofficialshad

traversedthecountry,extractinganoathoffealtytoEdwardfromeverysubstantialfreeholderinthelandandtakingevidenceofit.Thesewrittenandsealedtestimonials,over1,500ofthem,wererecordedonadocumentknownastheRagmanRoll.Theveryapproachtocollectionofthesefealties,methodicalandlegalisticasitwas,willhavegeneratedfearof

dispossession.ForwhyshouldEdwardwanttheseproofsofswornloyaltyifitwerenottoextractmilitaryorotherservices?TheBruces,nowbackinpossessionofAnnandale,acquiredanewneighbour,astheformerBalliollordshipofGallowaywasawardedtotheEnglishmanHenryPercy.RobertBruceVI,LordofAnnandale,andhissonRobertBruceVII,Earlof

Carrickandfutureking,wereswornandappearontherollalongwithalltheothers.ButnoteveryoneofnotewasrepresentedontheRagmanRoll.MalcolmandWilliamWallace,vassalsoftheSteward,arenotrecordedashavingsworn.Lowerdownthesocialscale,theywillhavebeenmoreeasilyomitted,andtheabsenceoftheirnamesisnotproofofprincipledopposition.

Financialexactionscertainlyincreasedasaresultofthechangeofregime.EdwardhadinstalledHughCressinghamastreasurerofScotland,andhistaskwastoraisemoneyforEdward’swarwithKingPhiliptheFairofFrance.Cressingham’sexactionsweresuchthatbyMay1297hewasabletosendthehugesumof£5,188totheEnglishexchequer.Itwascustomaryforakingto

obtainparliamentarysanctionforthecollectionoftaxes,butthissumwasraisedbygatheringintheking’sdebts,andtheprofitsofjustice,fines,wardshipsandmarriages.InEnglandageneral‘prise’orseizureofwoolwasconductedaspartofroyalpolicy.ThisalsoappliedinScotlandandmusthavebeenhugelyunpopularwithgreatreligioushousesthatproducedthewool,and

themerchantsoftheeast-coastportswhoexportedit.ItwasprobablyEdward’slong-termintentiontopayforthiswool,justas,technically,thecasualseizuresofgoodsandtransportbytheking’sministers–alsoknownas‘prises’–wereallsupposedtobepaidforinthelongrun.Butthesefinancialexpedientsthoroughlyalienatedthemerchantsoftheeast-coasttownsandcountrypeople

livinginproximitytocastlegarrisons.Cressingham,afatandunpleasantman,waspersonallyloathedbytheScots.Itwas,however,the

prospectofhavingtoserveoverseasthatappearstohavecausedmostalarm.ThewidespreadbeliefwasthatEdwardintendedto‘seizeallthemiddlepeopleofScotlandtosendthemoverseasinhiswar,totheirgreatdamage

anddestruction’.EarlyinJune1297EdwardbegantoreleasethecapturedScottishnoblesfromprisoninreturnforpromisestoserveinhisplannedcampaignagainstFranceinFlanders.ThosereleasedincludedmanyofthegoverningComyn–Balliolfaction:thetwoJohnComynsofBadenoch–theelderandtheyounger–JohnComyn,EarlofBuchan,AlexanderdeBalliolandAlexander,Earlof

Menteith.Accordingly,themagnateswhogovernedlargeswathesofthecountryreturnedtotheirestates,andleadershipwasrestoredtoadefeatedpeople.Edwardexpectedthemtobeginenlistingtheirtenantryinpreparationforserviceoverseas.Inthewest,Gaelicclans

realignedthemselvesinaccordancewiththeneworder.UndertheComyn-

dominatedgovernmentsofAlexanderIIIandKingJohn,MacDougallhadbeenintheascendantandMacDonaldexcludedfromroyalpatronage.ButonthedefeatoftheScotsthissituationwasreversed:theMacDonaldshadsidedwiththeEnglish–andtheBruces–againsttheirtraditionalenemies,andreapedthebenefitsofhavingbackedthewinner.AlexanderMacDonaldofIslayandhis

youngerbrotherAngusÓgbecameEdward’schiefagentsintheregion,leavingtheMacDougallsexcludedfrompatronage,butfarfrompowerless.12OnreleasefromimprisonmentatBerwickinMay1297,AlexanderofArgyllandhissonJohnwentontherampage,attackingMacDonald,CampbellandMacSweenterritories.Thisson,JohnofArgyll,knownas

JohnBachach(‘theLame’)waslatertoemergeasoneofRobertBruce’smostinveteratefoes.Tocounterthisthreat,Edward’sgovernmentappointedAlexanderMacDonaldofIslayasbaillieofKintyre,formerlyanofficeheldbyJamestheSteward,andbaillieinthesheriffdomsofLorn,RossandtheIsles,privilegedpositionsformerlyheldbyAlexander

MacDougallofArgyll.Thusinthesummerof1297theMacDonaldswerestruggling,onEdwardofEngland’sbehalf,torestrainthiswidespreadMacDougallrebellion.Theviolenceinthewest

hadprobablyneverceasedsince1296andcanlargelybeexplainedbytraditionalanimosities,butclearcentresofrevoltspecificallyagainstEdwardiangovernment

crystallisedinthesouth-west,intheForestofSelkirkandinthenorthofScotland.WhilethelordofAnnandalehimself,RobertBruceVI,remainedaloof,stillclingingperhapstotheremotepossibilitythatEdwardIwouldinstallhimassub-king,therevoltinthesouth-westwasnourishedbythetraditionalalliesoftheBruces,theformercroniesofRoberttheNoble,Jamesthe

StewardandBishopWishartofGlasgow.BothareaccusedbyEnglishchroniclesofstirringupthisrevolt,whichbeganinMay1297inpartsofGalloway.Furthernorth,inLanark,WilliamWallace–whowasoneoftheSteward’stenants–attackedandkilledWilliamHesilrig,theEnglishsheriff,andtherisingbecamewidespread.InthefarnorthmeanwhileAndrewMorayledentirelyseparateattacks

ontheEnglishgarrisonatCastleUrquhartthatsamemonth.Finally,inAberdeenshire,remarkablytheEnglishsheriffdefectedtothesideoftherebels.Theseoriginallyunconnectedrevolts,mobilised,naturally,byaristocraticleaders,enjoyedwidespreadsupportfromallclasses.ThemyththatWallacewas

acommonerwholedapopularuprisinghasscant

foundationinhistory.Wallacehimselfwasthesonofaknight,andhewassoonjoinedbySirWilliamDouglas(knownas‘leHardi’,‘theHardy’),theSteward’sbrother-in-lawandanotherallyoftheBruces.TogethertheymountedadaringraidonthecourtoftheEnglishjusticiarWilliamOrmsbywhileitwasinsessionatScone.ThoughOrmsbyescaped,therebels

capturedvaluablesandhorses.AfterthistheymadeforthecoverofSelkirkForest,‘thecradleofinsurrection’whichprovidedvirtuallyimpenetrableshelterformalcontents.Theseoutlawsattractedalargefollowing,whichtheybegantofashionintoanarmy.JamestheSteward

abandonedhiscovertsupportfortherebelsforopenparticipationandjoined

WallaceandDouglasinJuly,leadingintorebellionafurthergroupofdisaffectedScottishnobles,includingnotonlyRobertWishart,BishopofGlasgowandformerguardian,butalsoMacDuff,thesonoftheninthearlofFife,AlexanderLindsayandtheyoungRobertBruceVII,theEarlofCarrick.Thefuturekingwasnowtwenty-twoandinjoiningtherebelsheseemstohavebeenacting

independentlyorperhapseveninthefaceofhisfather’sdisapproval.ThelordofAnnandalewascarefultohavenothingtodowithrebellion,andseemstohaveabandonedhispatrimonyoncemoreforthesafetyofCarlisle.YoungBruce’sinvolvementinrebellionwasnotinthefamilyinterest.Whatpossessedhimtorisklife,limbandinheritancebyjoiningtherebelsis

unknown;itlooksasthoughhehadfallenundertheinfluenceofhisgrandfather’sfriendsWishartandtheSteward,and,ifwemaytrusthisBruce’sreportedwords,theyhadinspiredhimtopatrioticresistance.Whenfirstsuspectedof

sympathywiththerebellion,theyoungearlwasobligedbythebishopandcitizensofCarlisletoswearanoathofloyaltytothekingonthe

sacredhostandonareliccalledtheswordofStThomasinCarlisleCastle.Havingdoneso,Robertleftthecity,and,toallaysuspicionfurther,hefeignedanattackonthelandsofSirWilliamDouglasandburntapartofthem.HecarriedoffDouglas’swifeandchildren,buttookthem,nottotheking’scustodyinCarlisle,buttosafetyinAnnandale.Itmaybeatthispointthathe

firstmettheyoungJamesDouglas,heirtoSirWilliam,whowastobecomehisfaithfullieutenantandclosefriend.InAnnandale,Robertcalledtogethertheknightsofhisancestralpatrimonyandaddressedthem.ThesewordsareputintohismouthbythehostilechroniclerWalterofGuisborough:

Mydearestfriends,youknowanditistruethatrecentlyatCarlisleI

sworeanoathasyouknowandhaveheard,butitisnullandvoidsinceitwasextortedbyforce.Ididthisthingfromfearforthebody,butnotofmyownfreewill.ForthisIamcontriteanddeeplypenitent.Ihopeneverthelessthatthebenefitofabsolutionwillfollowshortly.NomanholdshisownfleshandbloodinhatredandIamnoexception.ImustjoinmyownpeopleandthenationinwhichIwasborn.Iaskthatyoupleasecomewithmeandyouwillbemycouncillorsandclosecomrades.

YoungBrucewasthenbelievedtohaveactedoutofpatriotism,andhemaywellhavedoneso.ThelordofAnnandale,RobertBruceVI,however,washavingnothingtodowiththerevoltatthistime,andbecauseofthisthemenofAnnandalerefusedtofollowhisheir.TheytoldyoungBrucethattheywouldgivehimaresponseonthemorrow,butmostslippedawayundercoverofnightto

avoidrefusinghim.Thechronicleraddsthenot

improbableobservationthat‘evenatthattimeitwasnoisedabroadthatCarrickaspiredtothekingship’.Howeverthatmightbe,thesourcesshowthatBrucewasintheforefrontoffomentingrebellion.AlettertoKingEdwardfromCressinghamof23Julyreportstheopinionthat‘ifyouhadtheearlofCarrick,theStewardof

Scotlandandhisbrother…youwouldthinkyourbusinessdone’.LittlewasachievedinanycasebytheSteward,WishartandBruce:byJunetheyfoundthemselveshemmedinbysuperiorforcesledbyEnglishmagnatesHenryPercyandRobertClifford,whowerebothtobecomehardenedveteransoftheScottishwars.YettheScotsdidnotsurrenderbutinstead

quibbledoversurrenderterms,andinthiswaytheypinneddownPercyandClifford’sarmyforalmostamonth.Theyboughttime,whileWilliamWallaceintheForestofSelkirkandAndrewMorayinthefarnorthspreadrebellion.By24JulyPercyandCliffordhadcapturedSirAlexanderLindsayandSirWilliamDouglas,whowaskeptinironsinBerwickCastle‘stillverysavageand

abusive’,havingfailedtoproducehostagesforhisrelease.SoonafterwardsSirWilliamwassenttotheTowerofLondon,wherehedied,leavinghissonJamestoavengehim.Wishart,theStewardand

BrucewereexpectedtosurrenderatIrvineon8August,andCressinghamhadhighhopesthattheirexpectedsurrenderinthesouth-westwouldmeantheendofthe

rebellion.On4Augusthewrotetotheking,‘Sire,acrosstheScottishSea[theFirthofForth]yourpeaceisstilldisturbed,soitissaid,asaresultofthedeedsoftheearlswhoarethere.Butatallevents,wehopethatifthebusinesswiththebishopofGlasgowandtheothersonthefeastofStLaurence[8August]goeswell,wewillhavethepeopleonthefarsideoftheScottishSeaatour

mercy,byGod’sgrace.’PercyandCliffordcameawayfromthecapitulationatIrvinewiththeimpressionthattheyhadpacifiedthewholeofsouthernScotland,andthatrebellionsouthoftheForthwasover.TheyevenconvincedCressingham,whohadraisedalargeinfantryforceinNorthumberlandandwaspreparingtoenterScotland,thattherewasnoneedforafurtherexpedition.

BishopWishartwasinprisonbyJuly.13TheStewardwasreleased,doubtlessonsuretiesanddeliveryofhostages.OneofthetermssuggestedforBruce’sreleasehadbeenthehandoverofhisbabydaughterMarjorieasahostage,butitisnotatallcertainthatthiswasagreed.IndeedthereisnorecordofBrucesurrendering;hemayhaveescapedsomehow.Ifhe

didsurrenderatIrvine,itcanonlyhavebeenbrieflyandwithoutcommitmentbecauseitisquiteclearintheaftermathoftheBattleofFalkirkthathisstandingwashighwiththepatriots.Elsewhererebellionscontinuedtospreadandbegantocoalesce.Wallace,operatingoutofthevastForestofSelkirk,wasamassingandtraininglargenumbersoffoot-soldiersand

gatheredsufficientstrengthtobesiegeDundeecastle.Inthenorth-eastAndrewMorayhadtakenthecastlesofInverness,BanffandElgin.ByaremarkablemiscalculationonEdward’spart,theComyns–John,EarlofBuchan,andhisbrotherAlexanderandJohnofBadenochIII–insteadofbeingsenttoFlanders,weredispatchedtokeepincheckthenorthernrevolt.Edwardmusthavebelievedthatby

thetakingofsuretiesandhostagestheyhadbeenreducedtocompletedependenceonhim.AtfirsttheywereineffectualinEdward’sservice;thenBuchanopenlychangedsidesandjoinedtherebels.OnlythefactthathewasservinginFlanderskeptJohnComynofBadenochtheelderloyaltoEdward.ThereturnoftheComynswasespeciallysignificant.Northofthe

Mounththeyhadtremendousprestige,andthroughoutScotlandtheywillhavebeenlookedtoforleadership.IfthispresentedaproblemforthoseelementsoftherevoltassociatedwiththeBrucefaction,thereisnoreflectionofitinthesources.LetterstoEdwardfromHughCressinghamrevealthedisintegrationoftheoccupationadministration:‘[24July1297]Sire,letitnot

displeaseyou,byfarthegreaterpartofyourcountiesoftherealmofScotlandarestillunprovidedforwithkeepers,aswellbydeath,siegesorimprisonment;andsomehavegivenuptheirbailiwicks,andothersneitherwillnordarereturn;andinsomecountiestheScotshaveestablishedandplacedbailiffsandministers,sothatnocountyisinproperorderexceptingBerwickand

Roxburghandthisonlylately.’ThereferencetotheScots

appointingbailiesandofficialsoftheirownrevealsthedegreeoforganisationbehindtherevolt,andsuchorganisationcanonlyhavecomefromthearistocraticgoverningelement.Withmuchofthepre-1296governmentrestoredtothecountry,therebellionacquiredfurtherlegitimacy

andvigour.TheearlsofBuchan,Strathearn,andCarricktoo,if,aswesuspect,Brucewasstillwiththerebels,willhavecontributedleviesofmenfromtheirestates,andtheremayhavebeenotherelementsofcompulsorymilitaryserviceatwork.Withtheauthorityofatleasttwoearlsbehindthem,WallaceandMoraybegantoissuewritsinthenameofKingJohn,andthey

continuedtohaveDundeeundersiege.Edward’slieutenantin

Scotland,John,EarlofWarrene,neveractuallyresidedinScotland:hefoundthattheclimatewasnotconducivetohishealth.But,thoughthekinghimselfwasabsentinGascony,Cressingham’sletterseventuallyhadeffectinWestminster,andinSeptemberWarenneatlast

feltobligedtobestirhimself.HemarchedwithasubstantialforcefromBerwicktoStirling.OntheslopesnorthoftheRiverForthAndrewMorayandWallace’sforceshadcombinedandlayinwaitforWarenne’sarmytocrossStirlingBridge.Twiceonthemorningof11September1297theEnglisharmycrossedthebridge,buteachtimeitwassummonedback

toawaitWarenne’scommand.Hehadsleptin.Onthethirdoccasion,theScotswaiteduntilhalfoftheforcehadcrossedthebridge,thentheychargeddowntheslopesattheEnglish,cuttingtheirarmyintwo.ThehalfoftheEnglisharmywhichwasonthebridgeorwaitingtocrosscouldonlywatchastheotherhalfwasbutchered.Warennewasonthesouthside,withthosewaitingto

cross,butthehatedtreasurerfoundhimselfonthewrongsideofthebridge.

HughdeCressingham,notaccustomedtothesaddle,Fromhissteedinitscoursefellunderfoot.HisbodywascuttopiecesbytheribaldsofScotland,AndhisskintakenoffinsmallthongsAsaninsulttotheking,whoseclerkhewas…

ThebattleofStirlingBridgewasalandmarkvictorythatrestoredScottishconfidenceandpride,erasingthememoryofthedebacleatDunbar.TherewasonlyonesignificantlossontheScottishside:AndrewMorayappearstohavebeenmortallywoundedinthebattle.Thereisareportthathewaskilled,butletterswerewritteninhisnameatsometimeafterthebattle,indicatingthathedid

notdiestraightaway.Helingeredatleastuntil7November,thedateofadocumentinwhichWallaceandMorayaredescribedas‘LeadersoftheArmyofScotland’.AnimmediateconsequenceofthisoutstandingvictorywasthatWallace’sprestigesoared,andonMoray’sdeathhebecamesoleguardian.TheScottishChurchralliedbehindWallace,andinRome

itwasabletoachievetheconsecrationofthepatriotWilliamLambertonasbishopofStAndrews.Thisextra-ordinarilyableecclesiasticthenbroughttheplightoftheScotstothenoticeoftheFrenchandpapalcourts.AfterthebattleWallace

resumedprosecutionofthesiegeofDundee,andhavingcapturedalsothetown(thoughnotthecastle)ofBerwick,heannouncedto

merchantsofLübeckandHamburghthatliberatedScotlandwasopenforbusiness.Hisprincipalachievement,however,washisprotractedinvasionoftheEastandWestMarchesofEngland.Acontemporarychronicler,WalterofGuisborough,describesthepanicinNorthumberlandafterthebattleofStirlingBridge,wheretherewasnodoubtwhatwasinstore:‘The

Northumbrianswerepetrifiedwithfearandtheyevacuatedfromthecountrysidetheirwivesandchildrenandalltheirhouseholdgoods,sendingthemwiththeiranimalstoNewcastleandvariousotherplaces.AtthattimethepraiseofGodceasedinallthemonasteriesandchurchesofthewholeprovincefromNewcastletoCarlisle.Allthemonks,canonsregularandtherestof

thepriestsandministersoftheLord,togetherwithalmostthewholeofthepeoplefledfromthefaceoftheScot.’Anotherchronicle,theChronicleofLanercost,summarisestheWallaceinvasionofnorthernEngland:‘Afterthis…theScotsgatheredtogetherandinvaded,devastatingthewholecountry,causingburnings,depredationsandmurders,andtheycame

almostuptothetownofNewcastle;butturnedawayfromitandinvadedthecountyofCarlisle;theretheydidasinNorthumberland,destroyingeverything;andafterwardstheyreturnedtoNorthumberland,todevastatemorefullyanythingtheyhadoverlookedpreviously;andonthefeastofStCecilia,virginandmartyr[22November1297],theyreturnedtoScotland.’We

knowthatthisisabroadlyaccuratesummaryforitcorrespondswithinformationgleanedfromfinancialaccountsofmanorsdestroyed.Aftersporadicraidsledbyothers,WallaceledanarmyapparentlycomposedofinfantryspearmensouthfromBerwicktowardsNewcastle,butthenshiedawayfromthatformidablylarge–thoughasyetunwalled–townand

movedwestwardsintoTynedale,burningBywellandCorbridge.AtNewminsterandHexhamheextractedaransomforsparingthemonasteries.HexhamwasstillrecoveringfromtheScots’lastvisitationin1296.ThenWallaceadvanceduponCarlisle.Thatcitybegantoprepareforassault,andRobertBruceVIwasreplacedasgarrisoncommanderbyJohnHalton,

BishopofCarlisle,probablybecausehewasaScot;nowhereisitallegedthathewasdisloyal,orthatmembersofhisfamilywerefightingalongsideWallace.ThecitywasalreadymenacedbyGallovidians,andtenGallovidianhostagesweredeliveredtothecityinanefforttogainitfurtherprotection.Wallaceandthe‘ArmyofScotland’arrivedoutsidethecityatMartinmas

(11November),andaclerkwassentintothecitytodemanditssurrenderto‘WilliamtheConqueror’.Wallacewasimpressedbythedefences,however.Thecitizenshadpreparedenginestoresistasiege,whereashehimselfhadnosiegetrain.Hedidnotattack,butleftaforcetokeepthecitygarrisonincheckwhilehedevastatedCumberlandasfarasInglewoodForestand

beyond.Thenaround18NovemberWallaceandtheGallovidiansmarchedeastwards,re-enteringTynedale.AgainhevisitedHexhamPriory.Scottishtroops–Gallovidians,perhaps–stoleeventhesacredvesselsfromthealtar.ThehostilechroniclerWalterofGuisboroughsaysthatWallaceapologisedtothecanonsforthebehaviourofa‘roughanduncivilisedpeople

whohadnoshame’.Heissuedaprotectiontothepriory,nodoubtinreturnforaheftyransom.AftertwodaysWallaceleft

theprioryandmarchedoninthesnowtowardsNewcastle.Thetownhadnotyetbeenfullyencircledbydefencesandthecitizenspreparedfortheworst.Theyorganisedwatches,thecastlewasgarrisonedandthreewar-enginesrehabilitated.Itwas

nowabout23November.Wallace,however,failedtoattack:‘ThecourageousmenwhowereinchargeofNewcastlebracedthemselvesandwentoutofthecityalittleway,despitethefactthattheywereveryfewagainstmany.Seeingthis,theScotsveeredawayfromthecity,dividedamongthemselvesthespoils,andhandingovertotheGallovidianstheirshare,theydepartedtotheir

ownregions.’TheEnglishreportsoftheinvasionrevealthatWallacewasunabletocapitalisefullyonthesignalvictoryofStirling.Heseemstohavepresidedover,ratherthanled,afive-weekrampagethroughnorthernEngland,alargeinfantryforce,boldlychallengingCarlisleandNewcastle,butill-equippedtoassaulteither.WallacewasembarrassedbythebehaviourofhismenatHexham,

suggestingthatdisciplinewaspoorintheArmyofScotland.PerhapsWallacehadintendedanassaultonNewcastle,buthismenwereunwillingtorisklosingtheirspoils.WemayindeedwonderhowfartheraidwasanexpressionofWallace’sstrategicambitionsandhowfaritwasmotivatedbypopularfeelingsofvengeanceandeuphoriainthewakeofthevictoryatStirling.

Wallace’sfascinationwithmajorstrategicpoints–Berwick,NewcastleandCarlisle–isreminiscentofearlierinvasionsofEnglandbyDavidIandWilliamtheLion.YetWallaceappearstohavebeenindecisive,attractedbythegreatstrategicprizesofNewcastleandCarlislebutawarethathisarmywaspoorlyequippedtocaptureeither.Itistruethathecapturedthetownsof

BerwickandDundee,buttheonlycastlehetookwasthecomparativelyunimportantoneofJedburgh.AdecadelaterRobertBrucehadlearnedfromWallace’sexperienceinnorthernEngland:hisfirstraidsonthesameterritoriesthrewallstrategytothewind,makingtheorganisedcollectionofransomsandbootytheirpriority.Hiswerecavalryraids,whichavoidedbattle,

ratherthaninvasionsbymassedbodiesofslow-movinginfantry.MemoriesoftheWallaceinvasionhoweverwillnodoubthavecontributedtothedecisionsbythenorthernEnglishcountiestopaytheextortionateransomsdemandedbyRobertBrucewhenhebecameking,ratherthanriskrepetitionofthehorrorsof1297.Onlywhenhehadreducedthe

surroundingcountrysidetohisobediencedidBruceapplypressureonthestrategictownsofBerwickandCarlisle.Intheabsenceofherking,

Englandwasreelingfromtheshockofdefeatandinvasion.Asaknee-jerkreactiontodefeatatStirlingBridge,writsofarraywereissuedfortheassemblyofanimprobablylarge33,400-stronginfantry,mostlyfrom

theEnglishshiresandtheremainderfromWales.HorrifiedbytheimpudenceoftheWallaceinvasion,alltheresourcesoftheEnglishgovernmentalmachinewerebroughttobearandactuallyproducedaforceof18,500men,anarmyofunmanageableproportions,whichgatheredatBerwickinearly1298.OnitsapproachWallaceevacuatedthetown,awarethathewasunableto

holdit.Thisvastforcewasimpossibletofeed,andtotheenormousreliefofEdward’sScottishadministration,instructionsarrivedfromtheEnglishkinginFebruarythatnothingwastobeattempteduntilhisreturn.Theleviesweredisbanded.AwinterinvasionofScotlandwasimpossibleforanyarmy,andsuchavastarmywouldsimplyhavestarved.Someretaliationhadalreadytaken

place,foraroundChristmasWarenneandRobertCliffordhadraidedAnnandaleanddestroyedtenvillages.TheEnglishstillheldthe

majorcastlesofScotland:Berwick,Edinburgh,RoxburghandStirling,butWallaceincreasedthepressureonthemall,keepingtheirgarrisonsbusy.WallacewaswellawarethathewouldsoonhavetofaceEdwardinbattle,andheprobablyspent

thespringandsummerof1298traininglevies.Hewasknightedbyoneoftheearlswhosupportedhim,tomakeacceptabletothearistocratshiselectionassoleguardianofScotlandandinrecognitionofhisachievementatStirlingBridge.Onhisreturnfrom

FlandersinFebruary,Edwardbegangearingupforadecisivecampaignin

Scotland.Thatsummer,theScotsscoredasignificantdiplomaticvictory.Bishop-electLambertonhadbeenabletoevadetheEnglishblockadeandmakethevoyagetoRomeforconsecrationthereon1June1298.ThenhetravelledtoParis,tojoinasmallgroupofScottishémigrésattheFrenchcourt.TheywereabletopersuadebothKingPhilipandPopeBonifaceVIIIto

writetoEdwarddemandingthereleaseofKingJohnBalliolandacessationofEdward’sattacksontheScots.ItwasasignificantstepintheescalationofdiplomaticpressureagainstEngland,butitwouldbeayearbeforetheEnglishkingwouldbeforcedtomakeanyconcession,andfornownothingwouldstophisinvasionofScotland.WithaunitedEnglisharistocracyat

hisback,Edwardmusteredaforceof25,000foot–11,000ofwhomwereWelsh–and3,000cavalry.Thelogisticalpreparationsforsuchaforcewere,however,inadequate.EdinburghandCarlisleweretheonlylocationstowhichsomegrainwassentinadvance,andshipsintendedtoprovisionthearmyweredelayedbycontrarywinds.TheWelshfoot-soldiersturnedouttobeunreliable,

butEdwardmayhavebeenforcedtousethembecausesomanyoftheEnglishhadalreadyservedtheirfortydaysoutsidethekingdomofEnglandattheirownexpenseinthepreviouswinter.AsthisforceadvancedintoScotlanditbecameclearthatWallacehadverythoroughlyremovedfromtheirpathallpossiblemeansofsustenance,‘ascorchedearth’tacticthatthreatenedtoweakenthe

Englishseverelybeforebattlewasjoined.ThistoowouldbelateremulatedbyBruce.Inanefforttocheeruphisstarvingtroops,Edward’sWelshfoot-soldiersweregivenwine,andviolencebrokeoutbetweentheWelshandtheEnglishknights.TheWelshwithdrewfromthearmy,andthreatenedtotakenofurtherpartinthewar.AstheEnglishpassedthroughthetownofLinlithgowthey

sawthemassedspearsoftheScottisharmyonamountaininthedistance.Wallacehadclearly

realisedthesenseinpostponingbattleaslongaspossible,tomakethemostofdissensionintheenemyranksanddrawthemdeepintohostileterritory.HowevertheearlsuponwhomWallacedependedmaynothavecountenancedanythingbutconventionalwarfare,and

Wallace’sownpositionwouldhavebeenprofoundlyweakenedhadheallowedtheEnglishtoreoccupyScotland.Openbattlewasthereforeinevitable,althoughthefollyoftakingonasuperiorforcehadalreadybeendemonstratedatDunbarin1296.AlittlebeyondthetownofFalkirktheScottishforcepreparedtogivebattle,andonthefeastofStMaryMagdalene,22July,they

facedthemightyEnglishhost.

UnlikeEdward’sarmy,whichwaslargelypaidandforwhichaccountssurvive,nothingexiststorevealthesizeofWallace’sforce.ThechallengebeforeWallacewastowithstandthemightofEdward’sarmouredcavalrywithanarmysubstantiallycomposedoffoot-soldiers.Hedrewuphisarmyofspearmeninthreedenselypacked‘schiltroms’orblocks

radiatingironspearheads.AsmallmarshandlochbetweenthearmiesprovidedsomenaturalshelterfortheScottishcentrefromthechargeoftheEnglishheavycavalry.Sothattheywouldnotgivewaybeforetheimpactofthecharge,Wallacehadeachschiltrom‘anchored’toitschosenpositionbymeansofropestiedtowoodenstakesdrivenintotheground,which

formedmakeshiftcircularpalisades.Thesethenweretheringshereferredtoinhisfamousremarktothefoot-soldiersbeforethebattle,‘Ihavebroughtyouintothering,nowseeifyoucandance.’Inthegapsbetweentheschiltromsheplacedsucharchersashehad,andintherearhekeptthesmallnumbersofcavalrythatScottishnobles–JamestheSteward,theearlsofBuchan,

Strathearn,Lennox,possiblyCarrick,AthollandMenteithtoo–hadcommitted.Shouldtheworstcometotheworst,CallendarWoodlaytotherearofScots,whichmightprovidecoverforfleeinginfantry.Itwasperhapsthebest

possiblearrangementthatcouldbedevisedforsuchanunequalbattle,butitwasnotgoodenough.ThearistocraticScottishhorsemenfledthe

fieldearlywithoutmakinganycontactwiththeEnglish.Thosewithmosttolose,theyhadweigheduptheoddsandmadetherational,ifignoble,last-minutedecisiontoavoidpersonalcommitment,leavingtheirtenantstofacetheenemy.EnglishcavalryrodedowntheScottisharcherspositionedbetweentheschiltroms,thenturnedtheirattentiontothenowisolatedformationsof

spearmen,whohadtowithstandtheimpactofrepeatedcharges.PeriodicallyeachschiltromwassubjectedtothehailofcrossbowboltsandarrowsfromtheWelshbowmenandeventually–astheyranoutofmanufacturedmissiles–ofstones.Theschiltromswerestationarytargetsformissilesandcavalrycharges,andeventually,despitethepalisadesofropesandstakes,

theycouldnotholdtogether.Battleturnedtoslaughter.Infleeingtothewoodsbehindthem,greatnumbersofScottishspearmenwerekilled;othersdrownedintheloch;stillotherswereriddendownbythepursuingEnglishcavalry.TheEnglishlost110horsesand2,000infantrywerekilled.ThatfiguretakesaccountonlyofthepaidelementoftheEnglishforce.Thereisnoestimating

Scottishlosses,buttheymusthavebeenfarinexcessofthosesustainedbythevictors.Weareunsureofwhether

RobertBruceVII,EarlofCarrick,wasatthebattleofFalkirk.SomechroniclersrecordthataRobertBrucewaspresentatthebattleandactiveonthesideofEdwardI,but,iftrue,thisislikelytohavebeenRobert’sfather,thelordofAnnandale.14Inview

ofyoungRobert’shighstandingwithScotsinthewakeofdefeat–whenhewaselectedjoint-guardian–itseemsmostunlikelythathefoughtwiththeEnglish.Brucemayhavefoughtonthepatriotside,fleeingignominiouslywithmostoftheScottisharistocraticcavalry.IntheaftermathofFalkirk,hislandswerenotseizedasforfeittoEdwardI,buttheregiondominatedby

theBrucefactionbecamethefocusofEdward’sattention.Afterthebattlethe

victoriousEnglishadvancedintoFife.TheyoccupiedStAndrews,butonereportsaysthatEdward,outofrespectforthelocalsaint,orderedthatthetownshouldnotbesacked.Perth,however,wasdestroyed.EdwardthenturnedwestwardsthroughForestofSelkirkandmarchedtowardstheearldom

ofCarrick.OneoftheEnglishchroniclescarriesareportthattheScotswereregroupinginGalloway,anditseemsthatEdwardwasanxioustoconfrontthem.ItisverylikelythattheComynsandtheearlofCarrick–whoemergedastheleadersofresistanceintheaftermathofthebattle–hadretreatedtofamilyestatesinthesouth-west.Bruceindeedmayhavepreviouslyarrangedthatthe

Bruces’IrishalliesshouldcontributeforcestothewestofScotland.ForinwhatmayhavebeenanechooftheTurnberryBand,AntrimmagnateThomasBissetarrivedwithhisfollowersontheislandofArraninorder,accordingtoWalterofGuisborough,‘toassisttheScots,aswascommonlysaid’.Oncehelearnedoftheoutcomeofthebattle,however,Bissetchangedhis

stanceandclaimedthathehadcometohelptheEnglishandactuallyreceivedagrantoftheIsleofArranfromEdward.TheGuisborough’schroniclerecordsthat‘hearingoftheapproachoftheking,RobertBrucethesonfledfromhisfaceandheburntthatcastle[Ayr]whichheheld’.ItisthefirstconcretereportofBruce’sactivitiessincethesurrenderatIrvine.Itisalsosignificant

thattheyoungearlisassociatedwiththeburningofcastlestodenythemtotheenemy.Thistactichesubsequentlydevelopedintoahallmarkofhisstyleofwarfare.AtAyrEdwardwaitedfor

afortnightforshipscarryingprovisionstoappearwhilehisarmystarvedasecondtime,andthenheretreated,firsttoDumfries,thencetoLochmaben.InAnnandale

theBruces’retainersheldtheancestralcastleatLochmaben,but,probablyintheaftermathofStirling,theyhadatlastdeclaredforthepatriots.Now,theyhadnochoicebuttosurrender,andEdwardsparedtheirlives.HedestroyedthestonecastleofRoberttheNobleofLochmaben,andre-usingthestone,builtafreshonasitenearby.Adjacenttothisnewcastle,bebuiltawooden

palisadecoveredinmudtorenderitfireproof.Suchstructureswereknownaspeels,andtheyenlargedtheaccommodationandhencetheprotectivecapacityofcastles.Theycouldbespeedilyerected,andatnogreatexpense;intimepeelswereattachedtomanycastlesinEnglish-heldScotlandincludingDumfries,Linlithgowand–significantly–atSelkirk,

alwaysafocalpointofresistance.EdwardthenmadearrangementsforthegarrisoningandprovisioningofcastlesthroughoutScotland,andreorganisedtheoccupation.GarrisonsatBerwick,Edinburgh,Stirling,RoxburghandJedburghwereallcarefullyprovisioned,andcaptaincieswereestablishedoverwideareas:Eskdale,Edinburgh,Nithsdale,withPatrick,EarlofMarch,

appointedasguardianofScotlandSouthoftheForth.LackofprovisionshowevermeantEdwardcouldnolongerstayinScotland,andheledthebulkofhisarmyacrosstheSolway,reachingCarlisleinSeptember.FortheScots,thesaving

graceoftheyear1298wasthatEdwardwasunableproperlytofollowuphisvictory.TheremainsoftheArmyofScotlandandmany

ofthenobles–BuchanandLambertonthemostprominent–regroupedintheshelterofSelkirkForest.There,intheweeksfollowingtherout,theinternalpoliticsofthepatriotswereplayedouttoaremarkableconclusion.ItwasdecidedthataftersuchadefeatWallacecouldnolongerremainassoleguardian.Wallacemayhavebeenmovingtowardsthe

conclusionthattheScotscouldneverachievevictorybytheirownefforts,forayearlaterheleftforParistolobbytheFrenchkingforsupport.InhissteadRobertBruce,EarlofCarrickandJohnComynofBadenochtheyoungerwereelectedjointguardiansofScotland.Theheirsofbothhostilenoblefactionshadevidentlydecidedtoburydifferencesforthetimebeingandco-

operatetoresisttheoccupation.Howthiswasachievedorwhattheheadsofthetwofamiliesthoughtwedonotknow;Brucemayhaveco-operatedbecausehewasgivenapositionofhonourandinfluenceequaltothatoftheComyns,buthewillnothavecompromisedonhisfamily’sclaimtothethrone.Thepatriotgovernmentof

northernScotlandwasresilientenoughtowithstand

defeatatFalkirk,anditstillfunctionedinthenameofKingJohn.ItwasprobablybasedupontheComynlordshipsofthenorth-east,stilllargelyunscathedbywarfare.InthenorththecourtofthejusticiarofScotia–whichofficewasfilledbyJohnComyn,EarlofBuchan–stillheldpleas,andsheriffsstillcollectedrevenuesforthegovernmentoftheguardians,andnotjustfornorthofthe

Forth,DuringthejointguardianshipofBruceandComyn,theirofficialdocumentscommencedinthefollowingwords:‘RobertBruce,earlofCarrick,andJohnComyntheson,GuardiansofthekingdomofScotlandinthenameofthefamousprincetheillustriousKingJohn,togetherwiththebishops,abbots,priors,earls,baronsandothermagnatesandthewholecommunityof

therealm…’BruceofcoursewouldmuchhavepreferredtheretobenomentionofKingJohn,buthewaspreparedtoacquiesceaslongasJohnremainedatasafedistance.Edwardfullyintendedto

returntoScotlandinthefollowingseason,1299,andbeforethesummerof1298wasouthehadissuedwritsforthenextseason’scampaignandlaidplansfor

thesupplyofhisgarrisons.HishandhadbeenimmeasurablystrengthenedbytheAnglo-Frenchpeaceof1298,negotiatedthroughthearbitrationofBonifaceVIII.15ThiswasacynicalagreementbywhichEnglandandFrancereinedintheirmutualantagonisminorderthateachmightconcentrateonsuppressingitssmallernorthernneighbours.Thusthe

Englishabandonedtheirerstwhileallies,theFlemings,tothetendermerciesofPhilipIV.TheFrenchdidratherbetterbytheirallies,theScots.BeforedistancingthemselvesfromtheScottishalliancetheywrungahighlysignificantconcessionfromtheEnglish,namelythereleaseofKingJohnfromEnglishintopapalcustody.Anumberofpoliticaldifficultieshoweverrendered

itimpossibleforEdwardtocontemplatecampaigninginScotlandinthesummerof1299.OnewashisimpendingmarriagetoMargaret,thesisterofPhiliptheFair,amajorstateoccasionwhich,giventhepoliticalimportanceofthemarriage,calledfortheutmostdelicacyinplanningandprotocol.AnotherwasthetruculentattitudeoftheEnglishbaronage.Edwardseizedasforfeitallthelands

ofmanyScottishnobleswhohadfoughtagainsthim.ThesehegrantedouttoEnglishmagnates,inordertogivethemastakeintheconquestofScotland:theearlofLincoln,forexample,wasawardedtheofficeandlandsofJamestheSteward;RobertCliffordwasgiventheMaxwellcastleofCaerlaverock;and,later,HenryPercywasgrantedthelandsofIngramBalliol.It

wasthefirstmajorredistributionofforfeitedestates.Thegrantees,however,werelefttogainpossessionandextractrevenuefromScottishestates,andtheking’sapparentgenerositycutlittleicewithhismagnates.TheFalkirkcampaignhadbeenpossiblebecausekingandmagnateshadactedfromsharedoutrageattheWallaceinvasion,butthese

circumstanceswerenottoberepeated.AlreadytheearlsofNorfolkandHerefordhadfallenoutwithEdwardoverhisgrantofArrantoBisset–whichhadbeenmadewithouttheiradvice.Theywerenowdemandingthatthekingabidebyconcessionshehadmade,andwhichhewasnowunwillingtostandby.Anexchangeofprisoners

wasachievedinApril1299,anditisinterestingtonote

thattheScotshadcapturedsomemiddle-rankingEnglishlords:WilliamfitzWarren,MarmadukedeThweng16andWilliamdeRos.ResistanceagainsttheoccupationmainlytooktheformofslowexertionofpressureonEnglishgarrisoncastlesbyencirclement,cuttingoffsuppliesandambush.Butitwasalsoawarofmountedraids,knownaschevauchées,

designedtoimpoverishandterrorisepopulationsadheringtotheenemy,anothertacticsubsequentlydevelopedbyRobertBruce.PatriotnoblesmusteredatPeeblesforaraidfromthecoverofSelkirkForest.Acouncilwasheldthereon19August1299.Thereportofaspywhowitnessedthecouncilprovidesaremarkableinsightintothetensionsprevalentwithinthepatriotcamp:

AtthecouncilSirDavidGrahamdemandedthelandsandgoodsofSirWilliamWallacebecausehewasleavingthekingdom[forParis]withouttheleaveortheapprovaloftheGuardians.AndSirMalcolm,SirWilliam’sbrother,answeredthatneitherhislandsnorhisgoodsshouldbegivenaway,fortheywereprotectedbythepeaceinwhichWallacehadleftthekingdom,sincehewasleavingtoworkforthegoodofthekingdom.Atthis,thetwoknightsgavethelietoeachotheranddrewtheirdaggers.

ThenextsentencerevealsthatBruceandComynfactionswerequiteliterallyateachothers’throats:

AndsinceSirDavidwasofSirJohnComyn’sfollowingandSirMalcolmWallaceoftheearlofCarrick’sfollowing,itwasreportedtotheearlofBuchanandJohnComynthatafighthadbrokenoutwithouttheirknowingit;andJohnComynleapedattheearlofCarrickandseizedhimbythethroat,andtheearlofBuchan

turnedonthebishopofSt.Andrew’s,declaringthattreasonandlese-majesté[anoffenceagainstthedignityofasovereignpower]werebeingplotted.EventuallytheStewardandotherscamebetweenthemandquietenedthem.

ThemeetingendedwithBishopLambertonbeingadmittedasathirdguardianinanefforttomaintainsomesemblanceofunity.Edward’salliesandgarrisonsin

Scotlandpaidthepriceforhisfailuretocampaignin1299.ThatsummerthepatriotcommanderHerbertMorhamwasabletocutlinesofsupplytotheninety-strongEnglishgarrisonatStirling,andtheybegantostarve.BrucecontinuallytriedthroughtheautumntoforcetheEnglishgarrisonoutofLochmaben.Hehadnosuccess.ButinNovemberthelongsiegeofStirlingendedin

thesurrenderoftheEnglishgarrison.FortheScotsthiswasamajorstrategicprizethatpromisedtoenlargesignificantlytheareaundertheswayofthepatriots.Inthewesttoo,Edward’sagentstheMacDonaldssustainedaseriousdefeatastheMacDougallrevoltcontinuedunabated.TheAnnalsofUlsterrecordthatinthatyear‘AlexanderMacDonald,thepersonwhowasthebestfor

hospitalityandexcellencethatwasinIrelandandinScotland,waskilled,togetherwithacountlessnumberofhisownpeople,whowereslaughteredaroundhim,byAlexanderMacDougall.’OnAlexander’sdeath,

leadershipoftheMacDonaldspassedtoAngusÓg,whothenadoptedthetitle‘LordofIslay’,thestyleusedbytheheadofthekindred,andhelaterbecameastaunchallyof

RobertI.Forthepresent,AngusÓgco-operatedwithHughBisset–whohadbecomeEdward’snavalcommanderinthewest–andJohnMacSweenagainsttheMacDougallsontheseasaroundButeandKintyre.HorrifiedatthecollapseofthekeyfortressofStirlingaboveall,Edwardmadearashattempttomountawintercampaign,summoning16,000mentoappearat

BerwickinthemiddleofDecember,butforthishedidnothavethesupportofhisearls.Only2,500menturnedup,andthesestayedonlyafewdaysbeforedeserting.Despitethis,therewasnodoubtthattheEnglishwouldfieldaformidablearmyinthesummerof1300.ByMay1300,however,

RobertBrucehadceasedanyco-operationwithComyn,andatapatriotparliament

heldatRuthergleninthatmonthhenolongerappearsasaguardian.ClearlygreatpersonalanimosityhaddevelopedbetweenhimselfandJohnComynofBadenochIII.Bruce’sdecisiontoleave–orhisremovalfrom–theguardianshipseemstohavebeenrelatedtoEdwardI’sagreementinJuly1299tosurrenderKingJohnBalliolintopapalcustodyinFrance.

OneofthefactorsthatmadethispossiblewasanoathKingJohnhadtakenon1April1298nevertosetfootinScotlandorhaveanythingtodowithScots.BalliolandComynelementsamongtheScotsweredelightedatthereleaseoftheirkingandatoncebeganworkingtowardsarestorationofKingJohntoScotland.This,Brucecouldnotstomach,andheceasedhisinvolvementinthe

patrioticresistance.HisplaceintheguardiantriumviratewastakenbyIngramdeUmfraville,amagnatefirmlyalignedwiththeComyns.Thepurposeofthe

RutherglenparliamenthadbeentoconcertresistancetotheexpectedEnglishinvasionof1300.EdwardhaddecidedthistimetoenterScotlandbytheWesternMarch,presumablytotrytobreaktheholdofthepatriotsonthe

south-west,wherelaytheBruceterritoriesofAnnandaleandCarrick,theBalliollordshipofGalloway,theSteward’slandsandthebishopricofGlasgow.Tenantsoftheselordshadallbeenstronglysupportiveofthepatriotcause.TheEnglisharmywastoproceedalongtheSolwaycoastaccompaniedbyaprovisioningfleet.Themainactionofthecampaignwas

thesiegeofCaerlaverockCastle,latelyrecapturedbytheScotsandathreattotheEnglishgarrisonsatLochmabenandDumfries,andtothesecurityoftheCumberlandlittoral.Thesiege,whichcommencedinJuly,involvedbatteringramsandtrebuchets,andwasanawe-inspiringdemonstrationofthepowerofEdward’ssiegetrain.Astheyadvancedwestwards,theEnglishmet

withresistanceonthebanksoftheRiverCree,wheretherewasabriefengagementbetweentheEnglishandthemainScottishcavalryforce,ledbytheComyns.TheScottishcavalrysoontookflight,astheyhaddoneatFalkirk,butEdwardwasunabletopursuetheScotsfurther.Hestayedinsouth-westScotland,supervisingthegarrisonsandorganisingtheoccupationuntil,in

October,hecouldstaynolonger.HemetScottishenvoysatDumfries,andinarecordedexchangewiththeirenvoysweseethatwhatrankledwithEdward,whataboveallhecouldnottolerate,wastheScots’perceivedbreachoffaithwithhim:‘EveryoneofyouhasdonehomagetomeaschieflordofScotland.NowyousetasideyourallegianceandmakeafoolofmeasthoughI

wereaweakling!’NeverthelesshegrantedtheScotsatruceuntilthefollowingsummer.OfBrucethereisnomention,anditseemshetooknopartinthe1300campaign.InProfessorDuncan’sopinionhewassulking.Excludedfromtheguardianship,hetooknothingtodowiththepatrioticresistance,andtheprospectoffightingforKingJohnwasanathematotheBruces.

TheScottishdiplomaticeffortatthepapalandFrenchcourts,headedbyBishopLamberton,hadbornefurthersuccessinJune1299whenBonifaceVIIIsealedthepapallettertoEdwardIknownas‘ScimusFili’,atextclearlyinspiredbythestrongScottishlobbyatthecuria.Howeveritarrivedonlyintheautumnof1300.Thispapalbroadsidewasanoutrightdenunciationofthe

Edwardianoccupation.Itclaimedthat‘fromancienttimestherealmofScotlandbelongedrightfully,andisknownstilltobelong,totheRomanchurch’.ItremindedEdwardofhisundertakingintheTreatyofBirghamthat‘therealmshouldremainforeverentirelyfreeandsubjectorsubmittedtonobody’.ItaccusedEdwardoftakingadvantage‘atatimewhentherealmofScotlandlackedthe

protectionofaruler’,andconcludesthat‘no-onewhoconsiders[thesethings]candoubtthattherealmofScotlandbelongstotheRomanchurch,andthatitwasnot,andisnotlawfulforyoutodominateitbyforceandtosubjugateittoyourrule.’NowonderthatEdwardcouldnotbeartolistentothisasitwasreadtohimbyanarchbishop,butexplodedwithwrath.‘ByGod’sblood!

ForZion’ssakeIwillnotbesilentandforJerusalem’ssakeIwillnotbeatrest,butwithallmystrengthIwilldefendmyrightthatisknowntoalltheworld!’BonifaceurgedEdwardtopresenthiscasetoruleScotlandbeforethepapalcourt.TheScotshadeffectivelycapturedtheweaponofpapalfavour.SincethepapalletteradvancednoargumentsspecificallyinfavourofKing

John’srights,theBrucefactionmayhavehadtheupperhandinlobbyingatthepapalcourt.Tworesponseswere

preparedbytheEnglish.OnewasaletterfromEdwardI,dispatchedinMay1301,rehearsingthehistoricalevidencessupportingtheEnglishclaim,accusingtheScotsofterribleatrocitiesandexplainingthatEdwardcouldnotacceptpapalmediationin

thismatter.Anotherwasaletter,ostensiblyfromthebaronsofEngland–thoughnodoubtwrittenbyroyalclerks–protestingtheirking’sclaimsinequallystrongterms.InRomemeanwhiletheScottishdelegation,ablyledbyMasterBaldredBisset,arguedpowerfullythattheAnglo-Scottishdisputeshouldbesubmittedtothepapalcourt.Anyhomage

donebyScottishkingswasonlyforlandstheyheldinEngland.Inamuch-admiredprocessus,carefullydesignedtoappealtopapalinterests,Bissetadvancedfiveproofs–frompapalprivilege,commonlaw,prescription,pasthistoryanddocumentaryevidence–todemonstratethatScotlandowedEdwardInoallegiance.However,thefocusofthe

Scottishdiplomaticeffortwas

switchingtoFrance,whitherKingJohnhadnowbeentransferred,outofpapalcustodyandintothatoftheFrenchking.PhiliptheFairsawinBalliolaveryusefulpawninhisattemptstoundermineEdwardI.TheprospectofaBalliolrestorationwasgrowing,andfromexileKingJohnwasnowfreetoinfluenceeventsinScotland.Bythecampaigningseasonof1301

therehadbeenfurtherchangesintheguardianship.BishopLambertonandhiscolleaguesComynandUmfravilleresignedandwerereplacedbySirJohnSoulesactingassoleguardian;onechroniclerreportsthatSouleshadbeenelevatedtotheguardianshiponthepromptingofKingJohn.Changesinthewordingandsealsofdocumentsemanatingfromthepatriotgovernment

alsosuggestamoreprominentrolefortheexiledking:wherepreviouslythenamesoftheguardianshadappearedattheheadofsuchdeeds,theywerenowreplacedbythenameofKingJohn,withSoules,theguardian,appearingonlyasawitness.TheEnglishinvasionof

1301materialisedasatwo-prongedattack,muchmorecomplexandformidablethan

thatofthepreviousyear.EdwardhimselfledanarmyfromBerwickuptheRiverTweedtoSelkirkandPeebles,andthenintothevalleyoftheClydetobesiegeBothwellCastleinAugust;hissonEdwardofCaernarvon,PrinceofWales,ledaforcealongtheSolwaycoastallthewaytoLochRyan.WiththehelpofaforcefromIreland,theprince’svanguardwasableto

captureTurnberryinSeptember.AsearlofCarrick,RobertBruceVIIcouldnotaffordtostandalooffromresistancetothisinvasion,forTurnberrywastheprincipalcastleofhisearldom.PresumablyitwasBruce’sgarrisonthatheldoutagainsttheprinceofWalesuntilSeptember1301,anditwasthemilitiaofhisearldomthatmenacedtheEnglishgarrisonthereafter.YetBruce

wasinvolvedinresistanceonlyinsofarasinvasionthreatenedhisownlands,andheleftittotheComynearlofBuchantoleadthepatrioteffortsagainstkingandprince,andtoSoulesandUmfravilletoattacktheEnglishoccupyingLochmabenon7and8September.Increasinglydistancing

himselffromthepatriots,Brucedecidedearlyin1302

toreturntoallegiancetoEdwardI.TheprospectofaBalliolrestorationpresidedoverbytheComynswassomethinghecouldnottoleratesinceitwouldremovecompletelyallpossibilitythathewouldsucceedtothethrone.Moreover,inthepeaceconcludedbetweentheEnglishandFrenchatAsnièresinJanuary,provisionwasmadeforlands

ofScotswhohadnotsubmittedtobehandedovertoFrenchadministrators.SuchanarrangementwoulddepriveRobertoftherevenuesofhisearldomforanindefiniteperiod,andquitepossiblyplacehimatthemercyoftheComynswhocouldexpecttoreceivefavourabletreatmentfromtheFrench.However,probablythe

mainreasonwhyRobert

changedsidesatthispointwasthathehadmanagedtonegotiategeneroustermsfromEdward.Thetextoftheagreementhassurvived.Robertandhismenwereguaranteedlifeandlimb,landsandtenementsandfreedomfromimprisonment.EdwardwouldcompensatehimshouldthetermsofatreatyorapapalordinanceaffectthetenureoftheBruceestates,sothatRobertwould

notsufferfromFrenchadministrationofhisestates.RobertwasgrantedthewardshipandmarriageofasonoftheearlofMar.Thechild,DonaldofMar,wasRobert’snephew.MentionismadeofRobert’s‘claim’inafurtherclause.Thismightjustrefertohisclaimtolandsortitles,butitseemstohaveawidermeaning,anditcouldencompasshisclaimtothethroneofScotland.Therewas

ofcoursenoquestionofEdwardpermittinganindependentmonarchyofScotland;thekingshipofScotlandenvisagedatthistimecanonlyhavebeenasavassalorsub-kingtoEdwardI.Ifweinterpretthisdocumentcorrectly,itseemsthatEdwardnotonlyallowedRoberttopersistinhisclaimtothethrone,butintimatedthatundercertainconditionshemightevenfacilitateit:

Because[either‘theking’or‘Robert’]fearsthatthekingdomofScotlandmayberemovedfromoutoftheking’shands(whichGodforbid),andhandedovertoSirJohnBalliolortohisson,orthatclaimmaybebroughtintodisrepute,orreversedandcontradictedinafreshjudgement,thekinggrantstoRobertthathemaypursuehisclaimandthatthekingwillhearhimfairlyandholdhimtojusticeintheking’scourt.Ifbyanychanceitshouldhappenthattheclaimmustbeadjudicatedelsewherethanintheking’scourt

[forexample,inthepapalcourt],theninthiscasethekingpromisesRobertassistanceandcounselasbefore,aswellasheisabletogiveit.

WhyshouldEdwardhavegivenRobertBruceachancetoairhisclaimtotheScottishthrone?ItseemsthatevenEdwardI,whosearmiesweremarchingintoScotlandvirtuallyonanannualbasis,wasnowpreparedtoconcede

thepossibilityofaBalliolrestoration.ItmightsuithisdiplomacytowardsFranceandthepapacytotolerateit.Theabovepassageseemsalsotoadmitofthepossibilityofare-runoftheGreatCauseinthepapalcourt.EdwardmayhavepermittedRoberttopersistinhisclaimtotheScottishthronesince,intheeventofaBalliolrestoration,hecoulduseRoberttodestabilisethe

Scottishmonarchy.17EdwardwouldworkhardtoensurethattherewouldbenoBalliolrestorationinScotland,but,ifitcametoit,hehadinRobertBruceawillingandpliantrivalforthesub-kingship.Roberthadgainedsecurity

forhislandsandtitles,without,apparently,compromisinghisclaimtothethrone.Hisfatherwasprobablydelightedathis

changeofsides.Itbroughtadditionalbenefitstothefamily:EdwardBruceappearsintheserviceofthePrinceofWalesinApril1304,andAlexanderBruce,theclergyman,receivedthelivingofKirkinnernearWigtownforhismaintenance.RobertwasabletotravelintoEnglandtoattendparliament,ashedidinOctober1302,probablyfollowinganinstructionto

makeapublicgestureofobedienceandloyalty.OnthisjourneyhemaywellhavevisitedhisfatherorfamilypropertiesinEngland.WeknowhestayedinEnglandoverthewinterandvisitedCambridgeinthespringof1303togiveafeastthere,aswastraditional,ontheoccasionofAlexanderBruce’sbecomingMasterofArts.AnotherbenefitthatcameRobert’swayasaresult

ofhisreturntoEdward’sallegiancewasasecondmarriage.ThefateofRobert’sfirstwife,IsabelofMar,isuncertain;mostprobablyshehaddied.ThissecondmarriagewastoElisabethdeBurgh,daughterofRicharddeBurgh,EarlofUlster.Itwasamostdesirablematch,andEdwardmighthavedangledthepossibilityofitbeforeRoberttopersuadehimtodefect.

The‘RedEarl’wasthemostpowerfulmagnateinIreland,andatraditionalallyoftheBruces,astheTurnberryBandof1286testifies.TheRedEarl’ssisterEgidia–alsoknownasGelis–hadmarriedJamestheSteward,soBruce’smarriagestrengthenedthelong-standingallianceofthesethreefamilies.AltogetherwehavenoreasontobelievethatRobert’schangeofsideswas

ananguisheddecision,orthatdefectioncosthimanythingintermsofesteemamonghispeersinScotland.Nooneatthetimelevelledthechargeoftreacheryathimsofarasweknow.ContemporariesprobablyacknowledgedthatRobertwasmerelypursuingfamilyinterestandhisclaimtothethroneofScotlandbyothermeans,andactinginapredictableandunderstandableway.

ProfessorBarrowdrawsattentiontoaninterestingletterwrittenbyBruceinMarch1302,justafterhehadchangedsides.ItisapromisetotheAbbeyofMelrosethat,thoughinthepasthehadoftendraftedtheabbey’stenantsofMayboleintothearmyoftheearldomofCarrick,consciencenowtroubledhimandhenceforthhewouldnevercompelthetenantstomilitaryservice

unlesstherewasasummonsofthecommonarmyoftherealm.WhileBruce’spietyandhisparticulardevotiontoMelroseAbbeyisunquestioned,thetimingofthepromisesuggeststhattheearlofCarrickwasnotoverlyconcernedtoprovidetroopsforhisnewmaster.ThetrucebetweenEdward

Iandthepatriotsensuredthattherewasnocampaignin1302,yetadramaticturnof

eventsinScotlandwaseffectedbyabattleinfarawayFlanders.AtCourtraion11JulythehaughtyaristocratsoftheFrenchheavycavalrysufferedacomprehensivehumiliationatthehandsoftheFlemishfoot-soldiers,weaversandtownsfolkwhoopposedPhiliptheFair’seffortstocontrolthem.Itwasalandmarkbattle:thefirstsignificantoccasioninthe

MiddleAgeswheninfantrydefeatedcavalry.InthelongtermofcoursethisdevelopmentbodedwellfortheScots,andinthatsenseCourtraiprefiguredthevictoryoftheScottishfootatBannockburn.Butin1302itspeltdisasterfortheScottishcause.InthewordsofBarrow,it‘didmoretomakeScotlandanEnglishprovincethananyothersingleeventoftheseyears’.Fortheresultof

theFrenchking’sdefeatwasthathewasforcedtoabandonallsupportfortheScottishpatriotsandforrestorationoftheBalliolmonarchy.Intheautumnof1302theguardian,JohndeSoules,ledadelegationofScottisharistocratstoParistotrytopersuadetheFrenchkingtocontinuehissupport,butitwastonoavail.WhileSoulesinFrance

struggledtowardoffdisaster,

JohnComynofBadenochtookovertheroleofactingguardianathomeandenjoyedconsiderablesuccess.TogetherwithSimonFraser,Comynscoredaremarkablevictoryon24February1303,sallyingoutfromtheshelterofSelkirkForesttoambushEdward’slieutenantinScotland,SirJohnSegrave,andtheclerkoftheroyalwardrobe,RalphManton,atRoslinnearEdinburgh.

Manton,acentralfigureinthebureaucracyofoccupiedScotland,waskilled,andmanyknights,includingSegrave,weretakenprisoner.ThePeelofSelkirk,designedtoprojecttheEnglishoccupationintotheverydepthsoftheforest,wascapturedbytheScots.Thoughitrepresenteda

considerableachievement,thisvictorywassetincontextbytheinevitablesummer

invasion.TheEdwardianinvasionof1303waslarger,morepenetratingand,consequentlyfortheScots,moredemoralisingthananythathadgonebefore,andtherewasnomistakingtheEnglishking’ssenseofpurpose.On20May1303EdwardconcludedafurtherpeacewithPhilipofFrance,and,thussecuredonhissouthernflank,heconcentratedhisundivided

ferocityupontheScots.AlltheresourcesofEnglandandhersatelliteterritoriesweremarshalledasneverbeforeanddevotedtocrushingScottishresistance.InJulyalargeIrishcontingentledbytheearlofUlsterlandedinthewesttoreducethecastlesofButeandInverkip.RobertBruce,EarlofCarrick,wasalsoactiveinEdward’sservice.Hewasorderedtocallup1,000footfromhis

sheriffdomofAyr,and,inco-operationwithtwoGallowaychiefs,GibbonMacCannandDungalMacDowall,afurther1,000fromCarrickandGalloway.BrucehimselfseemstohaveremainedontheWesternMarchwithJohnBotetourtduringthecampaign.Threeprefabricatedpontoonbridges,designedtoprojecttheEnglisharmyacrosstheFirthofForth,werefloated

uptheNorthSeacoast.SirWilliamOliphant,commandingtheScottishgarrisonatStirling,heldgrimlyonwhilethegreathostpassedby,butinAugusttheEnglishattackedandovercametheScottishgarrisonatBrechin.Edwardcontinuedhismarchalongtheeastcoast,throughAberdeen,toBanffandasfarasKinlossAbbey.TherehehaltedinmidSeptember,andduring

Octoberhereturnedbyamoreinlandroute,bywayofKildrummy,BrechinandScone.EarlyinNovemberEdwardsettledintowinterquartersinDunfermlineAbbey,wherehewasjoinedbyhisqueen.DuringFebruary1304

EdwarddispatchedanexpeditiondeepintoSelkirkForesttolocateFraserandWallace.InthisBrucewasorderedtoparticipate,andhe

joinedJohnSegrave,RobertCliffordandWilliamLatimer.Theyroutedthepatriots,butbothFraserandWallaceescaped.NocluesurvivesastohowBrucemighthavefeltatparticipatinginthisaction.TopursuetheformerleaderofScottishresistance,hiscomrade-in-arms,perhapshisformercommander,musthavebeendeeplyuncomfortableforhim–tosaytheleast.Storiesthat

BrucecapturedWallacebutreleasedhimunbeknowntoCliffordmustbedismissedasalaterfabricationbyRobert’shagiographers.Ithadbeenfouryearssince,duringtherowinthepatriotcampinPeebles,theWallaceshadlastshownthemselvessupportersoftheBrucefaction,andthisepisodeillustrateshowtheEdwardianconquestofScotlandhadchangedthefaceofpoliticsbeyondall

recognition.Wallacewasnowan

isolatedfigure.MostotherScottishcommanders,includingtheguardian,JohnComyn,decidedthatresistancecouldnolongerbemaintained.ThatsameFebruarythegreatmajorityofScottishpatriotssuedforpeace.ThiswaspartlyanacknowledgementthattheyhadbeenoverwhelmedbythemilitarymightofEngland,

partlyexasperationatthefailureofKingJohntothrowinhislotwithhisbeleaguredsubjects.ThepatriotsnolongerenjoyedthesupportoftheKingofFranceorofthepope,andnowtheyresignedthemselvestoageneralsurrenderwhiletherewasstillalittleroomfornegotiationwithEdwardI.ComynsoughtthatEdwardwouldruleScotlandaccordingtothelawsandcustomsinthetime

ofAlexanderIII;thatanydeparturefromthemshouldbesanctionedbytheassentofthegoodpeopleofScotland;thatnothingshouldbeenactedtotheprejudiceoftheScots;andthatnohostagesbetaken.Edward,ontheotherhand,wasunwillingtoacceptalltheScottishleadersintohispeaceuntilWallacehadbeencaptured.Aseriesofcompromiseagreementswerereached,wherebycertainof

thepatriotleadersweretobeexiledforvaryingperiodsoftime,dependingupontheextentoftheirinvolvementwiththeresistance.ScottishnobleswhoseestateshadbeengrantedtoEnglishmenweretobegiventheopportunitytobuythemback.Edwardcouldhaveinsisteduponmuchtougherterms.SimonFraseralsosurrendered,thoughitisclearthatEdwarddetestedhim.As

itwas,hewassavingthefullnessofhisvengeancefortheScottishgarrisonofStirling,andforWilliamWallace.Inthespringof1304,

Edwardbesiegedor‘invested’StirlingCastleandunleasheduponitalltherefinementsofmedievalsiegetechnology,includingprimitiveexplosives.Enginesofwar–batteringramsandcatapuls–werecollected

fromBrechin,AberdeenandBerwick.RobertBrucecontributedsiegemachinesofhisown.Leadwasstrippedfromtheroofsofnearbychurchestoprovidecounterweighsforcatapults,andcottonthread,sulphurandsaltpetre–theingredientsofGreekfire–wereassembled,presumablytomakebombs.ThesiegeofStirlingwasashowcaseforcontemporarywarfare;infact

Edwardensuredthatthewholeprospect–ingeniouscontraptionsatwork,fires,explosions,heraldicbannersandshields,featsofarms–couldbeviewedatasafedistancebytheladiesoftheEnglishcourtfromaspeciallyconstructedorielwindow.Withinthecastle,theheroicgarrison,ledbySirWilliamOliphant,shelteredfromtheexplosionsincavesdeepwithinthebedrock,but

emergedtoraincrossbowboltsandstonesontheattackers.Oliphantmayhavefeltdesertedbyhisking,whohadnotarrivedtoleadtheresistance;heclaimedtoholdthecastle,notoftheguardian,SirJohnSoules,noryetofKingJohn,but,inreferencetotheScottishroyalstandard,‘oftheLion’.ThusOliphantconsideredthatheheldthecastleintrustforthemonarchyorkingdomof

Scotland.Gazingacrossattheenemyranks,however,thedefendersdiscernedtheheraldicdevicesoftheirerstwhilecomradesJohnComyn,AlexanderLindsay,DavidGrahamandSimonFraserandbecameawarethatthesehithertostaunchpatriotshadalreadymadetermswithEdward.On20JulyOliphantdecidedhecouldholdoutnolongerandofferedsurrender.Edwardshowedno

magnanimitywhatsoeverandrefusedtogivethedefenderspeaceuntilhehadtriedouthisnewandterriblesiegeengine,theWarwolf.Atlast,on24July,heallowedthemtosurrender,andOliphant’sbravemenemerged,barefootandfacesbesmirchedwithashes,symbolisingabjectcontrition,tothrowthemselvesonhismercy.Thekingmadeitplainthattheywereluckytobegrantedlife

andlimb,andhehangedthemanresponsibleforbetrayingthecastletotheScotsfouryearsearlier.Victorious,Edward

returnedtoEnglandthatsummerwithScotlandallbutsubdued.OnlyWilliamWallaceremainedatlarge.OnthedayafterthesiegeofStirlinghadended,EdwardhaddispatchedComyn,Lindsay,GrahamandFrasertocaptureWallaceby13

January1305,iftheywantedeasiersurrenderterms.InAugust1305thegreatestpatriotoftheagewascapturedashelaywithhismistress–accordingtoPeterLangtoft’schronicle–byJohnofMenteith’smen.WallacewastakentoLondonwhereashowtrialrehearsedtheaccusationsagainsthim:hehadsparednonewhousedtheEnglishtongue,hehadslaughteredchildren,widows

andnuns,andhehadrebelledagainsthisfeudallord.NoaccountwastakenofthefactsthatWallacehadneverswornfealtytoEdward,anddidnotacknowledgeEdwardashislord.Noopportunitywasgivenforhimtoanswerthecharges.Bythestandardsoftheagethiswasalltobeexpected:Wallacewasnotofhighbirthandhehadwagedwarwithoutparticularregardtochivalry.AsEdward’s

biographerpointsout,‘therewasnoreasonwhyEdwardshouldhavetreatedhimwithcompassionorrespect’.Butthebarbarismoftheexecutionisinexcusablebyanystandards.WallacewasdraggedbyhorsesforfourmilesfromWestminstertoSmithfield,hanged,cutdownwhilestillalive,disembowelledandbeheaded.HisheadwasplacedonLondonBridge,andthebody

quartered,withpartsdispatchedtoNewcastle,Berwick,StirlingandPerth.WallacehadbeenunlovedbytheComynfaction,andthoughhailingfromwithintheBrucecampwemustassumethatRobertBrucehadmadeeveryefforttohunthimdownin1304.Evenso,Edward’streatmentofaformerguardianmayhavegeneratedconsiderableoutrage.Itislikelythatthe

Brucecoupof1306owessomethingofitspopularsupporttoWallace’sbrutalexecution.InSeptember1305Edward

addressedtheproblemofthefuturegovernmentofEngland’slatestsatelliteterritory.TenScotsmetwithtwentyoftheking’scounsellorstodrafttheOrdinancefortheGovernmentofScotland.Inthetext,Scotlandisreferred

tonotasarealmorkingdom,butmerelyasa‘land’;itsstatusisthusrelegatedtothatofIreland.Aroyallieutenant–JohnofBrittany–wasappointedtoserveasguardian,withacounciloftwenty-twoScottisharistocrats.Otherofficesincludedachancellor,achamberlain,andfourpairsofjustices,eachpairconsistingofanEnglishmanandaScotsman.Thesheriffsand

castellansappointedweremostlyScots,butthemoreimportantcastlesandthesheriffdomsofthesouth-eastweregiventoEnglishmen.Thecounciloftwenty-twowastoembarkuponacomprehensivereviewofScottishlaw.Inthisdocumentnoneoftheattentiontodetailmanifestinhissettlementsofotherlandsisshown,andonegainstheimpressionthat,attheageof

sixty-four,EdwardIwasenormouslyrelievedtohavefinallysettledtheScottishquestion.Bruce,whohadrecentlyentertainedhopesofbeingvassalking,wastohavebutaminorroleinthesettlement.Hewasamongthosenominatedtositontheguardian’scouncil,and,asheheldtheyoungheirtotheearldomofMarinwardship,hewastoinstallaconstableinKildrummyCastle,the

principalseatofthatearldom.In1305EdwardIappeared

tohavecompletedhisexhaustingundertakingofreducingScotlandtoobedience.IndeedhehadhammeredtheScotsintosubmission,butitisalsotruethathehadbeenobligedtoreachaccommodationwiththepowerfularistocraticComynfaction,and,havingfinallysecuredtheirco-operation,hecouldnow

governthroughtheirresourcesoflordship,patronageandcastles.Edwardcouldhavedonesomuchearlier,hadhebeeninapositiontodevotetoScotlandhisundividedattention.Thecosts,evenintermsofhardcash,werestaggering.Hisbiographerestimatesthatthecampaignof1300cost£40,000–50,000,andthatof1303–04mayhavecost£80,000.ForEdward’searlier

conquestofWalestherehadbeenahigherproportionofhisincomeavailable;hehadconqueredScotlandatatimewhenthereweremanyothercallsonhisresources.True,thereweredistanthighlandsandislandswhereEdward’swritdidnotyetrun,but,ashehadcontrolofallthecentresofauthorityhecouldbeconfidentthathispeacehadbeenwidelyimposed.Trueagain,hewasunloved,hadno

purchaseontheheartsandmindsoftheScotsandmusthavebeenresentedbyvirtuallyall,yethewasnowinapositiontodivideandrule,toadministervastresourcesofpatronageandcoercion.Aswasthecaseforanymedievalmonarch,hehadlittleneedofconsentfromthepopulationatlargesolongasmagnatescouldbereliedupontoco-operate,howeverbegrudgingly.Given

acompetentheirtocementhisachievements,continuedco-operationfromScottishmagnatesandtheabsenceofanyalternativetohisrule,Edward’sconquestmighthavelastedindefinitely.In1305Scotland’sfatehadbeensealed;theEdwardiansuper-kingdomhadarrived.

4‘Playingatkingsandqueens’

(1306)

Murder,revolutionand

enthronement

Thereconstructionoftheeventsof10February1306withwhichthisbookopensisbaseduponthenarrativeofthechroniclerWalterofGuisboroughwho,thoughhostiletoBruce,isthebestnear-contemporarysourcefortheseevents.JohnComynhadriddenfromDalswinton,accompaniedbyhisuncleSirRobertComyn.Brucewas

accompaniedbyChristopherSeton;theotherswithhimwerepossiblySeton’stwobrothers.Theprincipalsgreetedoneanotherwithakiss–though,theGuisboroughchroniclepointsout,itwasnotthe‘kissofpeace’.Betweenthetwomenadealoragreementformutualassistancemayalreadyhaveexisted,andinalllikelihoodBrucewillhavecanvassedComyn’ssupport

foranattemptonthethrone.TothisComynwouldnotconsent.WalterofGuisboroughdescribeswhathappened:

Theywerespeakingtogetherwithwordswhichseemedpeaceful;suddenly,inareversal,andwithdifferentwords,[Bruce]begantoaccusehimofbetrayal,inthathehadaccusedhimtothekingofEngland,andhadworsenedhispositiontohisharm.When[Comyn]spokepeaceablyand

excusedhimself,[Bruce]didnotwishtohearhisspeech,butashehadconspired,hestruckhimwithfootandswordandwentawayout.But[Bruce’s]menfollowed[Comyn]andcasthimdownonthepavingbeforethealtar,leavinghimfordead…RobertComynhisunclerantobringhimhelp,butChristopherSeton,whohadmarriedRobert’ssistermethim,struckhisheadwithaswordandhedied…Comynstilllived,forthefriarshadcarriedhimdowntothealtarvestrytotreathimandforhimtoconfesshissins.Whenhe

confessedandwasrepentant,bythetyrant’s[thatis,Bruce’s]orderhewasdraggedoutofthevestryandkilledonthestepsofthehighaltar.

Discussionhadturnedtoargumentandargumenttoaccusation,insultandjealousrage.Itisimpossibletobelievethatmurderwasintendedinasacrosanctchurchofallplaces;Brucewouldnothavehandedsucha

weapontohisenemies.ButJohnComynhadnotdiedoutrightbeforeBruceleftthechurch.Brucesubsequentlyorderedhimtobedraggedoutofthevestryandfinishedoffbythealtar.LaterwritersrelatethatRogerKirkpatrickofCloseburnandJamesLindsayfinishedoffthedyingComynonBruce’sbehalf,butitisunlikelythathehadanyevidenceforthis.Brucehadsurelyintendedto

assumeleadershipofaunitedScotland,nottoplungethecountryintoyearsofbittercivilwar.HehadblunderedacrosshisRubicon,andhewillhaverealisedimmediatelythatthediewascast.Perhapsheproclaimedhisintentiontoseizethethronethereandthen;atanyratehismenhurriedofftoseizeDumfriesCastle.Robert’scoupd’étathadnotgotofftothesmoothestof

starts.RobertBruce’sactions

ensuredthatEdwardIdiedangry,bitterlydisappointedthatacovetedprize,theconquestofScotland,hadslippedexasperatinglyfromhisgrasp.ByanystandardsthedarkdeedofthatFebruaryeveningwasadefiningepisodeinScottishhistory,andinthehistoryoftheseislands.RobertBruceVIhadtakennoactionthatweknow

ofsince1296topromotethefamily’sclaimtothethrone,and,ifhetookanyinterestinScottishaffairs,itwasonlytoappearonthefieldatFalkirktoassistinthedefeatofthepatriotcause.Hadhisson,RobertBruceVII,livedatrouble-freelifeintheserviceofEdwardI,ScottishidentityandtheveryconceptofScotlandmighttodayhavebeentotallydifferent:aquaintmedievalsurvival,a

distanthalf-forgottenmemory,orpossiblylostaltogether.Therehasbeenendless

speculationastowhatdroveRobertBruceVIItotakesuchdrasticaction.Firstly,wemightsay,threepreconditionshadbeenmet:threefactorsthatmadeitpossibleforhimtoattemptarealisationofhisfamily’sclaimtothethrone.Thefirstofthesewasthesudden

impossibilityofaBalliolrestoration,causedbydefeatonthefieldofCourtraiofPhiliptheFair’spower,uponwhichthewholeideahaddepended.ThislefttheBruceclaimtotheScottishthronethesoleremainingplausibleoptionforarevivalofthemonarchy.ThesecondwasthedeathofRobertBruceVIon21April1304.OnthecollapseofScottishresistancetoEdwardIearlyin1304,

RobertBruceVIhaddiedwhilereturningtoAnnandale,andhewasburiedatHolmCultramAbbeyinCumberland.ThismeantthatRobertBruceVIIacquiredaconsiderableincreaseinprestigeandresourcesashebecamelordofAnnandale,headofthefamilyandclaimanttothethroneofScotland.AccordinglyhedidhomagetoEdwardIandcameintohisinheritanceon

14June.ThethirdfactorpermittingofaBrucebidforthethronewastheloomingprospectofEdwardI’sdeath.Atsixty-fiveEdwardwasveryoldbymedievalstandards,andeverycourtierfawninguponthedomineeringoldmananticipatedthataPandora’sBoxofpossibilitieswouldspringopenonhisdemise.Cultivatingtheheirtothethrone,covertalliancesand

plottingaretheorderofthedaywhenaking’sdeathisnotfaroff.In1305,onhiscapture,thepatriotleaderWallacewasfoundtobecarryingdocumentsimplicatingcertainoftheScottishmagnatesinaconspiracy;tantalisingly,weknownothingoftheircontents.WemaybecertainhoweverthatRobertBrucehadneverabandonedhisdesignsonthethrone,and

waspreparingforEdward’sdeathasthemomentwhenhewouldact.SuchwerethepreconditionsforanyattempttorealisetheBruceclaim,butonefurtheroccurrencealsofacilitatedorevenencouragedit.Thiswastheappointmenton26October1305ofBishopWilliamLambertonasoneoffourguardianstoholdofficeuntilJohnofBrittany,nominatedaslordlieutenantintheordinanceof1305,

couldtakeuphisduties.Thebishophadalonghistoryofsupportingthepatriotcausewhenpoliticalcircumstanceshadallowed,andtheappointmentratesasasignificantmiscalculationonthepartofEdward.Indeed,itwasalmostashugeanerrorasEdward’sunderestimationofRobertBrucehimself.Thequestionhowever

remainsofwhatimpelledRoberttoriskeverything–

estates,familyhonour,lifeandlimb–byleavingEdwardI’sfealty.Washepulledbypatriotismtoactagainsthisowninterests,orpushedbydecliningfortunes?ThereareconflictingassessmentsofBruce’spositionatthisjuncture.ProfessorBarrow,theleadingauthority,takestheviewthatRobert,asearlofCarrickandlordofAnnandale,marriedtoadaughterofthemost

powerfulmagnateinIreland,holdingAyrandKildrummycastles,andwiththreeroyalforestsinhiskeeping,hadeverythingtolose.‘Potentially,hehadneverbeenricherormorefavoured.’Heimpliesthenthatpatriotismmotivatedhimtoactcontrarytohisownimmediateinterests.ProfessorPrestwichhoweverstressesthatRoberthadgroundsfordiscontentwithroyalservice

whichdrovehimtoactashedid.LikeallEdwardI’smagnates,Brucefacedgreatdifficultyinrecoveringexpenses.HewasowedmoneyonaccountofexpenditureincurredassheriffofAyrshireandLanarkshire,andtherewastroubleovercertainrightsheclaimedinAnnandale.Prestwich’sjudgementisthatBruce’sexpectationsofroyalservicehadnotbeenrealised,

andthat‘withmorecarefulhandlingbyEdward,itisverylikelythatBrucewouldhaveremainedavaluableallyoftheEnglish’.Probably,likehisfather,Brucestillharbouredfondexpectationofeventuallybeingaskedtotakeontheroleofvassal-kingofScotland,andwasdisappointedatEdward’scontinuedrefusaltoemployhiminthiscapacity.Otherfactorsless

quantifiableandmoredifficulttoassess,werealsomakingforaviolentreactionagainstthesullenPaxEdwardiana.SurelyoutrageseethedamongtheScottishnobilityatEdward’stramplingoneveryScottishsensibility,attheforeignoccupation,disinheritances,thelootingofpreciousrelics,arbitraryseizuresandexactionsofoathsandhostages.Thisoutragefed

upontheprovocativeexecutionofWilliamWallace,whomEdwardIhadhumiliated,torturedandkilled.WallacewasaformerguardianoftherealmandamilitaryleaderwhohadprobablycommandedconsiderablepopularrespectinScotland.ThisoutrageBrucemusthavesharedandprobablyhopedtoharnesstohisownends.Furthermore,astheoldkingnearedhisend

theclimateofexpectationmusthavebeenbrewing,asenseofimminentcatastrophedimlyreflectedintherumoursandforebodingsinspiredbythepropheciesofMerlinandThomasofErceldouneobscurelyreferredtoinBarbour’sTheBruceandinaletterof15May1307discussedinthefollowingchapter.Disappointed–perhaps

bitterlyso–withtherewards

ofroyalservice,Brucealsosufferedaperceptibledownturninfortunesandfavouratcourt.InMarch1305hewasprominentattheWestminsterparliament.HesoughtandreceivedthelandsofSirIngramdeUmfravilleinCarrick;hewasconsultedastohowScotlandshouldberepresentedatthesubsequentparliament;andthefollowingAprilhewasamongthosechargedwithsupervising

electionofthoserepresentatives,andwiththedefenceofScotland.YetwhenthatsubsequentparliamentmetinSeptember1305Brucewasnotpresent;18hewasrelegatedbytheordinancetoaminorroleinthegovernmentofScotland;andthelandsinCarrickwererestoredtoUmfraville.FurthermoreEdwardattemptedtocollect

fromBrucedebtsallegedlyowedbyhisfather.ItmaybethatbyFebruary

1306Brucefearedasuddenandcatastrophicfallfromgrace,andwasdriventodesperatemeasurestoescapeawfulconsequences.Hadhebeenplanningarevoltaswesuspect,hemayhavedreadedrevelationofhispreparations.Pactswithothermagnatesmayhavebeenpreparationsforrevolt,orcapableof

interpretationassuch.Onesuchpacthemadeon11June1304withWilliamLamberton,BishopofStAndrews,whilewatchingtheshowpiecereductionofStirlingCastle,thelastpatrioticstrongholdinScotland.Eachpromisedtoaidtheotherintheeventoffutureperils,‘tobeofoneanother’scounselinalltheirbusinessandaffairsatalltimesandagainstwhichever

individuals’.Itisaninnocentenoughagreementandnotremarkableofitself,exceptthatitlacksthenormalclause‘exemptingfealtytoourlordtheking’.ThisleavesopenthepossibilitythattheseconfederatesmayhavebeenpreparedtoassistoneanotherinactivitieswhichEdwardwouldconsidertreasonable.LambertonmaynothavebeentheonlymagnatewithwhomBruceallied.Itseems

likelythatsomesimilararrangementhadbeenenteredintowithJohnComynofBadenochIII,headoftheseniorlineofthefamily,thevictorofRoslinandthemanBrucewastokillatDumfries.ComynwasalsoatthesiegeofStirling.Versionsofsuchadealbetweenthetwomenarerecordedinbothpro-andanti-Brucechronicletraditions,relatingeitherthatComynrevealedRobert’s

intentionstoEdward,orthatBrucewasincensedbyareportthatComynhaddoneso.TheBarbournarrativepoemTheBruce,whichcommenceswiththisepisode,includesthelatterversion.Eitherway,almosteveryearlysourceallegesthatBrucewasplottingacoupd’étattowhichComynwouldnotassent.Finally,judgingbyhisswiftandenthusiasticreactiontothedramatic

eventsofspring1306,itismostlikelythatBishopWishartofGlasgowwasalsopartytowhateverplotBrucemayhavebeenhatching.Itisworthwhilepausingto

considerthefigureofJohnComynIIIofBadenoch,knowntohistoryas‘theRedComyn’,thoughthatnameproperlypertainstoeachsuccessiveheadofthatbranchoftheComynfamily.Hebelongedtothe

aristocraticfactionthathadbeenintheascendantinScotlandforthethirtyyearspriorto1296.DuringthattimetheComynshadusedroyalpowerandofficetoextendandestablishtheirinfluence,developextensivelandedinterestsandanunrivallednetworkofpatronage,especiallyinthenorthofScotland.Comynhadbeensoleguardianfromtheautumnof1302tothe

‘generalsubmission’ofFebruary1304.HiswifewasJoandeValence,sisterofAymerdeValence,arisingstaratthecourtofEdwardIandamagnatealready,withconsiderablemilitaryexperienceinScotland,soontobecomeearlofPembroke.Asalreadymentioned,ComynwasalsothevictorofRoslin,apatrioticvictoryofsuchmomentthattheScottishambassadorsinPariswroteto

him,‘ItwouldgladdenyourheartsifyouknewhowmuchyourhonourhasincreasedineverypartoftheworldasaresultofyourrecentbattlewiththeEnglish.’Comynthushadconsiderablemilitaryprestigeaswellasallthekudosthatlineage,extensivelandsandpatronagecouldbestow.EquallywithRobertBruce,JohnComynwasleadershipmaterial;hisonlydisadvantageinthatrespect

wasthathehadnoclaimonthethrone.AnymovementComynledwouldhavehadtobeinthenameofKingJohn.Whentheheadsofboth

familiesmetintheGreyfriarsChurchatDumfrieson10February1306therewillhavebeenconsiderabletension.BrucemaywellhaveseenComynasarivalforpower,thoughunlikehimselfComynhadnopretensionstothethroneofScotland.Aswe

haveseentherehadalwaysbeendeepsuspicionandanimositybetweentheBruceandComynfactions,andthesesamemenhadactuallycometoblowsatthecouncilmeetinginPeeblesin1299.But,besidestension,therewillalsohavebeenfeelingscommontoboththat,onewayoranother,thingswerecomingtoahead.InProfessorBarrow’sphrase,‘itwasthemomentforaction’.

WeknowthatBrucehadbeencarefullyprovisioninghiscastles,andwasthereforepreparediftheneedarosetotakedrasticsteps.Afterthemurder,Robert

BrucerodebacktoLochmabentoraisethetenantryofAnnandale,thistimewithmuchgreaterauthoritythanhehaddonein1297.Alettersurvives,writtenbyanunknownauthorintheEnglishgarrisonat

BerwickinMarch1306,whichgivesdetailedinformationonBruce’smovementsintheweeksafterthedeathofJohnComyn.TheauthorexplainsthathehimselfisengagedinreinforcingthepeelatBerwick,andthatheisnonetoosureofthesupportoflocalpeopleandsoldiers.HethenliststhefortificationsheldbyRobert,andtheprovisionsavailabletothem:

Sir,thenewsinthesepartsisthattheearlofCarrickholdstheking’scastlesofDumfriesandAyr,andthecastleofDalswintonwhichbelongedtoJohnComyn,andthecastleofTibberswhichbelongstoRichardSiward,andheholdsthisRichard,andWilliamBalliol,inprisonashedidbefore;andofthestoreswhichwereinthecastleofAyr,thereareinthetowninthehandsofmerchants,agoodhundredcasksofwineandotherstoresingreatplenty.HehashadhiscastleofDunavertyinKintyre

provisionedforalongperiod.

RobertBoyd,aprominentmemberofBruce’sretinue,hadtakenRothesaybytrickery,andwasbesiegingInverkip.ThewriterdescribesRobert’seffortstoraiseanarmy:

TheearlofCarrickhasmadewarinGallowaytocausethepeopletorebelwithhim,buttheyhaveansweredinaccordthattheywillneverrebelagainstthekingforanymanliving…Sir,theearlof

CarrickhasbeenatGlasgowandRutherglenandinthosedistricts,andhasreceivedthefealtyofthepeoplewherehehascome,andhaschargedthemtobereadytogowithhimwithrationsforninedayswhentheyreceiveadayandnight’snotice…TheevilbishopremainsatGlasgowashischiefadvisor,andtheearlcomesoften,andtheytake…theircounseltogether,andtheyaremusteringallthesupportthattheycanfindfromeveryquarter…

Brucethenwasinopen

rebellion.Itisnowonderthatthepeopleofthe‘otherwise-minded’provinceofGalloway,everhopefuloffurtherautonomyfromScotland,refusedBrucetheirsupport.Neverthelesshehadtakencaretoensurethathiscastleswerewellprovisioned.Thedistributionofthecastlesseized(alongtheSolwayandCarrickshoreline)suggestsanexpectationofhelpfromtheWesternIslesorIreland;

BrucewasfallingbackonthesameplanthathisgrandfatherhadentertainedbothattheTurnberryBandandinhisrebellionof1286–87.WhileEdwardandNeilBrucestayedwithRobertin1306,thereisnomentioninnarrativesoftheotherbrothers,ThomasandAlexanderBruce,whomayalreadyhavebeendispatchedtotheWesternIslestomustergalloglasses.TheBerwick

correspondentalsoreportsthatBruceintendedtogarrisonandholdhisowncastlesagainsttheking’sforces,butthathewoulddestroyothercastles.FromothersourceswelearnthattherebellionwasspreadingintheBruceheartlandofthesouth-west.ChristopherSetonandhisbrothersheldforhimTibbersandLochDooncastles.TheyoungThomasRandolph–latertobecome

Robert’smosttrustedlieutenantandearlofMoray–adheredtoBruce,inspiteofhisfather’sloyaltytotheBalliols.BrucethenleftLochmaben

toconsultwith‘theevilbishop’,RobertWishart,atGlasgow.Onthewaythere,atArickstone,BarboursaysthathemetforthefirsttimetheyoungJamesDouglas,sonandheirofSirWilliamDouglasleHardiwhohad

diedintheTowerofLondonin1298.DouglasthrewinhislotwithBruceinthehopeofrecoveringhispatrimony,whichEdwardIhadgrantedtoRobertClifford.AccordingtoBarbourtheybecamefirmfriendsinstantly:

That’showtheymadeeachother’sacquaintanceMenwhoneverafterwardsdisagreedforanyreasonAslongastheylivedTheirfriendshipincreasedmore

andmoreallthetimeBecauseDouglasalwaysservedloyallyAndBrucewhowasworthybraveandwiseWithagoodwillrewardedhimwellforhisservice.19

BrucespentsometimeinconferencewithBishopWishartwhoabsolvedhimofthesinofkillingofComynandadministeredanoaththat,asking,Brucewouldabidebythedirectionoftheclergy

ofScotland.Theoathwasprobablyatraditionalone,expectedofanycandidateforkingship,buttheScottishclergywasfromthistimeonwardssupportiveoftheBrucemonarchy.AccordingtotheScalachronicaofThomasGray,thebishopgavehim‘robesandtheattirewithwhichBrucehadhimselfvestedandattiredontheday’and‘abanneroftheroyalarmswhichhehadlong

hiddeninhistreasury’.ThisisallborneoutbysubsequentchargesagainstthebishopsentbyEdwardItothepope.Thebishopwillalsohaveadvisedonasuitabledateforenthronement.Iftherevivalofthekingshipweretobecredible,alltraditionalformswouldhavetobeobservedasfaraspossible.EnthronementinthepenitentialseasonofLentwouldnotdo.Easter,withitsconnotationsof

resurrectionandrebirth,wouldhavebeenideal,butninedaysbeforeEaster,on25March,camethefeastoftheAnnunciation,whichwasnotreckonedasLent.Sincetimewasoftheessence,theysettledfortheearlierdate.Theydined,andthenthebishopbadehim‘gotosecurehisheritagebyallthemeansthathecould’.LeavingGlasgow,BruceadvancedagainstJohnofMenteith,the

sheriffandconstableofDumbarton.JohnrefusedtosurrenderthecastleofDumbartontoBruce’ssupporters,AlexanderLindsayandWalterLogan.Brucedidnotassault

Dumbarton,buttookhisgrowingentourageacrosstheRiverForth,astheBerwickcorrespondentexplained:‘OnthedaythatthisletterwaswrittenJohnofMenteithinformedmethattheearlof

Carrickhadcrossedtheseawith60men-at-arms.Andsir,ifthepeopleontheothersidearetrustworthy,whichIdonotmisdoubt,hewillhavebutashortstaywiththem.’AlthoughWalterLoganofHartsidehadextensiveIrishconnections,thecontextofthelettershowsthatthecrossingwasoftheRiverForth,commonlyreferredtoas‘theScottishSea’,nottheNorthChannelbetween

ScotlandandUlster,yetitislikelythatBrucehadsentotherstotheWesternIslesorIrelandtoraisesupport.Thelettercontinues:

Sir,howeveryouaregiventounderstandoftheearlofCarrick,heisneverthelessattemptingtoseizetherealmofScotlandandtobeking…Theking’scouncilorderedhim

todeliveruptheking’sofficers,andtheking’scastlesinhishands,andthetownswhichbelongedto

JohnComyn,andshouldbelongtothekingonthedeathofJohn(onwhomGodhavemercy),buttothis,Sir,hehasmadenoanswer.Sir,thechamberlaincommanded

himtodothesamething…andherepliedthathewouldtakecastles,townsandpeopleasfastashecould,untilthekinghadnotifiedhiswillconcerninghisdemand,and,ifhewouldnotgrantittohim,hewoulddefendhimselfwiththelongeststickthathehad.

Edward’scouncilofScotlandandchamberlainhad

thereforecalledonBrucetodesistandsurrender,butBrucehadaggressivelydemandedsomethingofthekingandexpectedaresponse.HisdemandmighthavebeenforacomprehensiveroyalpardonorforEdwardtobestowuponhimthevassalkingship,butsinceneitherwaslikelytobeforthcoming,hewasproceedingregardlesswithhisseizureofthekingship.Apartfrom

anythingelse,itwasonlyasking,withaking’spowertoraisearmies,thatBrucecouldwithstandthevengeanceoftheComyns.TheoutragedComynsandtheirallies–SirJohnMowbray,IngramdeUmfraville,theearlsofBuchanandAtholl,AlexanderAbernethyandothers–weremusteringtheirforcesatLiddesdaleandpreparingtotakevengeanceonBruce.Athollwas

feigning,however,andsubsequentlyjoinedBruce.Revivalofthekingship

wasnotproceedingquiteasBrucehadplanned,andhewasimprovisingfrantically.NodoubthehadenvisagedleadingaunitedScottishreactiontoEnglishoccupation,butthereisnodisguisingthatthe‘communityoftherealm’wasdivided,andthatthegreaterpartsupportedthe

morelegitimateBalliolclaimandpreferredtheEdwardiansettlementtotheusurpationofamurderer.However,Bruce’ssupportamongthehigherclergyprobablyreflectstheScottishChurch’shistoricinsistenceuponindependencefromthearchiepiscopalauthorityofYork.BishopWishart,whohadrecentlybeengrantedtimberforthesteepleofGlasgowCathedral,usedit

insteadtomakesiegeenginestoattackKirkintillochCastle.Brucealsoenjoyeddisproportionatesupportamongthehighernobility,manyofwhomwerealreadycloselylinkedtotheBrucearistocraticfaction.EverywherebutinGallowayEdward’sintrusionupontherightsandlibertiesofthekingdom,thehumiliationoftheScottishkingandtheexecutionofWilliamWallace

hadbeendeeplyresented.Brucewasbornetothethroneuponthatgroundswellofemotion.AsheadvancedfromDumbartononSconehisretinuewillhavebeendailyincreasedbyfreshadherentsofeveryclass,delightedattherevivalofthekingship,butwhosecommitmentremainedtobetested.InthoseheadyspringdaysasLentneareditsend,itmayhaveseemedthat,along

withmonarchy,theverynationwasbeingreborn.Newsspread,andexpectantcrowdsgatheredforacherishedspectacletheyhaddespairedofeveragainwitnessing.Allwasnotoptimism,ofcourse.InApril,MayandJunelandsandtitlesofthechiefrebelsweredeclaredforfeitandparcelledouttofollowersofEdward.AnnandalewasgrantedtoHumpherydeBohun,theEarl

ofHereford;Robert’searldomofCarricktoHenryPercy;theearldomofLennoxtoJohnMenteithandthatofMenteithtoJohnHastings.Thefeastofthe

AnnunciationfelluponaFriday.WalterofGuisborough,themostreliableofthechroniclers,recordsthatfourbishopsandfiveearlswerepresentattheceremony.Weknowofthreebishopsatmost.Robert

WishartandDavidMurray,BishopofMoray,werethereontheFriday,and,whenhehadheardthenewsofComyn’smurder,BishopWilliamLamberton,aschiefofEdward’scouncilofScotland,delayedandobfuscatedthecouncil’sreactiontotheBrucecoup,thenfledfromBerwickacrosstheFirthofForth,arrivingatSconetocelebratemassforthenewkingonthe

Sundayfollowing,PalmSunday.Hemayevenhavebeenpresentearlier,attheenthronement,sincehewaslateraccusedofshowingBruce‘honouronthedayofcoronation’.Theidentityofthefourthbishopwedonotknow,buttheabbotsofbothSconeandInchaffraywerebothinattendance.Weknowoffourearlspresent,besidesBrucehimself:theyoungDonald,heirofMar,whowas

Robert’sward,MalcolmofLennox,AlanofMenteithandJohn,EarlofAtholl,arecentadherent.Itwasacreditableturnoutofthegreatandgood,sufficienttobeconvincing.Crucially,however,theearlofFifewasabsent,theheirbeingsixteen-year-oldDuncan,soontobecomethefourthearl,whowascurrentlyinthewardshipofEdwardIandthereforeunavailable.TheearlofFife’s

traditionalroleofleadingtheking-electtothethronewascentraltoproceedings.ButfortheenthronementofJohnBalliolin1292,whentheearlwasachild,asubstitutehadhadtobefound,andonthisoccasiontooasubstitutebecameavailable.ThiswasIsabellaofFife,theyoungheir’saunt,whowasalsocountessofBuchan,beingmarriedtoJohnComyn,EarlofBuchan.Athollhad

escortedhertoSconefromherhouse,emptyingthestablesofBuchan’shorsesashedidso,tothwartpursuit.IsabellaisreportedinEnglishchroniclesasRobert’smistress.Howeverthismaybe,shemusthavehadstrongmotivationforsuchflagrantdefianceofherhusband.Ontheappointedday,

LadyDay,alltheessentialceremonieswereobserved.Thenewkingwasacclaimed

byclergy,noblesandpeopleintheabbeychurch,andthenledouttothechurchyardwherethetime-honouredceremonytookplaceunderthegazeofacrowdofonlookers.TheclergygirdedRobertwithasword,administeredtheoathandplacedarobeonhisshoulders.Muchoftheregaliaweremissing,havingbeenlootedbyEdwardI.Therose-sceptreandtheStoneof

DestinynowlayatStEdward’sshrineinWestminsterAbbey;ProfessorDuncanobservesofthisceremony,‘Theplace,Scone,andtheinaugurator,arepresentativeoftheearlofFife,wereimportant,buttheStonewasquietlyforgotten.’ThehighpointofproceedingswaswhenIsabellaofFifeledRobertBrucetowhateverthroneorornamentalchairwasprovided.Tounderline

thesignificanceofthemoment,shethenplacedacoronetonhishead,thoughthiswasnotrecognisedaspartoftheancientrite.20AHighlandpoetorseanachaidhreadaloudthenewking’sgenealogyreachingbacktoKennethMacAlpin,andbeyondtoFergussonofErc,themythicalancestralrulerofDalRiata,theancientIrishkingdomandhomelandofthe

Scots.Thedayendedwithafeast.OntheSundayfollowing,

highmasswassaidbyBishopLamberton,andthiswasfollowedbythetakingofhomagesandfealties.Amongthosewhoadheredtothenewking,addingsignificantlytohislegitimacy,wasAlexanderScrymgeour,theKingofScots’hereditaryroyalstandard-bearer,whohadservedalltheguardians

inturn.Furthermore,ScrymgeourboretheverybannerofAlexanderIII.ThesignificanceofregaliaandceremonywasallegedlywasteduponRobert’swife,ElisabethdeBurgh,whoreportedlyberatedherhusbandfor‘playingatkingsandqueens’.Whateverherviewswere,fromthispointinthenarrativeonwardsitbehovesustorefertoRobertBruceasRobertIof

Scotland.Enthronementwas

necessarypageantry.ItwasvitalthatRobertBruceshouldundergothesacramentalchangefrommeremortaltoRobertI,KingofScotsandrepresentativeofdivineorderintheworld.ButitdidnotaltertheharshfactsthatthenewkinghadperhapsonlyaquarterofScotlandunderhissway,andthatpowerfulenemieswerebearingdown

onhim.PreparationsforacampaignhadbeensetintrainbytheEnglishgovernmenton1March.InEnglandtooapageantwasheld,inMay1306.FollowingtheknightingofEdwardofCaernarfon,theprinceofWales,allthenewlymadeknightswereinvitedtoa‘feastoftheSwans’,wheretheyeachpledgedanoathofchivalricsymbolism,‘totheSwan’,toavengethedeathof

JohnComyn;thentheysetofftojointhecampaign.Inthestreets,meanwhile,popularsatiristsjeeredatBruce’smakeshiftceremony.Theyscoffedat‘KingHobbe’or‘MadKingRobin’andtheygleefullypredictedthatthenewking’sreignwouldnotlastforlong:‘IthinkyoumaybeKingofSummer,/KingofWinteryouwillnotbe.’ForthenewKingofScots

theperiodafterthe

enthronementwasoneoffranticactivitytostrengthenhispower-basebycapturingcastles,makingfriendsandpromises–‘friendsandfriendshippurchasing’asBarbourputsit–andtwistingarms.Hetravellednorth,whereDavidMurray,BishopofMoray,wasrousingthepeopletoapatrioticcrusade.EdwardIsubsequentlycomplainedtothepopethat‘TheflockoftheBishopof

Moray,whoassembledtothehelpofthesaidRobert,andstillholdthemselveswithhim,havedonethisowingtotheincitement,preachingandexhortingofthesaidbishop,becausehetoldthemthattheywhorebelledwithSirRoberttohelphimagainstthekingofEnglandandtookthepartofthesaidSirRobert,werenotlessdeservingofmeritthaniftheyshouldfightintheHolyLandagainst

pagansandSaracens.’RobertcapturedanddestroyedForfarCastleonhiswaynorth.HevisitedBanff,andextortedcashfromthemerchantcommunitiesofAberdeen,DundeeandPerthbytakinghostages.AtAberdeen,Brucespentaweekorso,establishinghisqueenandhisdaughterMarjorieinthecareofabandoffaithfulknights:hisbrotherNeil,AlexanderLindsayandRobertBoyd.At

Perth,thebailiffswerethrowninprisonandthreatenedwithdeathuntiltheypaid£54,whichRobertthentookasrentsthatwereduetohimasking.Hemayhaveattackedanddamagedthefortificationsofallthreetowns,forEdwardIhadthemallrepairedthefollowingyear.WhenMalise,EarlofStrathearn,refusedtoprovidemilitarysupportforthenewking,Robert,accompaniedby

Atholl,advancedagainsthim.HemarchedtoFowlis,oneofStrathearn’scastles,andheldtwomeetingswithStrathearntodemandhissupport;gavehimafewdaystothinkitover;theninexasperationhadhimseizedandheldontheIsleofInchmahome,whereatlasttheearlsubmitted.Strathearnhadgoodreasontobecagey:notonlywashenotanaturalally,beingmarriedtoaComyn,butEdwardI

heldhostagehisonlyremainingson.The‘Anglo-Scots’‘21

reactiontotheBrucecoupwasinitiallyswift,butthenmonthswerewastedwaitingfortheEnglishtoarriveinstrength.TheletterfromtheBerwickcorrespondentshowsthat,thoughtakenutterlybysurprise,theAnglo-Scotswereneverthelessinastrongposition.Allthemaincastles

ofLothianandtheeastwereprovisioned,thePeelofSelkirkwasinsafehands,andalreadyahundredNorthumberlandfootwereontheirwaytoBerwick.Asearlyas22February–ameretwelvedaysafterthemurderofJohnComyn–Tibberscastlehadbeenrecaptured;on3MarchDumfriesfelltoforceshostiletoBruce.Theseactionswereprobablytakenbygarrisonsalreadyin

Scotland;itwassummerbeforetheEnglishenteredScotlandinstrength.On5AprilEdwardappointedAymerdeValence,thebrother-in-lawofthemurderedComyn,ashislieutenantinScotland.HenryPercyandRobertClifford,leadingaforceof100cavalry,closedinontheBruceheartlandofsouth-westScotland.Robert,havingtakenmorecastlesthanhe

couldgarrison,leftthecastleatAyrslightedandabandoned.Atlast,inJune,AymerdeValenceadvancedfromBerwicktowardsPerthandDundeewith300cavalryandalargeforceofinfantry;BarbourtellsushewasaccompaniedbytheScottishmagnatesPhilipMowbrayandIngramdeUmfraville.AtCuparinFife,ValencearrestedtheelderlyanddefiantBishopWishart;at

ScotlandwellnearKinross,Lambertonalsosurrendered,thoughhefirstdispatchedhiswardAndrew,sonandheirofJamestheSteward,intoRobert’scare.ValencethenoccupiedPerth.Buoyedupbythe

widespreadsupportathisenthronement,RobertknewthatifhecouldconfrontanddefeatValencetherewaseverychancethatvindicationofhisrightonthebattlefield

wouldcausesupportforhiskingshiptosnowballfurther.Strathearnhadprovenunreliableinprovidinglevies,butRoberthadneverthelessmanagedtogatheraconsiderablearmyandbesiegedStrathearninhismanorhouseatKenmoreinPerthshire.Robertlaidwastehisestatesandhadhimarrestedforatime.Strathearn–whosesonswerehostageswiththeEnglishking–

playedfortimeandonlyjustmanagedtoavoidcommitinghimselfuntilRobertwasatlastdistractedbytheadvanceofAymerdeValenceonPerth.22WithRobertweretheearlsofLennoxandAtholl,hisbrotherEdwardBruce,ThomasRandolph,HughHay,SirDavidBarclayandSirSimonFraser,onceagaininrevolt.Itwasscarcelyasignofconfidence,however,

thatmanyofRobert’sknightsworewhiteshirtsovertheirsurcoats,maskingtheirheraldicdevicessothat,intheeventofdefeat,theywouldnotbeidentifiedandsufferlossoflandsoratraitor’sdeath.On26JuneRobert

challengedValencetocomeoutofthetownandfightintheopen,butValencedeclined,respondingthathepreferredtowaituntilthe

morrow.Robert’smenbrokeuptomakecampatMethvenandforageforfirewood,but,justthen,inthetwilight,Valenceattackedwithdevastatingeffect.AcavalrychargeputtoflighttheinfantryandsurprisedRobert’sknights.ThechroniclesreportthatRobertwasalmostcaptured.BarbourdescribeshowPhilipMowbrayseizedthereinsofRobert’shorseandcried,

‘Help!Help!Ihavethenew-madeking!’ChristopherSeton,however,attackedMowbray,causingthebridletoslipfromhishand.23Barbourputsasbraveafaceashecanonthedefeat,butRobert’sforceswereclearlyrouted,andtheywerepursuedfromthefieldbyknightsofValence’scompany.Malcolm,EarlofLennox,slippedawayquietlytohis

estates.ThomasRandolphwasoneofthosecaptured,andhewasfortunatetohavehislifespared.ButsixteenprisonersweretriedandexecutedatNewcastleinAugust,andafurtherelevenweretakentoYork.SimonFraser,whomEdwardIhateddeeply,wasalsocapturedand,likeWallace,takentoLondonwherehesufferedagruesomeexecutionforthegratificationofthemob.

Pursuitwashot,forthereweregreatrewardsinransomsandroyalfavourtobehadforthosewhocapturedsignificantpersonages.Robertandtheremnantsofhiscavalryfledwest-wardsalongStrathearn,intotheterritoryofStFillan,whoserelicswerereverentlymaintainedbytheAbbeyofInchaffray,arecipientoftheking’sgenerosityinlateryears.Duringhisflight

Robertperhapsconsideredhimselfprotectedbythesaintormayhavebeenshelteredbytheabbot.HewasstillaccompaniedbyEdwardBruce,theNorthumberlandknightWalterBurradon,GilbertHay,NeilCampbellandafewothers,andwiththemhecrossedoverthemountainsintoStrathtay.There,however,thepursuers,ledbytheGasconknightGilesd’Argentan,caughtup

withthem.TheBrucepartysufferedafurtherdefeat,buttheymusthaveacquittedthemselveswell,sincetheycausedhorsestobelostbythepursuers.GreatwasthedelightofEnglishsongstersatRobert’sdiscomforture:‘NowKingHobbetothemoorshasgone/Tocometotownhehasnodesire.’Certainlytherewasnothing

lefttoRobertnowbutfurtherflightintothewilderness.Itis

impossibletoimaginethathecouldavoiddespairontakingtotheheatherafterMethvenandStrathtay.Hehadgambled,andlostheavily.Whetherhecursedhisambitionforbringingruinonhisfamilyandfriends,hesurelyregretteddeeplywhateverhadtranspiredinthechurchatDumfries,forithadsetinmotionachainofeventsthatcouldnow–itseemed–onlyendindeath

anddisgrace.Workingfromthebenefitofhindsight,commentatorshavetendedtoexaggeratesuchfaintglimmersofhopeasremainedtohim.Recoveryfromthisdesperatepositionwasbynomeansinevitable,however;itwas,rather,miraculous.

5‘ThroughtheMountainsandfromIsletoIsle’

(1306–07)

Defeatandexile

InthedarkmomentthatfollowedhisdefeatsatMethvenandStrathtay,RobertBrucemusthavedrawnuponwellsofself-belief,fortitudeandconfidencethatfewpossess.Foraboutafortnightheandhismenkepttothehighglensandhillsides.Fortunatelyitwassummer,andonepicturestheerstwhilegrandees

shelteringinthe‘sheilings’,ortemporarydwellingsofherdsmeninthehighpastures,bindingwoundsandstrugglingtofindgrazingsufficientforthehorses.TheScottishchroniclesdescribetheoutlawlifeofRobert’sbandofloyalfollowersintheMounth.Forthisepisode,thenadirofthehero-king’scareer,Fordunsetsthedesolationofhishopesandtheruinofhisfortunes

againsttheindifferentseaandsky:

theaforesaidkingwascutofffromhismenandunderwentendlesswoes,andwastossedindangersuntold,beingattendedattimesbythreefollowers,attimesbytwo;andmoreoftenhewasleftutterlyalonewithouthelp.Nowpassingawholefortnightwithoutfoodofanykindtoliveuponbutrawherbsandwater;nowwalkingbarefoot,whenhisshoesbecameoldandwornout;nowleftaloneintheislands;nowalonefleeingbefore

hisenemies;nowslightedbyhisservants,heabodeinutterloneliness.

Thesolitudedescribedhereis,however,aliterarydevicedemonstratingdespair.InBarbour’sTheBrucethekingdoesnotwantforcompany,butlivesnonethelessamiserableexistence:

TheyspentmanydaysasoutlawsSufferinghardshipintheMounthEatingfleshanddrinkingwater…

ThusinthehillslivedheTillthemostpartofhismenie[retinue]Wastatteredandtorn.TheyhadnoshoesSavethosetheycouldmakeofhide.

Thenewking’stribulationswereonlyjustbeginning.TheMacDougallswereadvancingonhimfromthewest.IntheGaidhealtachd,newsofthemurderofJohnComynandtheinaugurationofaBruce

kinghadhadprofoundrepercussions.UntilthistimeAlexanderMacDougallhadbeenincontinualrevoltagainsttheauthorityofEdwardI’schieflieutenantinthearea,AngusÓgMacDonald.Inaccordancewiththegeneralsurrenderof1304,theMacDougallshadenteredthepeaceofEdwardI.ButsuchwasthestrengthofthebondbetweentheComyns,Balliolsand

MacDougalls,andsuchthefearofaBrucekingship,thatthenewsofComyn’sdeathandBruce’senthronementswepttheMacDougallsintothecampofEdwardItoavengethemurderandterminatetheBrucecoup.TheMacDonalds,bythesametoken,suddenlyfoundtheirfirmallies,theBruces,tobeanathematoEdward’sgovernment,andtheirinveteratefoes,the

MacDougalls,onEdward’sside.Thusacompleteabout-turninthepoliticsoftheregionhadoccurred:theformerrebelMacDougallsnowsidingwithEdwardI,andEdward’serstwhileagentsintheregion,theMacDonalds,sidingwiththeBrucesagainsthim.Atthisjuncturethere

comestoprominenceJohnofArgyll,orJohnBachach–‘theLame’–MacDougall,

whowastoremainathorninRobert’ssideformanyyears.KnowntoBarbouras‘JohnofLorn’,thiswasthesonofAlexanderMacDougallofArgyllandadaughterofJohnComynofBadenochI24andthereforehewasafullcousinofthatJohnComynwhomBrucehadmurdered.Thoughhisfatherwasstillactive,JohntookovertheleadershipofthepowerfulMacDougall

affinity.SuchwasthebitternesswhichJohnharbouredagainsttheBrucesthatBarbourwasmovedtowrite:

ThisJohnofLornhatedthekingForthesakeofhisuncleSirJohnComyn.Wereheabletoslayorcapturehim,Hewouldnotvaluehislifeatastraw,Providedthathecouldtakevengeanceonhim.

AccordinglyJohnsoughtouttheremnantsofRobert’sforceswheretheyskulkedinthemountainsfollowingtheirdefeat.InJuly,neartheheadofStrathtayatDalry,hefoundthem.InBarbour’saccountRobert’spartywasattackedbutsawoffathousandaxe-wieldingArgyllsmen,whoneverthelessslewandinjuredmanyofhishorses.Barbourmakesarareadmissionthat

Robertwithdrewfromthebattlefield,andhealsodisclosesthatJamesDouglasandGilbertHaywerewounded.ProbablyBarbourhasturneddefeatintovictory;JohnofArgyllseemstohavebeenvictoriousyetunabletodestroytheBruceforceentirely.Here,inlaterlife,RobertIestablishedaprioryofStrathfillan,atGlendochart,asthoughingratitudeforagreatmercyat

thisplace.Nowthricedefeated,

RobertdispatchedJohn,EarlofAtholl,withalltheparty’shorses,tojointhequeenatKildrummyCastle.Thisrelievedhimofthedifficultyoffindinggrazingforthewarhorses.AthollhadinstructionstotaketheladiesoftheBrucepartyfromKildrummytoaseaportinorderthattheymightescapetoNorwegianterritoryinthe

OrkneyIslands,ortoNorwayitself.InNorway,Isabel,Robert’ssister,livedaswidowedqueen,andtherehisdependantswouldfindasylum.However,NeilBruceremainedatKildrummyaftertheladieshaddeparted,andtherehepreparedtoresistasiege,adecisionthatsuggeststremendousbutmisplacedfaithinhiseldestbrother.AccordingtotheBarbournarrativetheroyalladieswere

accompaniedbytheyoungJamesDouglas.TheBruceincludesvignettesofDouglasfindingfoodfortheladies,bringingthemnowvenison,noweels,nowsalmonandtroutcaughtbyhand.ButAymerdeValence,enormouslystrengthenedbythearrivalinScotlandofalargeexpeditionunderEdwardofCaernarfon,wasclosinginontheBruces.By3AugusthewasatAberdeen.

SoonafterwardstheEnglishbesiegedKildrummy.ThecastlefelltotheminSeptember,betrayedbyoneofthegarrison,whosetfiretothestocksofgrain.NeilBrucewasdeliveredintothehandsoftheprinceofWalesasaprisoner.Atholl,QueenElisabethandRobert’sdaughterMarjoriewerecapturedatStDuthusorDuthac’ssanctuarynearTainbyWilliam,EarlofRoss.In

earlySeptemberDuncan,theboyearlofMar,wastakeneitheratKildrummyoratTain.Violationofsanctuarywasaserioustaboo,and,althoughRosslaterdefectedtotheBruces,KingRobertsubsequentlyboundtheearlsofRosstopay£20annuallyforsixchaplainsatStDuthaus’ssanctuaryatTaintosaymassesforthesoulsofearlierkingsandforthatofJohn,EarlofAtholl.

Aged,andembitteredatthesuddenrenewalofresistanceinScotland,EdwardIexactedaterriblevengeanceonRobert’sadherents.OnaccountofhisrankAthollwastakentoLondonforashowtrial,andthen,forthatsamereason,hangedfromagallowsthirtyfeethigherthananyoneelse,cutdown,beheadedandburned.TheEnglishknightChristopherSeton,Robert’sbrother-in-

lawandhiscastellanatLochDoon,sufferedhanginginDumfries.Seton’swife,ChristinaBruce,laterfoundedachapelforhimatDumfries,andRobertprovidedanincometopayformassesforhissoul.Christopher’stwobrotherswerealsoexecuted.MentionhasalreadybeenmadeofthesixteenprominentsupportersofBrucehangedatNewcastleinAugust.Whenthey

surrenderedonoraround10SeptemberthegarrisonofKildrummyCastlewasalsohanged;andinOctoberNeilBrucewastriedbeforeEdwardofCaernarfon,drawnbyhorsesthroughthestreetsofBerwick,thenhangedandbeheaded,alongwithSirAlanDurwardandseveralothers.EdwardI’streatmentofthefemaleprisonerswasmorediscriminating,whichmaysuggestthatsomeofthe

ScottishladiesshowedaspiriteddefianceoftheEnglishking,whileothersdidnot.ThepunishmentmetedouttoMaryBruceandIsabelofFife,thecountessofBuchan,wasmostinhumane,evenbytheharshstandardsofthetime.Tomakeanexampleofthemtheywereconfined,eachinaseparatecageopentopublicgaze,oneatRoxburgh,theotheratBerwick.Thecageofthe

countesswasconstructedintheshapeofacrown,recallingherroleinRobert’senthronement,andisdescribedas‘alittlewoodenchamberinatowerofthecastleofBerwickwithlatticedsides,sothatallmightlookinfromcuriosity’.Eachcagewastobeequippedwithaprivy,andtheladiesweretobeattendedbyEnglishwomen.Atfirstthetwelve-year-oldMarjorie,

Robert’sdaughter,wassentencedtobesimilarlyimprisoned,butEdwardrelentedandsheandChristinawereentrustedtothecustodyofHenryPercy.ThecountesswasnotreleasedfromhercageuntilJune1310,whenshewassenttoaconventinBerwick;wedonotknowhowlongMaryBrucehadtoendurethisdegradingpunishment.Thisspitefultreatmentofthe

ladiesoftheBrucecourtisindicativeofthedepthofEdward’srageatthosewhoruinedhissettlementofScotland.Robert’sdeBurghqueen,whomayperhapshavedisapprovedofhiscoupandthensoughtleniencyfromEdwardonthisaccount,receivedthelightestpunishment.ShewasdetainedattheroyalmanorofBurstwickinLincolnshire,andgiventwoelderly

companionswhosedemeanourwastobe‘notatallgay’–sometimestakentomeanthattheywerenotallowedtosmile.YetEdwardIwasa

complexcharacter,andeveninthemidstofallthiscrueltyandbloodlettinghefoundreasonsforclemencytowardssome.Threeknights,AlexanderSeton,RobertBoydandAlexanderLindsay,wereapparentlyreleased.

YoungThomasRandolph,whohadalsobeencaptured,wasreleasedandherevertedtothepeaceoftheEnglishking.TheboyDonald,heirofMar,wasretainedandbroughtupatthecourtofEdwardofCaernarfon,towhomhebecamesoattachedthatherefusedtoleavein1315whenprisonerswereexchanged.Mercifullyignorantofthe

bloodlettingthatwastobefall

hisfollowers,Robertandhisraggedcompany,whichBarbourputsrealisticallyat200,proceededonfootacrosstheMounthlatethatAugust.Optionswereclosingallaroundhim.TheenmityoftheMacDougallsseemstohavedeterredhimfromapproachingthewesterncoast.OvereightymilesofhostileterritorylaybetweenthefugitivesandtheForestofSelkirk,theestablishedlocale

foroutlawsanddissidents.Brucefamilyterritoriesofthesouth-westwerenowsubduedandenemygarrisonswereinstalledinthem.Remainingoptionscannothaveseemedattractive.Someofhissupporters,suchasDavid,BishopofMoray,hadmadeittosafetyinOrkney.TherewasalwaysIreland,wherelocalkingscoulddefythewilloftheEnglishkingwithimpunity,thoughRoberthad

perhapsalreadyappealedtohisfather-in-law,theRedEarlofUlster,andbeenspurned.OnlyinthehighlandsandislandsofwesternScotlandcouldheexpectshelter,buthehadtokeeponthemove.BarboursuggestsplausiblythatRobert’simmediategoalwasKintyre;fromtherehewouldbeabletofleetoanyofthesefurtherdestinations.TheBarbournarrativeis

vagueatthispoint.HedescribeshowNeilCampbelldepartedtocollectships,whilethekingsetoffforLochLomond,reacheditonthethirdday,spentadayandanightgettinghismenacrossthelochintheonlyboatavailable,andthenceintoLennox.Duncan,however,hasreconstructedamoreprobableitinerary.RobertmusthaveledhismenbyfootthroughBreadalbaneandthen

southtothecoastatLochFyne–atwhichpointNeilCampbellleftthemainbandtogatherboats–andthencetoGlenkinglass,ArrocharandTarbet,whereLochLomondwascrossedinaneasterlydirection,andsoontoLennox.25Barbour’saccountofthedayandnightspentcrossingLochLomond,andhuntingvenisonintheearlofLennox’sforestsinthe

vicinityofGartmorefitsmoreeasilyintothissequence.Hearingtheking’shuntinghorn,Malcolm,EarlofLennoxrodetomeetRobertandgreetedhimjoyfully,forhehadbelievedthatRoberthaddiedonthefieldatMethven.Lennoxprovidedafeastforthehungryfugitives.AfterthisNeilCampbellrejoinedthemainparty,Duncansuggests,inthevicinityofKilcregganon

LochLong.CampbellhadprovidedshipswithsailsandoarsandtheyallsetoffdowntheClydeEstuaryforButeenroutetotheopensea.Malcolm,however,delayedandwaslasttosetout.Hisshipwashotlypursuedbyenemyvessels,perhapsfromDumbarton,whereJohnofMenteith,towhomEdwardIhadrecentlyawardedMalcolm’stitleandearldom,wasincommand.Barbour

relateshow,toslowdowntheenemy,Malcolmcastoverboardvariouspiecesofharnessandgear,whichtheenemytooktimetotakeonboard,andinthiswaytheearlescapedtorejointhefugitiveking.FromBute,Robertandhis

mensailedtoKintyre,wheretheywerewarmlyreceived,probablynotbyAngusÓgMacDonaldofIslayasBarbourhasit,butby

MalcolmMacQuillan,thelordofKintyreandownerofDunaverty.26ItisevidentfromtheBerwickcorrespondentthatinFebruaryMacQuillanhadplacedDunavertyatRobert’sdisposalforthecoup.PerchedonarockyheadlandatthetipoftheKintyrepeninsula,DunavertymusthaveideallysuitedRobert’sneeds.Barbourclaimsthatitwas

Robert’sintentiontowinterinDunaverty,yetatthispointinthenarrativeRobertfearedtreachery:

NonethelessinmanywaysHedreadedtreasonAndtherefore,asIheardmensayHetrustedcompletelyinno-oneUntilheknewhimtruly.

Thisishardlysurprising,sinceRoberthadpotentiallysuchapriceonhishead.BarbourstatesthatRobert

stayedinDunavertyonlythreedaysonaccountofhisfear,buttherealcauseofhisabruptdepartureappearstohavebeenthearrivalinKintyreofasubstantialforcetoattackthefugitivekinginhislair.EarlyinSeptembertheEnglishlordJohnBotetourt,accompaniedbyJohnofMenteith,arrivedtobesiegeDunaverty.ClearlytheyunderstoodthatRobertwaswithinthewalls,and

theytransportedtwosiegeenginesfromCarlisletosmashtheirwayin.AttheendofSeptemberthecastlefell,buttotheirdismaythebesiegers’quarryhadalreadyfled.Around20Septemberthe

Brucepartyembarked.BarbourdescribesanunhurrieddeparturefromDunavertyinseveralshipsbornebyastrongbutfavourablewind,bearing

RobertandhisfollowerstoRathlinIslandoffthecoastofAntrim.HewasaccompaniedbyhisbrotherEdward,MalcolmofLennoxandNeilCampbell,whowerewithhiminKintyre;MalcolmMacQuillan,LordofDunaverty,wasprobablyalsooftheparty.Barbour’sdescriptionofthecrossing,whichowesmuchtoVirgil,ismemorable:

Theyraisedsailandsetforth,SoonpassingbytheMullAndenteredsoonintotheraceWherethecurrentwassostrongThatstrongwaves,whichwerebreakers,Roselikehillshereandthere.Theshipsglidedoverthewaves,Fortheyhadawindblowingfair.Nonetheless,anyonewhohadbeenthereWouldhaveseenagreatshiftingOfships.ForsometimessomewouldbeAtopthewaves,asifonahill-top

Andsomewouldslidefromtoptobottom,Asifboundforhell,Thenriseupsuddenlyonthewave,Andothershipsnearbysankintothetrough.

ThisvoyageofRobertBrucetoRathlin,likethatofBonniePrinceCharlie‘overtheseatoSkye’,isofteninvestedwithaspecial,almostmystic,significance.InbothinstancesthefateoftheScottishnationpersonifiedin

royaltyisentrustedtothewaves:natureinterveningtosavetheembodimentofScotlandfromtheclutchesoftheenemy.However,Roberthimselfwouldhaveseenthevoyageasnosignificantdeparture.ThewholewesterncoastfromtheHebridestoUlsterandfurtherwestwasaculturalunity,linkedbyseasonaltravelalongshippinglanesandeasilytraversed.Rathlinhemayhave

consideredaScottishisland,ratherthanpartofIreland.Farfromfleeinghis

homeland,RobertwastakingtoahighwaythatforgenerationshadborneMacDonald,MacDougall,MacRuaridhandMacSweengalloglasses,notjustbetweenErinandAlba,buttoallthefar-flungislandsoftheGaidhealtachd.UndoubtedlyRobertwasnowintentuponrecruitingsuchmercenaries

fromtwoprincipalsources.ThefirstsourcewasAngusÓgMacDonald,basedatDunyvaigonIslay;thesecondthe‘LadyofGarmoran’,ChristinaMacRuaridh,orassheisknown‘ChristinaoftheIsles’,doublyrelatedtotheBrucesthroughthefamilyofMar.Herlatehusband,DuncanofMar,hadbeenbothRobert’sbrother-in-lawbyreasonofhisfirstmarriage

toIsabelofMar,andalsohisbrother-in-lawbyreasonofhissister’smarriagetoGarnait,EarlofMar.TopersuadetheseGaelicmagnatesthatitwasintheirinteresttosupporthim,toweldtogethertheirscantresourcesbyskilfuldiplomacyandconjurearmieswillhavetakenasupremeeffort.Unfortunatelyweknowverylittleabouthowthisremarkableachievement

wasaccomplished,andtheseautumnandwintermonthsof1306–07arecrucialmissingpiecesfromthejigsawofRobert’slife.Itishardtobelievethat

RathlinwasRobert’sintendeddestination;eithertheIrishmainlandorIslaywouldhavebeenmoreattractive.Barbour,whospecifiesRathlin,recordsthatthepeopleoftheislandfledwiththeircattletoa‘right

stalwartcastle’andthatRobertnegotiatedwiththem.NosuchcastleexistedonRathlin,andBarbourmightbedescribingactiononanyoflargerWesternIsles.Themenoftheislanddidhomageandfealty,andwhileRobertstayedtheyundertooktosendhimeverydayprovisionsfor300men.ThesizeofRobert’srequirementincreasestheprobabilitythatthe‘Rathlin’scenebelongsto

anarrivalonamuchlargerisland,moreabletosustaintheBrucecourt,orthatitmayhavebeenrepeatedonvariouslandingsonothersoftheWesternIsles.Duringtheautumnand

winter,RobertandhisenvoysjourneyedtoandfroamongtheWesternIsles,callingindebts,twistingarmsandpromisingtheworldinreturnformilitaryserviceandshipservice.Againstalltheodds,

aletterofKingRobertwhichseemstobelongtothisperiodhassurvived.Itisaddressed‘toallthekingsofIreland,totheprelatesandclergyandtheinhabitantsofIreland’,andisaletterofcredence,bornebyRobert’senvoystoIrishGaelickings.ItappealstothesupposedcommonracialoriginoftheIrishandScots:

Whereasweandyou,andour

peopleandyourpeople,freesinceancienttimes,sharethesamenationalancestryandareurgedtocometogethermoreeagerlyandjoyfullyinfriendshipbyacommonlanguageandbycommoncustom,wehavesentovertoyouourbelovedkinsmen,thebearersofthislettertonegotiatewithyouinournameaboutpermanentlystrengtheningandmaintaininginviolatethespecialfriendshipbetweenusandyou,sothatwithGod’swillournationmayrecoverherancientliberty.Whateverourenvoysoroneofthemmayonour

behalfconcludewithyouinthismatter,weshallratifyandupholdinthefuture.

Ournationmayrecoveritsancientliberty?TomodernearsitsoundsasthoughRobertconceivedofasingleGaelicnation,andthatheofferedanallianceofGaelicpeoplesagainstthedominanceofEngland.SuchsentimentsarenotuncommoninGaelicpoetryoftheperiod,

butonlyrarelyweretheyexpressedpolitically.Itisbestnottotakethissortoflanguageatfacevalue.TheletterdemonstratesonlythattheBrucesknewhowtointroducethemselvestoaGaelicaudience;itdoesnotmeanthattheywerepreparedtoleadtheGaelicworldintoconflictwiththeAnglo–Norman.Thefloweryappealtocommonlanguageandcustomwouldcuticeonlyif

accompaniedbythethreatofforce,orbysilver,andlotsofit.TheBrucesconsistentlypedalledthis‘pan-Celtic’verbiageintheirdealingswithIreland–andWales–whenitsuitedthem,andtheIrishandWelshunderstooditfortheposturingitwas.Probablytheking’sbrothersThomasandAlexanderweretheplenipotentiaryenvoysempoweredbythis

document.27Indeed,conspicuouslyabsentfromeventsinScotland,theymayhavebeenwhippingupsupportintheGaidhealtachdsinceFebruary1306.Laterin1306theyaredescribedas‘leadingapiraticalexistence’,whichmaysuggestthattheymovedamongtheWesternIslesgatheringaforceofships.Duringthewinterof1306–

07Robertpiecedtogetherhiscoalition.TraditionalloyaltiestotheBruceswerenodoubtcitedandplayedupontomaximumeffect.ChristinaMacRuaridhdulyacknowledgedRobertasking,andplacedathisdisposalthelordshipofGarmoran,asprawlingcollectionoflandsandislandsthatstretchedfromtheOuterHebridestotheshoresofLochLinnhe.Shewasalso

rumouredtobeRobert’sloverduringthesemonths.Then,atMartinmas,Robertsent‘manyIrishmenandScots’acrosstohisearldomofCarricktocollecttherentsthendue,andthiswouldhavegivenhimcashwithwhichtobribethoseWestHighlandchiefsandIrishkingswhocouldnotbeotherwisebepersuadedtosupporthim.AsRobertandhisbrothers

labouredtoraiseanarmyof

galloglasses,thekingofEnglandwasnotunawareoftheiractivities.HughBisset,thelordofRathlinandavassaloftheRedEarl,commandedasquadronintheNorthChannel.InJanuaryhewasorderedtoequiphisshipsandjoinJohnofMenteithamongtheislesoffthecoastofScotland,cuttingoffRobertBruce’sretreat.EdwardIaddedthathe‘heldthisbusinessgreatlyatheart’.

Fourlordswerepaidforexpensesininquiringastothewhereaboutsof‘enemies,rebelsandfelonsofScotland,whohadcometoIrelandandbeenreceived,withreligiouspersonsandothers,withinthelibertyofUlster,andinseizingthoseenemiesandtheirharbourersandconveyingthemtothecastleofDublin.’Thisreferenceto‘religiouspersons’couldincludeAlexanderBruce.

SimonMontacute,aSomersetbaronwhohaddesignsontheIsleofMan,wasputincommandagainstrebels‘lurkinginScotlandandtheislesbetweenScotlandandIreland’.TheRedEarlofUlster,likehisdaughter,Robert’squeen,clearlywantednothingtodowithRobert’sambitionsandmadenodifficultiesforroyalagentsinvolvedinthepursuit.ThesheriffofCumberland

wasorderedtocommandeervesselsandsentthemtoAyr,whichbecameanavalbaseforMontacute,Bissetandanothercommander,WilliamleJettour,allofwhomwereengagedinthehuntforBruce.ByFebruarytheyhadattheirdisposal15vesselsand200sailors,andtheypatrolledthewatersaroundArranandBute.AlsoatAyrwasthevictorofMethven,AymerdeValence,with

significantlandforces.EvidentlytheBruceswereexpectedtoattemptalandingontheScottishmainland.Edward’scorrespondencebetraysdeepanxietyfornewsaboutthewhereaboutsoftheBrucesandtheprogressofthehunt.Occasionallyhereceivedreportsfromspies.MontacutewasoneofthosepaidforinformationaboutScotsreceivedinUlster.Robert’sagentshadbeen

busyseekingmilitarysupportfromtheRedEarl’srestlessGaelicvassals,andthatEdward’sspiesweremonitoringtheiractivities.On6February1307EdwardconsideredthatAymerdeValencehadbeentoocautious,andheinstructedhistreasurer,WalterLangton,towritetoValenceandtheothersatAyr,tellingthemthatthekingunderstoodfromelsewherethattheyhadmade

suchahashofthepursuitthattheydarednottellhim.FivedayslaterhewrotedirectlytoValenceinthesameterms.Edwardhadheardnothingofthesort,but,lyinginhissickbedinLanercostPriory,hewasconsumedbyanxietyfornews,anxietywhichprobablyhastenedhisdemise.TheBrucescouldnotwait

forEdward’sdeath,however,forthegoodweatherwouldallowMontacute’ssquadrons

topenetrateeventotheouterisles.TheypreparedtolandontheScottishmainlandintwostages.TowardstheendofJanuary1307,RobertarrivedinKintyre,andremainedthereaboutsforamonthorso,evadingMontacute’spatrols.AtaroundthesametimeJamesDouglasandRobertBoyd–neitherofwhomhadaccompaniedthekingonhisvoyages–mountedanattack

onBrodickcastleontheIsleofArranfromthemainland.Theyfailedtocaptureit,butmanagedtolinkupwithRobertnevertheless.Thenon9February1307asecondforce,ofeighteengalleys,ledbyThomasandAlexanderBruce,madealandinginGalloway.ThisforceincludedSirReginaldCrawford,aformersheriffofAyr;MalcolmMacQuillan;and‘acertainIrishkinglet’,

andthelandingwasinterpretedasarevengeattackonthepeopleofGallowayfortheirfailuretosupportRobert’skingship.DungalMacDowallattackedituponlanding,andonlytwogalleysescaped.Thefollowingpayment,madeinthewardrobeoftheprinceofWaleson19February,explainsthefateoftheleaders:‘ToDungalMacDowall,captainofthe

armyofGalloway,comingtothecourtofthePrinceatWetheralandleadinginhiscompanySirThomasBruceandAlexanderhisbrotherandSirReginaldCrawford,traitorsoftheking,havingcapturedtheminbattle,togetherwiththeheadsofcertainothertraitorsofIrelandandKintyre,cutoffbythesaidDungalandhisarmy…1mark.’FromthisitappearsthatMalcolm

MacQuillanandtheIrishchieftainhadbeenkilledinbattlebytheGallovidians.AlexanderoughttohavebeensparedonaccountofhisstatusasdeanofGlasgow;neverthelessallthreeprisonersweretakentoCarlisleforexecution.Thomaswasdrawnatthetailsofhorsesthroughthestreets,hangedandbeheadedon17February;theothertwowerehangedandbeheaded.

ForhisgoodserviceMacDowallreceivedafurther£40andwasknightedatEaster,butheearnedthelastingenmityoftheremainingBrucebrothers.Robert,lurkingonArranor

elsewhereintheClydeEstuary,sentaspybythenameofCuthberttoCarrick,whofoundthat,throughfearoftheEnglish,themenoftheearldomcouldnolongerbereliedupon.Cuthbertdecided

thereforeagainstsettingalightabeacon,thesignalforRoberttocross;neverthelessafirewaslitwhichRobertandhismenmistookforthesignal,andtheycrossedintoCarrickaround10February.Theearldomhadbeensubduedtheprevioussummer,anditwasoccupiedbyenemytroops,bothincastlegarrisonsandbilletedinvillages.ItcomesacrossquitestronglyfromBarbour

that,farfromwelcominghometheirexiledearl,thepeopleofCarrickdisplayedlittleresidualloyaltytotheBrucesandanabidingfearoftheEnglish:

BothhighandlowthelandwasthenOccupiedbyEnglishmenWhoscornedaboveallelseRobertBrucethedoughtyking.CarrickwasthengivenentirelyToSirHenrythelordPercyWhoinTurnberrycastlethen

WaswithalmostthreehundredmenAndhesodominatedallthelandSothateveryonewasobedienttohim.ThisCuthbertsawtheirwickednessAndsawthefolkwholeheartedlyBecomesowhollyEnglish,bothrichandpoorThattononedaredhedisclosehimself.

AlittlefurtheroninthenarrativeBarbourreturnstothistheme:

WhenthekingandhisfolkwereArrived,asItoldyouearlierHestayedawhileinCarrickToseewhowouldbefriendandwhofoe.ButhefoundlittlesupportAnd,althoughthepeoplesidedwithhiminpart,EnglishmensoharshlyGovernedthemwiththreatsand

powerThattheydidnotdareshowhimanyfriendship.

Robert’sownearldomwasutterlyhostiletohim.Thecommonpeople,whatevertheirtruesympathies,hadnoconfidencethathewouldtriumphinthelongrun,andthereforenoguaranteeofprotectionfromthevengeanceoftheEnglish.EdwardI,atCarlisle,was

aswellinformedaboutRobert’slandingashehadbeenaboutthatofThomasandAlexander.FifteenknightsandsomefortyothercavalrywereimmediatelydispatchedagainstRobert,ledbyJohnBotetourt,andfourhundredandsixtyfoot-soldiersweresenttoreinforceAymerdeValence.HenryPercy,towhomRobert’searldomofCarrickhadbeengranted,alsomobilisedto

capturehim.Robertseemstohavenotonlysuccessfullyevadedtheseforces,butafteratimetohaveinflictedhumiliationonPercy.HisbandsurprisedPercy’sbaggagetrain,andcapturedhorsesandsilverplate.PercyscuttledintothesafetyofTurnberryCastle,anddidnotstiruntilaforceofNorthumberlandinfantryarrivedtoenablehisevacuation.TheEnglishand

theiralliessearchedforRobertfortheremainderofthespring.Unabletorelyonhis

formertenantsandconfrontedwithanenemysuperiornumericallyandwitheveryotherconceivableadvantage,Robertremainedinthehillsandmoors.Moorland,marshlandandhillcountry,impenetrabletoheavycavalry,becamehis‘favourableterritory’,where

hewassafe,andtheenemyillatease.Hereliedonambushandsurprisetomakethebestuseofhissmallforce.Choosinghisgroundcarefully,hewouldsuddenlyemergetowinaminorskirmishandthenretreatoncemoreintothewilderness.Hepreferredsmallengagements,thusminimisinghislossesandcapitalisinguponthesnowballeffectofaseriesofsmallvictories.Henever

engagedtheenemyunlesssureofvictory.Heterrorisedunsympatheticvillagesandlocalcommunities,forcingthemtopaylargefines,toprovidesuppliesormilitaryservice.Thushecreatedalocal‘climateofinsecurity’,wherelordscouldnotguaranteeprotectiontotheirvassals,andwherethewritofthekingoftheEnglandcouldnotrun.Immenselynegativeanddestructiveintheshort

term,thesetacticseventuallypermittedRoberttobroadenthebasisofhisownlordship,tocreate,ineffect,‘liberatedareas’.Thisisallinstantly

recognisabletothemodernmindasguerrillawarfare,‘thewaroftheflea’,whereallstrategyistossedtothewindinfavouroftacticaladvantage.Facedwithastarkchoicebetweenignominioussurvivalandatraitor’sdeath

andtheendofhisdynasty,Robertstoopedtomodesofcombatthatwereplainlybeneathhisroyalandlordlydignity.Havinglostthreebrothers,awifeandchildandmanyloyalfriendstothisbrutalisingwarwithEdwardI,hewasperhapsdriventotheconclusionthatvictorycouldnotbewonthroughchivalricfeatsofarms;butthatvictory,howeversqualid,mustbewonatallcosts.

Guerrillawarfaredidnotcomeeasilytohaughtyfeudallordstowhomhonourandchivalrywereeverything,whoconsideredthemselvesborntoleadthecavalrychargewithheraldicbannersflyingproudly,andwhoseverybreedingrevoltedat‘churlish’modesofcombat.InmedievalChristendomtheconductofknightswasoftenbarbaric–especiallywhenfightingnon-Christiansor

socialinferiors–yetitwasuncommonforknightsfightingtheirpeerstoadoptsystematicallytacticsofambush,surpriseandterrorismtooffsetnumericaldisadvantage.LaterRobertreceivedadressingdownforhis‘unchivalrous’methodsfromhisnephew,ThomasRandolph,who,afterhehadrejoinedtheking,criticisedhimthus:

Yourebukeme,Butratheryoushouldberebuked.ForsinceyoumadewaronthekingofEngland,Youshouldstrivetoproveyourrightbyopenfighting,Andnotbycowardiceorcunning.

ForthatinsolenceRandophwasheldinconfinement,butthecriticismshereportedlyvoicedmayhavebeenwidelyshared.Followinghisraidon

Percy’sbaggagetrain,

Robert’snextsuccessfulactionwasindeedthestuffofguerrillawarfare:aruthlessmassacre.Barbourdescribeshow,inavillagenearTurnberry,BruceandhismendescendeduponEnglishtroopsbilletedtherein,anddispatchedmanyofthemintheirsleep.28EvenBarbourseemsalittleshame-facedabouttheepisode,andheputstheseunconvincingwordsof

justificationintoRobert’smouth:

Andevenifwekilledthemallwhensleeping,NomancouldreproachusforitForawarriorshouldnotbotherWhetherhecanovercomehisenemybymightorguile,Solongasgoodfaithisalwaysmaintained.

AtnightthescreamsofthesurprisedtrooperswereheardbyPercy’sgarrisoninside

TurnberryCastle,butnonedaredventureout.OnlywhenaforceofNorthumberlandinfantryarriveddidPercyleavethesafetyofthecastle.Robertdidnothowevertakepossessionofit,whichwouldhaveofferedtheenemyatarget,butslightedthecastletoensurethatitcouldaffordtheenemynofurtherprotection.Forthepresenthepreferredtoremainontherun.Destructionofcastles

becameanothercentralplankinRobert’sstrategy.Hesystematicallydestroyedfortificationstoroblordsofthesecuritythattheseafforded.Indoingso,heforcedthemtocommittohiscause.AfterthisRobert’s

guerrillabandreceivedsomeadherencefromthelocalgentry.Barbourdescribeshowaladyofthatcountry,‘whowascloselyrelatedto

him’–thoughnamelessinthepoem–was‘greatlycheeredathisarrival’.Shecontributedfortymentohisforce,andgaveRobertthegrimnewsofthefatesthathadbefallentheladiesofhishousehold,hisbrotherNeil,theearlofAthollandChristopherSeton.ItisspeculatedthatthisladytoowasRobert’smistress.SheisoftenidentifiedasChristinaofCarrick,whomRobert

decreedmanyyearslatershouldbepaidanannualallowanceoffortyshillings.

Manytimesshecomfortedtheking,BothwithsilverandwithfoodSuchasshecouldgetintheland.

InthemiddleofMarch,JohnBotetourtwassearchingforRobertinNithsdale,withalargeforceofcavalry.Evidentlyhefoundhim,forcompensationwaspaidto

Botetourtforhorsesloston12March.PerhapsasaresultofBotetourt’slossestheEnglishgovernmentorderedleviesofnorthernEnglishfoot-soldierstoassembleatCarlisleon15April‘topursueRobertBruceandhisaccompliceswhoarelurkinginthemoorsandmarshesofScotland’.InApriltheymusthavehadnewsthathewasinGlenTrool,foron17Aprilaforceofthirtyhorserodeout

fromCarlisletoseekoutRobertinthatvicinity.ThereisnorecordthattheyencounteredRobert’sband.Barbourstressesthat

Robertatthistimewasvulnerabletobetrayal.HerecountsthatSirIngramUmfravillehadoffered£40-worthoflandinreturnforRobert’smurder,andincludestwoversionsofanepisodewherethreemensetouttokillhim.Aone-eyed

Carrickman,ofsturdybuild,andhistwosonslayinwaitforRobertonemorningasherosetoansweracallofnature.Robertwasaccompaniedonlybyapagecarryingacrossbow,buthewasaccustomedtowearhisswordatalltimes.WiththeseweaponsRobertdispatchedallthreewould-beassassins.Inasimilarepisode,thekingandhisfoster-brotherspentthenightinanabandoned

farmsteadinthecompanyofthreetraitors.Althoughthekingtriumphed–asalways–hisfoster-brotherwaskilled,and‘thekingwentforth,sadandangry,grievingtenderlyoverhisman’.Inoneofthemostfamous

oftheseepisodesfromBarbour,menfromGallowayattackedRobert’scamponeevening,andusedabloodhoundtofollowtheking’strail.Robert’s

entouragewaspursuedintoruggedterrain,wherethekingbecameseparatedfromhisfollowersand,atanarrowford,single-handedlyheldoffthe200-strongenemy.Laterinthetext,itisJohnofArgyllwhohuntsthekingwithhoundandhorn,‘asifhewereawolf,athief,orathief’saccomplice’.Theseepisodes,somerepresentingdifferentversionsofthesametale,othersseveralepisodes

rolledtogether,andothersnodoubtborrowingsfromclassicalorCelticmyth,allrepresentfacetsofanimportantdevelopment:thatmythsofRobert’sstrength,courageandworthinessgrewaseventsunfolded.ItcanalsobeinferredfromtheBarbourtextthatchangesweregraduallyoccurring.ThesizeofBruce’sforcewasincreasing.Thereismentionofaroyalbannerwhich

signifiedRobert’spresenceandkingship:itisperhapsthebannerofAlexanderIII.WholedistrictsbegantodeclareforRobert:‘hemadethelandofKyleobedienttohimself’,and‘thegreaterpartofCunninghamheldtohislordship’.Barbourdoesnotneglect

theactivitiesofhisotherhero,JamesDouglas.Allthereturnedexileswereanxioustorecoverpossessionoftheir

ownlandsandrents,andDouglasandhismensetouttorecoverhispatrimony.InthefirstofmanytalesofingenioustricksplayedbytheScotstodupecastlegarrisons,BarbourdescribeshowDouglasdisguisedhismenasaconvoyofpeasantsleadingpackanimalsladenwithgraintotheWhitsunfairatLanark.ThisepisodemaythenbedatedtoMay1307.Theconvoywounditswayclose

bythecastleatDouglasinLanarkshire,temptingthegarrisontosallyoutandcapturethegrain.Asthegarrisonapproached,Douglas’smenthrewthesacks,filledonlywithgrass,offthesaddlesand,mountingthehorses,attackedthesortieandracedtowardstheundefendedcastle.Douglasgainedaccessandpaidtheremainingsoldierstoclearoff;thenheknockeddown

thewallofthecastleanddestroyeditshousessothatitwasuselesstotheenemy.Thatwasonlyatemporarysuccesshowever.RobertClifford,towhomthecastlehadbeengranted,wassubsequentlygiven£100andtwenty-onemasonstomakegoodthedamage,andthecastlewasrepairedandgarrisonedthatsummer.Around10Maytheretook

placetheencounterbetween

theBrucebandandAymerdeValenceatLoudonHill.WalterLangton,BishopofLichfield,theroyaltreasurer,wastouringthegarrisonsofthesouth-west,makingpaymentstoensuretheirloyalty.Forsecurity,hewasaccompaniedbyValence.Robertwasclearlyinterestedincapturingthechestsofsilvercointhattravelledwiththetreasurer,andhepreparedtoambushhimfirstat

Galston,thenatLoudon,whereagoodfirmroadranthroughmarshonbothsides.Robertpreparedthegroundbydiggingthreeditchestofortifyhispositionontheroad,andhismen,usedtorunning,hidingandguerrillafightingforayearnow,preparedwithapprehensiontofacetheapproachingcavalry:

Theirbascinettswereallburnished

brightGleaminginthesun’slight;Theirspears,theirpennonsandtheirshieldsLitupallthefieldswithlightTheirbestbright-embroideredbanners,HorseofmanyhuesCoatsofarmourofdiversecoloursAndhauberkswhichwereaswhiteasflourMadethemglitter,asthoughtheywereliketoAngelsfromthekingdomofheaven.

Valence’simpressivelyarmouredcavalrywasroutedbyRobert’sforceofentrenchedspearmen,who,Barboursuggests,numberedaboutsixhundred,andValencewasforcedtofleetoBothwell.Robertdidnotgethishandsonthetreasure,however,nordidhismengetthechancetoplundertheenemy,asValence’sforceseemstohaveretiredlargelyintact.Butaletterfromthe

EnglishcourtshowsthatthedefeatputValenceoncemoreinbadodouratcourt:‘ThekinghadbeenmuchenragedbecausetheGuardianofScotland[Valence]andtheotherfolkhadretreatedbeforeKingHobbewithoutdoinganyexploit.’Thisletteralsorevealsthatpriortothebattle,Douglas–whomweareusedtoconsideringasRobert’sfaithfulfriend–hadbeenthinkingaboutdefecting

totheEnglish.Thatrevelation,morethananyother,demonstratesjusthowprecariousRobert’spositionwasinthespringof1307.Evenso,whileRobert

himselfwascontainedinthesouth-westofScotland,thereisevidencethatindistantpartstheBruces’franticdiplomacyintheGaidhealtachdoverthepreviouswinterwasbeginningtotakeeffect.In

Forfar,ahundredmilesfromGlenTroolandacrosstheScottishSea,aletterof15Maysuggeststhateventsinthesouth-westwerebeingcloselywatchedandexaggeratedtosuggesttheimminenceofBruce’sultimatetriumph:‘IhearthatBruceneverhadthegoodwillofhisownfollowersorofthepeoplegenerallysomuchwithhimasnow.ItappearsthatGodiswithhim,forhe

hasdestroyedKingEdward’spowerbothamongEnglishandScots.’Robertofcoursehaddonenothingofthesortasyet.ButtheForfarcorrespondentidentifiesthepropagandistswhohadsodemolishedthemoraleoftheAnglo-Scots:

ThepeoplebelievethatBrucewillcarryallbeforehim,exhortedbyfalsepreachersfromBruce’sarmymenwhohavepreviouslybeen

chargedbeforethejusticesforadvocatingwarandhavebeenreleasedonbail,butnowarebehavingworsethanever.Ifullybelieve,asIhaveheardfromReginaldCheyne,DuncanofFrendraughtandGilbertofGlencarniewhokeepthepeacebeyondtheMounthandonthisside,thatifBrucecangetawayinthisdirectionortowardsthepartsofRosshewillfindthepeopleallreadyathiswillmoreentirelythanever,unlessKingEdwardcansendmoretroops,fortherearemanypeoplelivingloyallyinhispeace

solongastheEnglishareinpower.MayitpleaseGodtoprolong

KingEdward’slife,formensayopenlythatwhenheisgonethevictorywillgotoBruce.ForthesepreachershavetoldthepeoplethattheyhavefoundaprophecyofMerlin,thatafterthedeathof‘leRoyCoveytous’thepeopleofScotlandandtheWelshshallbandtogetherandhavefulllordshipandliveinpeacetogethertotheendoftheworld.

Thishugelysignificantletter

raisesanumberofpoints.Firstly,itillustratesthepowerofmillenarianpreachinginthemedievalworld,anduseofprophecytomagnifyrumourandcreaterealopportunityfromremotepossibility.ThisisnotthefirsttimeinthelifeofBrucethatwehaveencounteredpoliticalprophecy,the‘mediaspin’ofitsday.Robert,orhisalliesamongtheclergy,haddispatchedsuchpreachersfar

andnear,formentingasenseofforebodingandimminentchange.Secondly,theletterservestoremindusthattheScottishclergy–notjustitslowerorders,butatleastfourbishops–werelargelysupportiveoftheBruceclaimtothethrone;wehavealreadyencounteredBishopDavidMurraypreachingholywaronRobert’sbehalf.Thirdly,itpointsuptheseriousgapinourknowledge:theunknown

agreementsforgedduringBruce’ssojournintheWesternIsles.ThatnortherndistrictsshouldbeinsuchexpectationofRobert’sultimatevictory,whilehehimselfwasmerelylivingthelifeofasuccessfulbanditinthesouth-west,takessomeaccountingfor.SupportfortheBrucecauseinRosscanonlyhavebeentheresultofMacRuaridhinfluence,coupledwiththedistanceand

terrainthatpreservedthenorth-westfromEnglishreprisal.Oneistemptedtosuggestexplanationsforwhichthereisnoevidence:wasthereperhapsagrowthinthepopulation,andhenceinthemilitarysignificance,ofthenorth-west?ProfessorBarrowfoundthatBruceconsistentlyrecruitedhisarmiesfromnorthoftheForth,andthereisevidencethatnorthernScots

accompaniedRobertonhislaterraidsintoEngland.Thecontrastbetweenthe

expectationsexpressedintheForfarletterandBruce’sprecariousthoughimprovingpositioninthesouth-westisremarkable.FollowinghiscreditabledisplayintheopenfieldatLoudonHill,Robertconsidereditprudenttoretreattothemountainsoncemore.Barbourportrayshimhuntingandrelaxinginthe

safetyofadeepglen,behavingwithrathermorenonchalancethanhispositionwouldwarrant.HerelatesthattheEnglish,‘ridingbynight,keepingtocoverbyday’arrivedsecretlywithinamileofRobert’slocation,andthattheysentabeggar-womantospyonhim.Thebeggar,however,arousedRobert’ssuspicions;hehadherseized,andsheconfessedthatValenceandhismenwere

alreadyclosinginonhimthroughthewoods.QuicklyRobertdonnedarmourandpreparedtofendofftheattack,andtheEnglishfledinsuchdisarray,Barbourrecounts,thattheirleadersfelloutwithoneanother.TherecordsofpaymentbytheEnglishwardrobehowever,testifytoadifferentsortofaction,butonenolesssuccessfulfortheBruces.Ahorse-listrevealsthat,around

themiddleofJune,twenty-threemen-at-armswerekilledwhilechasingRobertBrucebetweenGlenTrooland‘Glenheur’.IfProfessorDuncaniscorrectininterpreting‘Glenheur’asthevalleyoftheUrrWater,thenValencepursuedRobertfortwenty-fivemiles,throughtheruggedgrandeurofwhatistodayGallowayForestPark.Afortnightlaterthere

camethenewsthattheForfarcorrespondenthaddreaded.On3JulyEdwardofEnglandhadriddenoutofCarlisle,awarethatonlyhispresencewouldrestorethesituationinsouth-westScotland.HeadingforDumfries,hespentthenightof6JulyatBurghbySands,buthewasfounddeadbyhisservantsthefollowingmorning.Hisofficials,wellawareoftheeffectthatnewsofhisdeathwouldhavein

Scotland,atfirstattemptedtosuppressit.TherewasnoletupinthesearchforRobertBruce.ThatmonthJohnofArgyllwasatAyrwithaforceof800men–afigurewhichwecantellfromadministrativesourcesthatBarbourgivescorrectly–andhewasaccompaniedbyRobert’snephew,ThomasRandolph,stillloyaltoEdwardI.IntheBarbournarrativeJohnsetoutwitha

trackerdogtofindRobert,theninthevicinityofCumnock.AlthoughRobert’sbandsplitup,thetrackerdogalwaysstayedinhotpursuitoftheking’sgroup.Johnsentanadvancepartyoffivemen,fleetoffoot,toheadoffRobert.Thehero-kingdispatchedfouroftheseenemies,andhisfoster-brotherthefifth.Onthenewsofhisfather’s

death,EdwardofCaernarfon

travelledfromLondontotakechargeofthecampaign,andhewasinScotlandon31July.HeadvancedtoDumfries,wherehedividedhisarmyintothreecolumnsandsetoutinpursuitoftherebelearlofCarrick.HemovedthroughTibbersandSanquharbeforereachingCumnock,wherehestayedtendays.DuringthistimeRobertdidnotdaretoputhisheadabovetheparapetand

avoidedaction.ButEdwardretiredtoCarlisleon1September.Hiscampaignwasperfunctory,forhewasrequiredtoreturntoEnglandfortheobsequiesofhisgreatfather,toholdaparliamentandtoattendtoarrangementsforhisownmarriageandcoronation.RequiringAymerdeValenceforotherservices,herelievedhimoftheScottishcommandandappointedinsteadtheless

ableJohnofBrittany.WhenEdwarddeparted,RobertcelebratedwithavengefulattackonthehatedGallovidians–thefirstofmany.InthiswaytheremainingBrucebrothers,RobertandEdward,exactedrevengefromthosewhosixmonthspreviouslyhadcapturedThomasandAlexanderandhandedthemoverforexecution.By25SeptemberGallovidian

refugeeswerepouringacrosstheborder,seekingsafetyandgrazingfortheirherdsofcattleinInglewoodForest.DungalMacDowallandDungalMacCannwrotetothekingofEnglandappealingforhelp,complainingthattheBruceswereforcingthemenofthosepartstoperformmilitaryservice.TheBrucespursuedtherefugeesmercilessly,carryingwarintoEnglandforthefirsttime.On

theEnglishWestMarchkeepersofthepeacehadtobeappointed‘forthepreservationofthosepartsfromincursionsoftheking’senemiesandtopunishrebels’,andtheCumberlandknightThomasdeMultonwasorderedtoassistthekeepers‘owingtothethievingincursionsofRobertBruce’.Towardstheendof

SeptemberRobertsteeled

himselfforatremendousgambleandmoveddecisivelynorthwards.Itwasaboldstep,butnecessary,forhispositionwasstillfarfromsecureinthesouth-west,theareawhereBrucedynasticinfluencemighthavebeenexpectedtopredominate.Clearly,RoberttoohadheardthoserumoursofgrowingsupportforhiscauseinthenorthwhichtheForfarcorrespondenthadreported.

Toseekalliesandtobroadenthebasisofhiskingshiphehadtomovenorthwards.HisgreatadversaryEdwardIhavinggonetohisreward,RobertwasanxioustocapitaliseuponanyfalteringintheEnglishwareffort.HismostdangerousfoeshoweverwereScottish,andRobertnowturnednorthwardstofacehisbitterestenemies:themagnatefactionthathadgovernedScotlandforfifty

years,theComyns,andtheimplacableMacDougalllordsofArgyll.

6Recoveringthekingdom(1307–

11)

Withthedeathof‘leroy

coveytous’inJuly1307,andwithRobert’sdecisionthefollowingSeptembertomovebeyondtheheartlandofBrucedynasticinfluence,thewarandRobert’slifeenteredanewphase.GonewerethedaysofstrugglingfranticallyforsurvivalinthewakeofthecatastrophiesofMethvenandtheGallowaylanding.Robertandhisallieswereseizingtheinitiativeandcarryingwartotheenemy.Theperiod

witnessedthedevastationofthreecentresofresistancetohispower:Buchan,GallowayandArgyll;afourthcentre,Lothian,Robertwasnotyetstrongenoughtoreduce.IntheBarbourtexttwoprincipalthemesemerge.ThefirstishowtheBrucefactionmanagedtoovercometheoverwhelmingmaterialadvantagesoftheirenemiesbycunningandguile.Thisisillustratedbythecaptureand

destructionofmanycastlesgarrisonedbytheirenemies.ThesecondthemeistheincreasingrecognitioninScotlandofRobertasking.BarbourportraystheperiodintermsofaninexorableRisorgimento,astheScottishpeoplecometotheirsensesandrecognisethehero-king,butweknowdifferent.Civilwarsarealwaysmoresavageandbitterthanforeignwars,andevenintheBarbour

narrativethescaleofbloodlettingisapparentasRobertBrucerecovershiskingdomwithruthlessperseverance.Thisescalationofthe

strugglewasmadepossiblebythelong-anticipateddemiseofEdwardIandtheaccessiontotheEnglishthroneofhisson.EdwardofCaernarfon,EdwardIIashenowwas,wasneitherthecolossusofstatesmanshipnor

thegeniusofimperialexpansionismthathisfatherhadbeen.Acontemporarydescribedhischaracterintheseterms:

ThisEdwardwasfairofbodyandgreatofstrength,andunsteadfastinmanners,ifmenshallbelievewhatiscommonlytold.Forheforsookthecompanyoflordsandsoughtoutthecompanyofharlots,singers,jesters,carters,delvers,ditchers,rowers,shipmenandbootmen,andothercraftsmen;he

alsogavehimselfuptomuchdrinking.Hewouldlightlyshareconfidencesandhitmenwhowereabouthimforthemerestoffence,andhedidmorebytheadviceofothermenthanbyhisown.Hewasgenerousandsolemninfeastmaking,loquaciousandinconstant,irritatedbyhisenemiesandcrueltohisown.Helovedstronglyoneofhisfavouritesanddidhimgreatreverence,worshippedhimandmadehimextremelyrich.Fromthiscamehatredtothelover,evilspeechandbackbitingtotheloved,slandertothepeopleandharmand

damagetotherealm.

ThomasofCastlefordismorepithy:‘thisEdwardwaswiseinword,andfoolindeed.’EdwardIIwasconsideredbytheEnglishnobilityofthedaytobeanundignifiedcharacter.Hewashomosexual,andthefavouritereferredtoabovewasaGasconknightcalledPiersGaveston,whom,tothedisgustofthemagnates,

EdwardelevatedtotheearldomofCornwall.Likehisfather,EdwardIIwasanxioustomaintainandincreasethepoweroftheEnglishmonarchy,andthatincludedholdingontoScotlandbyeveryconceivablemeans,buthelackedhisfather’ssingle-mindedness,hispowerfulinfluenceovertheEnglishfeudalnobilityandhisoverbearingpersonality.SoonEdwardIIdevelopedadeep-

seatedhatredofthemostpowerfulofalltheEnglishnobles,ThomasofLancaster.Altogether,thesecondEdwardwasanopponentoflesserstaturethanEdwardIhadbeen,andRobertwasfortunatethatEdwardI’ssuccessorwasincompetentandunder-mighty.OneEnglishannalistrecordsapossiblesayingofRobert:that‘hefearedthebonesofthedeadkingmorethanhe

didtheliveone,andthatitwasagreaterfeatofwartowrestsixinchesofterritoryfromEdwardIthantogainawholekingdomfromhisson’.Thecharacterofthe

EnglishkingdirectlyaffectedthenatureofthewarRobertwasengagedin.EdwardIIhadleftScotlandon1September1307withoutconfrontingRobertandhisguerrillaband,andhedidnotreturnuntil1310,allowing

Robertthreeyearsinwhichtoestablishasecurepowerbase.Inretrospectwecanseethemagnitudeofthiserror;1307–10werethe‘locustyears’ofEnglishoccupation,whenwhatwasdearlywonbythestrenuouseffortsofthepreviousreignwasrecklesslyfritteredaway.MilitaryandfinancialsupportforgarrisonsandScottishcommunitiesthatacceptedEdwardII’skingshipweresorely

neglected;anothercatastrophicerrorwhichRobertdidnotfailtopunish.ToEdward’ssupportersinScotland,dependentuponadistantanddistractedgovernment,theofferofsuffrauncedeguerreorpurchasedtrucealwaysseemedattractive.Naïvelytheytrustedthattimewasontheirside,thattheEnglishkingwouldsoonerorlatercometohelpthem;whereas

Robertofferedtrucesonlytoneutralisethestrongwhilepickingoffthefrightenedandvulnerable.IntimeitbecameclearthatthefarawayEnglishkingpromisedmuchanddeliveredlittle,whileRobertpresentedanimmediateandpressingthreattoincreasinglyisolatedlordsandcommunities.BarbourtellsusthatRobert

setoutnorthwardsinSeptember1307withhis

brotherEdward,GilbertHay,SirRobertBoydandothers.Hissmallarmymarchedswiftly,butgrewsignificantlyalongtheway.Therearenodetailsoftheninety-milejourneytothenorth-west;hisforcemarcheddowntheClyde,northalongLochLomondandoverthemountainstotheheadofLochLinnhe.Movingwithgreatspeed,hewillhavebeenverycarefultoavoidany

encounterwithJohnofArgyll.Malcolm,EarlofLennox,appearstohaverejoinedtheking,andRobertreceivednavalsupportonthewesternflankfromMacRuaridhandMacDonaldgalleys.Intherear,JamesDouglasremainedinSelkirkForest,thehaventhathadshelteredWallaceandSimonFraserbeforehim,andDouglas’sfollowingbecamesufficientlythreateningto

necessitatethegarrisoningofCarlisleCastlefrom16April1308toMichaelmasfollowing(29September).Robertmovedquicklyto

besiegetheComynstrongholdofInverlochyCastle,arrivingon25November1307.InverlochywasthekeytotheGreatGlen,theobviouscorridortothenorth.TheComynsweresurprised;evidentlytheyhadnotprovisionedthecastle

adequatelyanditwashandedovertoRobert‘bythedeceitandtreasonofthemenofthecastle’.RobertprobablyslightedInverlochy,ashedestroyedallthecastlesthatfellintohishandsatthisstage.Hethenmovedrapidlynorth-eastalongtheglen,destroyingCastleUrquhartonLochNessalongtheway,andatthefarendhecapturedanddestroyedInverness.Probablythegalleyswerehauledor

carriedoverlandbetweenthelochsoftheGreatGlen,allowingRoberttomoverapidlyandamphibiously.TothenorthandwestlaythehostileterritoriesofCaithness,SutherlandandRoss.InalettertoEdwardIIWilliam,EarlofRoss,offeredexplanationsastowhyhewasforcedtocometotermswithBruce:

weheardofthecomingofSirRobertBrucetowardsthepartsofRosswithagreatpower,sothatwehadnopoweragainsthim,butneverthelesswecausedourmentobecalledoutandwewerestationedforafortnightwiththreethousandmenatourownexpense,onthebordersofourearldomandintwootherearldoms,SutherlandandCaithnessand[Bruce]wouldhavedestroyedthemutterlyifwehadnotmadeatrucewithhim,attheentreatyofgoodmen,bothclergyandothers,untilWhitsun

next[2June1308].Mayhelpcomefromyou,ourlord,ifitpleaseyou,forinyouSirisallourhopeandtrust.Andknow,dearlord,thatwewouldonnoaccounthavemadeatrucewithhimifthewardenofMoray[ReginalddeCheyne]hadnotbeenabsentfromthecountry…

Ross’sblamingofhisneighbourforfailingtosupporthimistypicalofthereactionoftheAnglo–Scottishlords,wholacked

leadershipaboveall.Robertestablishedapattern:byforcedmarchesandsurpriseattacksheoutmanoeuvredandcaughthisenemiesunawares,dividingthemandforcingthemsinglyintotemporarysubjection.Robertismostunlikelytohavefaceddownanarmyof3,000men.TheearlhasgreatlyexaggeratedthesizeofRobert’sarmytojustifyhisfailuretoresist.Infact,atthis

pointinthenarrativeBarbourestimatesRobert’sstrengthatarealistic700men.Rossprobablypaidheavilyintributeinordertosecurethistruce.ItwasnowlateNovember,

andRobertwithconfidenceturnedhisbackonRoss.HemarchedeastwardstodestroyInvernessandNairncastles.Atthispointhowever,hisattacklostmomentum.HewasunabletoreduceElgin

butmadeatrucewiththedefenders.Hewasnowindeeplyhostileterritory,heldbytheComynsforgenerations,and,winterthoughitwas,theComynsorganisedtheAnglo–Scottishlordsofthenorthforacounter-attack.ThecombinedstrengthsofJohnComyn,EarlofBuchan;DavidofStrathbogie,EarlofAtholl,thesonandheirofEarlJohn;DuncanofFrendraught;and

JohnMowbrayclosedin.Onecanscarcelyimaginea

worsetimeforRoberttofallill,whichoccurredashewasadvancingonBanffCastle.Ofthenatureoftheillnessweknownothing;hewasunabletoridehishorseandhadtobecarriedinalitter.Hismencouldfindnoeffectivemedicine.Thesicknesswasprobablytheresultofcampaigningintothewinter,andifso,manyofhismen

willhavebeenaffected.BarbourhasagoodwordforEdwardBruce’sattemptstorallythetroops,butEdwardmadenoattempttotakehisbrother’splacebyleadingthemenintobattle.TheystayedatDuncanofFrendraught’smanorofConcarnfortwonights;then,burningthemanorandallthecorn,theymovedontowardsSlioch,nearHuntly.ThegalleyfleetsoftheGaeliclordsdidnot

operateontheeasternseaboard.Desertionwasendemicinmedievalarmies,andmanyfollowingRobertwouldhaveseenthisasagoodtimetorunaway.OnChristmasDaytheenemysightedBruce’sforce,safefromcavalryattackin‘acertainwoodedmarsh’nearSlioch.Buchan’sarmyretiredtocollectasufficientinfantryforcetoflushouttheBruces,andhavingdonesothey

returnedtothespoton31December1307.Buttherewasnoengagementthatday,andduringthenighttheBruceswithdrewtowardsthesouth.Insteadofclosinginforthekill,theAnglo–Scottishleadersthenfelloutwithoneanother.Somelossofnerveorlackofleadershipseemstohaveovercomethematthiscrucialtime;Buchanwastodiein1308,andhemayhavebeenillalready.

TheyapproachedtheearlofRossandtriedtopersuadehimtojoinwiththemintheattack,butRosswastooterrifiedofreprisalstoabandonhistruce.AsaresultofpressurefromRoberttothesouthandeast,andfromtheMacRuaridhstothewest,hispowerhadcollapsed.TheMacRuaridhsnowrefusedtopaytheearlrevenuesfromSkyeandotherHebrideanislandshithertosubjecttothe

earldom.Robert’spolicyofdividingtheoppositionappearstohavetidedhimoverthedireemergencyofChristmas1307.Thefollowingspring

EdwardII’sfaithfulliegemeninnorthernScotlandwrotetohim,appealingforhelp.Edwardrespondedon20Mayintypicalfashion,thankingthemfortheirgoodserviceandorderingthemtostayintheircommands.Inearly

March1308JohnMowbraywasnexttobeforcedtoacceptatrucefromtheBruces;theywerethenfreetowastethecastleandlandsofSirReginaldCheyneatBalvenie–knownthenasMortlach–andofSirAlexanderComynatTarradale.RobertdispatchedWilliamWisemantothereartocapturethecastleofSkelboonPalmSunday,7April,andtorenewhissiegeofElgin

Castle,heldbyDuncanofFrendraught.WisemanwasnotabletocaptureElgin,however,forJohnMowbrayarrivedtorelieveitinapparentviolationofhisrecentagreementwiththeBruces.InMayof1308Robert,not

yetfullyrecoveredfromhisillness,decidedtoconfrontJohnComyn,EarlofBuchan,andJohnMowbray.Hemusthavereceivedanaccessionof

strengthduringthespring,butfromwhere?Itseemsthat,despitethepoweroftheComyns,notallnortherngentryandfreeholdersopposedRobert.EarlierintheyearJohnMowbrayhadhadtopunish‘freeholdersandotherswhomheknewtobeofill-repute’,apparentlyfortheirsupportoftheBruces.ThegrowthofRobert’sforceinthisunfavourableterritorylendssupporttoDuncan’s

assertionthatRobertpossessed‘thecapacitytoby-passthereluctanttraditionalleadersofthecommunityandtoappealtoandcommandothersocialranks’.Robertadvancedfrom

InverurietowardsOldMeldrum.There,inanactionknownastheBattleofInverurie,hisvanguardwasattackedandworstedbytheenemy.Whenthemainenemyforcecameinsight

Fordunreportsthat‘heorderedhismentoarmhimandsethimonhorseback.Whenthiswasdone,hetoo,withcheerfulcountenance,hastenedwithhishostagainsttheenemytothebattle-ground,althoughbyreasonofhisgreatweaknesshecouldnotgoupright,exceptwiththehelpoftwomentoprophimup.’ComynandMowbraywereputtoflightandtheirarmyscatteredand

‘pursuedasfarasFyvietwelveleaguesaway’.InthewakeofthisvictoryRobertsetaboutasystematicdestructionoftheearldomofBuchan,knowntohistoryinBarbour’sphraseas‘theherschipofBuchan’anddesignedtoweakenpermanentlytheComynpowerbase:

NowletusgotothekingagainWhowaswellpleasedwithhis

victoryAndhadhismenburnallBuchanFromendtoendandsparingnone.HeharriedtheminsuchawayThatagoodfiftyyearsafterwardsPeoplebemoaned‘theherschipofBuchan.’

Fromdetailedaccountsofthedestructionthat4befellthenorthofEnglandinthefollowingdecade,wecanpicturethedestructionofBuchan:theburningofbarnsandmills,theburningand

tramplingofstandingcrops,thekillinganddrivingoffofthetenantryandtheburningoftheirvillages.TheprominentsymbolsofComynlordshipintheareawouldallhavebeentargetedanddestroyed:DundargandSlainscastles,aswellasDeerAbbeywouldallhavebeenseverelydamaged.AfterthisRobertissaidtohave‘takenintohispeace’thepeoplenorthoftheMounth:thatisto

say,heacceptedasumofmoneytosparethemfromfurtherdestructionandtakethemunderhisprotection.Thecampaigningseason

properbegan,andforthefirsttimeRobertsethissightsonAberdeen,thenorthernmostsignificantport.Thiswouldbringhimtheadditionalrevenuesoftollsoncommerceandlucrativecustomsonwoolandhides.Itwouldalsoenablehimto

opencommunicationswithotherNorthSeatownsandkingdoms.AccordinglyRobertbesiegedAberdeenlateinJuneandaround1Augustitfelltohim.CommercialrelationswithtownsandcitiesacrosstheNorthSeawerenowpossible;itwillberememberedthatonthetakingofBerwick,WallacehadwastednotimeininvitingtraderstovisitliberatedScotland.Markets

hadtobefoundfortheproduceofRobert’sterritories–wool,hidesandtimber–andRobert’sforceswereinsoreneedofweaponryandarmour.Hisnoblestoowouldhavebeenclamouringforthoseluxurygoodsthatdifferentiatedthemfromtheirfollowers:high-qualityclothing,fursandwine.Moreimportantinthelong-termwasthediplomaticwindowonthewiderworld

thatAberdeenprovided.RobertwastednotimeinopeningdiplomaticrelationswithKingPhiliptheFairofFrance.WithinayearofthecaptureofAberdeenPhiliphadabandonedrecognitionofJohnBalliolandhadwrittentoEdwardIIdescribingRobertasKingofScots.Possessionofthisfirstport

enabledtheScotstoforgecrucialallianceswithseagoingpeoples.Robert

receivedonlydiplomaticsupportfromFrance,butthetownsoftheNorthSeacouldsupplyhimwithwarmaterialsinreturnforScottishwool.GermanmerchantsfromtheHanseaticcitiesofeasternGermany,knownasEastlanders,andFlemishtradershadresentedtheinterruptionswarhadbroughttotheScottishtrade,andtheywerekeenforittoresume.Since1303France

andEnglandhadbeenatpeace,whichhadlefteachoftheselargekingdomsfreetoattackitssmallerneighbours.WhileEnglandattackedScotland,FrancewasfreetopressurisetheFlemishtowns,particularlyGhentandBruges,whichwerecentresoftheEuropeancloth-makingindustry.Ontheseas,theScotsandFlemingsmadecommoncause,co-operatinginattacksonEnglishvessels,

andrunningtheblockadeofScottishports.ThroughAberdeen,theterritoriesunderRobert’sswaytradedwoolforarmsandfoodstuffssuppliedbytheFlemingsandGermans.TheNorthSeatradebetweenindependentScotlandandthecontinenthadalreadybeenanirritanttoEdwardI;toEdwardII,itwastobecomeaconstantirritation.AsearlyasApril1305

EdwardIhadsuspectedtheFlemingsofsustainingScottishrevolt.However,privateeringontheNorthSeabytheScots,FlemingsandEastlandersbeganinearnestfromabout1308,justbeforethecaptureofAberdeen.InthatyeartheEnglishtriedtoimposeablockadeonindependentScotland,butgiventhedistancesinvolvedthiswasalmostimpossibleforthemtoenforce.In

October1309EdwardIIcomplainedtothecountofFlandersandthecityofBrugesthatFlemishmerchantshadbeentradingwiththeScotsandtheirpartners,theEastlanders.Robertissuedformal‘lettersofmarque’,authorisingScottishcrewstoattackEnglishvessels.TypicallytheprivateerswouldcommandeerorrobanEnglishshipofitscargoof

wool,andtakethewooltoAberdeen.TheretheywouldremovethesealoftheEnglishcustomsknownasthecocket,theproofthatdutyhadbeenpaid,andreplaceitwitheithertheScottishcocketorwiththesealofaFlemishtraderoperatinginEngland.ThisthenenabledtheprivateerstosellthestolenEnglishwoollegitimatelyonthecontinent.Earlyin1311thenotorious

FlemishprivateerJohnCrabberobbedtwoshipsleavingNewcastlewitheighty-ninesacksofwool,anddisposedoftheminexactlythisfashion.Afterthecaptureof

Aberdeen,Robertturnedsouth-westtoconfrontArgyllinAugust1308.WithBuchandead,JohnofArgyllwascertainlythemostvirulentinresistancetotheBruces,buthehadbeenconfinedtobed

withillnessformonths.HewillhavestriventobuildacoalitionagainstBruce,butmostlords,himselfincluded,wereparochialinoutlookandsoughtfirstandforemostthesecurityoftheirownlandsandincomes.OntheapproachofBruce,JohnassembledasignificantforceofmenandgalleysandpreparedanambushontheslopesofBenCruachan.Theexactsiteofthebattleisin

dispute,29butJohn’sforcewaitedhighontheslopesofthemountaintoattackRobert’sarmyasitpassedbetweenthemountainandeitherLochAweortheseaatLochEtive.Roberthowever,hadanticipatedtheambushandsecretlysentDouglashigheruptheslopesstillwithaforceofarchers.30JohndirectedtheArgyllmenfromagalleyonthesealoch,but

whenhismenattackedbyrollingbouldersdownthehillasRobert’smainforcepassedbelow,theyfoundthemselvescaughtbetweenRobert’sandDouglas’sforces.TheywereforcedtotakeflightandtheyscrambleddownhillforthebridgeovertheRiverAwe,intendingtobreakitdownonceacross.ButRobert’smenwerehotontheirheelsandcaughtupwithandslaughteredtheenemyand

droveofftheircattle.Barbour,FordunandotherchroniclersstatethatDunstaffnageCastlewasthencaptured,butitisnowconsideredthatthisoccurredthefollowingyear;insteadRobertextractedtributefromArgyllinreturnforatruce,tolastuntiltheEnglishkingcametotheiraid.AfraidthathisacceptanceofRobert’stermswouldbeinterpretedasdesertion,Johnwrote

afterwardstoEdwardIIexplainingtheimpossibilityofhispositioninfaceofRobert’sstrength,assuringhimofhisloyaltyandurginghimtoleadanarmyintoScotland.UnsurprisinglyJohnmakesnomentionofhisdefeat,andhewildlyexaggeratesRobert’sstrength,thebettertoexplainhisactions:

RobertBruceapproachedthese

partsbylandandseawith10,000mentheysay,or15,000.Ihavenomorethan800men,500inmyownpaywhomIkeepcontinuallywithmetoguardthebordersofmyterritory.ThebaronsofArgyllgivemenoaid.YetBruceaskedforatruce,whichIgrantedhimforashortspace,andIhavegotasimilartruceuntilyousendmehelp.Ihaveheard,mylord,thatwhen

BrucecamehewasboastingandclaimingthatIhadcometohispeace,inordertoinflatehisownreputationsothatotherswouldrise

morereadilyinsupportofhim.Godforbidit.Icertainlydonotwishit,andifyouhearthisfromothersyouarenottobelieveit;forIshallalwaysbereadytocarryoutyourorderswithallmypower,whereverandwheneveryouwish.Ihavethreecastlestokeepaswellasalochtwenty-fourmileslong,onwhichIkeepandbuildgalleyswithtrustymentoeachgalley.Iamnotsureofmyneighboursinanydirection.Assoonasyouoryourarmy

come,then,ifmyhealthpermitsIshallnotbefoundwantingwhere

lands,shipsoranythingelseisconcerned,butwillcometoyourservice.

InfarawayWestminster,preoccupiedandinfatuated,EdwardIIfailedtotakethehint,andthatChristmas,Edwardlostyetanotherstronghold,Forfar,toRobert.Inothertheatresofcombat

Robert’slieutenantshadbeenactive,bothonhisbehalfandintheirowninterests.When

RoberthadmarchednorthwardsinSeptember1307JamesDouglashadbeguntoestablishhimselfdeepintheForestofSelkirk.Fromtherehemadefurthereffortstoregainhispatrimony.WithrelishBarbourdescribeshowthewilyDouglasplannedanotherassaultonDouglasCastle.Disguisedasathresher,secretlyarmedandaccompaniedbyonlyafew

men,heattendedthePalmSundayserviceatStBride’sKirk,thechancelofwhichstillstands;thementionofPalmSundaydatestheepisodeto7April1308.Thewholeofthegarrisonexceptacookandaporterwerepresentinchurch‘tocarrytheirpalms’.Prematurelyoneofhismengaveoutthetraditionalbattlecry‘Douglas!’,butDouglasdrewhisswordandlaidintothe

menofthegarrison.Inashorttimetwo-thirdsofthegarrisonlaydeadordying.Thirtyprisonerssurrendered,andDouglastookthecastleeasily.Heenteredtofindthetablelaidforthefeast.Hismenatetheirfillandthenransackedthebuildingforweapons,armour,treasureandclothing.Beforeleaving,hebeheadedhisprisonersandthrewtheirbodiesintothecellar.Intothecellartoohe

emptiedallthefoodhecouldnotcarryoff:

Hemadeafoulconcoctionthere,FormealandmaltandbloodandwineAllrantogetherintoamushThatwasdisgustingtosee.

Afterwardshepollutedthewellwithsaltandthebodiesofdeadhorses.Finally,hesetfiretoeverythingthatwouldburn,abidingbyBruce’spolicyofdenyingshelterto

theenemy.Hesplithismenintoseveralgroups,andtheydisappearedintotheforestbydiverseroutes.Toourmindsanappallingatrocity,the‘DouglasLarder’asitbecameknownservedthepurposeofwarningthelocalpopulationagainstservingwiththeenemy.Douglaswasamongthose

whojoinedEdwardBruceforanequallysavageattackonGallowayinthesummerof

1308:‘Meanwhile,takingadvantageofthequarrelsbetweenthekingofEnglandandthebarons,EdwardBruce,brotheroftheoft-mentionedRobertandAlexanderLindsay,RobertBoydandJamesDouglasknights,withtheirfollowingwhichtheyhadfromtheouterislesofScotland,attackedthepeopleofGalloway,disregardingthetributewhichtheytookfromthem,andin

onedayslewmanyofthegentryofGallowayandmadenearlyallthatregionsubjecttothem.ThoseGallovidianswhocouldescapecametoEnglandtofindrefuge.’HebrideantroopswereusedforthisharryingofGalloway,saidtobeledby‘DonaldofIslay’.31Itseemsthatone,orpossiblytwo,bitterbattleswerefought.Thefirsttookplaceonthebanksofthe

RiverDee,atwhichtheGallovidiansputupstoutresistance.TheywereledbytheGallovidianchiefDungalMacCann.MacCannwasforcedtofleetohisfortressofThreave,anislandintheRiverDee.TherehewascapturedandhandedovertoEdwardBruce,presumablyforexecution.ThesecondbattleseemstohavebeenfoughtfartothewestontheRiverCree,whenEnglish

reinforcementsledbyIngramdeUmfravilleandAymerdeStJohnsetouttocounter-attack.EdwardBrucedefeatedthemtoo,andtheyfledtoBuittleCastleontheUrrWater.EdwardthenbesiegedBuittlebutfailedtotakeit.Infact,successfulasthecampaignwasintermsofdevastatingthecountrysideandexactingvengeanceforthedeathsofThomasandAlexanderBruce,Edward

failedtocaptureanymajorcastleinthesouth-west.Lochmaben,Tibbers,LochDoon,DumfriesandmanymoreEnglishgarrisonsstillsurvivedforanotherthreetofiveyears.NodoubtEdward,whoborethetitlesLordofGallowayfrom1309andEarlofCarrickfrom1313,tookallthesecastles,butBarbour’sstatementthathewonthirteencastlesbyforcemustrefertothewholeperiod1308–13.

StrangelythereisnomentionofDungalMacDowallinresistingthisattack;wemightexpecthimtohavetakenaleadingroleindefendingGalloway,andhemaywellhavedonedespitethechronicles’silence,forinApril1309hereceivedagrantofaCumberlandmanorforhisgoodservice,‘wherebyhehasbecomehatedbytheenemy’.Thesubjugationof

northernScotlandwasassuredwhenon31October1308RosssurrenderedutterlytoRobert,andinreturnwaspermittedtoretainhislandsandtitles.Obviouslythissortofarrangementnecessitatedamechanismforkeepingtrackoftheking’sgrantsandcommitments,anditisaroundthistimethatevidenceemergesthatRobert’sentourageincludedaroyalbureaucracy.Amandate

dated14October1308iswitnessedby‘SirBernardtheking’schancellor’.Thisclericwastheheadoftheking’swritingofficeandpartofhisjobwastokeeparecordofroyalordersandgrantsoflandissued.BernardtheChancellorprobablyhadlongexperienceofroyaldiplomaticform,correctformsofprotocolsandaddress,methodsofsealingandsoon.Hewouldcertainly

havebeenfamiliarwiththetextsandargumentsputintothemouthofBonifaceVIIIbyScottishdiplomatsinthepast,andhemaypreviouslyhaveservedinthechanceriesofKingJohnBalliolandtheguardians.RobertsubsequentlyendowedBernardwiththeabbacyofArbroathin1311.Bernard’sassistancewas

thereforeinvaluablewheninJanuary1309therearrived

fromthekingofEnglandtheearlofGloucester‘andtwootherearls’tonegotiateatruce.Itwasahigh-powereddelegation,andwellchosen.ThehouseofGloucesterhadbeentheEnglishfamilymostcloselyassociatedwiththeBruceaffinityandGloucesterandhiscompanionswereaccompaniedbypapalandFrenchenvoys.Suchadelegationmayevenhavebeenintendedtonegotiatea

lastingpeace.Thishowevereludedthem,probablybecauseRobertwasnotpreparedtoconcedesovereigntyofScotland.Termsforatruce,however,werebrokeredbytheemissariesofKingPhilipofFrance–whohadrecentlybecomeEdwardII’sfather-in-law.Thesewereasfollows:bothsidesweretoreturntothepositionstheyoccupiedatthefeastofSt

JamestheApostle–25July1308–andtherewouldbeacessationofhostilitiesuntilAllSaints’Day–1November1309.ItwasjustthesortofarrangementthatplayedrightintoRobert’shand.TheEnglishmightaswellhaveconcededtrucetoMidsummer1310,fortheycoulddonothinguntiltheweatherandfoodsuppliespermittedcampaigning.Roberthowevercoulddo

plenty.Thereisnoevidencethatheblatantlyviolatedtheagreement,butthetrucedidnothaveaneutraleffect.Inthelocalities,perceptions,understandingsandloyaltieswereshiftinginRobert’sfavour.EdwardII’ssupporterswereleaderless,bickering,increasinglydemoralisedandisolated.Robertrestorednothingtotheenemy,andcontinuedtointimidateandbully

vulnerablegarrisonsandcommunitiesloyaltoEdward.Timeanddistanceensuredthathewasnotbroughttoaccount.IncreasinglytheEnglishadministrationwasparalysedbymagnaterivalryandtheking’spreoccupationwithkeepinghisfavourite,PiersGaveston,safefromthehandsofthemagnates.On16and17March1309

RobertheldaparliamentatStAndrews.Suchagatheringof

thehighernobility–commonpeoplewouldnothavebeenrepresented–wasapowerfulclaimtosovereignty,andaclearstatementthatanalternativegovernmenthadbeenestablishedanddemandedobedience.ThepretextforsummoningsuchanassemblywastoconsiderareplytoaletterfromPhilip,requestingthatRobertcontributeforcestothecrusadehewasplanning;

RobertwasthusadvertisingthathehadreceivedaletterfromthekingofFrance,whohadpreviouslysponsoredtheBalliolcause.Thecarefulcraftingofsuchareplywas,ofcourse,fartooimportanttobelefttoalargeassembly.BernardtheChancellorwouldtakecareofthedrafting,butthepretextkeptupthefictionthatthenoblesparticipatedinmattersofstate.Therealpurposeofparliamentsatthat

timewastoprojectthemajestyofmonarchyandthusenhanceitslegitimacy.Parliamentwasthefullestexpressionofkingship,solemnanddignified,theoccasionofmanygrantsandmandates.Robertcouldonlyhaveheldthisassemblyintimeoftruce,for,asamarkoftheirloyalty,lordswereexpectedtoleavetheirestatesandattend.Headingthelistofthoseinattendancewerethe

greatmagnates,theearlsofRoss,LennoxandalsoSutherland.James,theStewardofScotland,wasthere,andRoberthadappointedothergreatofficersofstatefortheoccasion:GilbertHay,ConstableofScotland,andRobertKeith,Marischal.Robert’schieflieutenantswerethere:EdwardBruce,nowbearingthetitle‘LordofGalloway’;JamesDouglas;and‘Donald

ofIslay’,probablyAngusÓg.Lesserstalwartsweretheretoo:Lindsay,Boyd,GillespieMacLachlanoftheMacRuaridhsandthreerepresentativesoftheCampbells.Sullenanddisaffected,oldAlexanderMacDougalltoohadbeencompelledtoattend,butbeforetheyearwasouthewouldrejoinhissonintheserviceofEdwardII.Presenttoowereanumberof

prominent‘newcomers’toRobert’scamp:JamestheStewardwithsonandnephew,traditionaladherentsoftheBruceaffinitywhohadlosttheirlandstwiceinthepastforresistancetotheEnglishking,andwhohaddecidedoncemoretoriskeverythingbythrowingintheirlotwiththeBruces.Robert’snephew,theyoungThomasRandolph,Lordof

Nithsdale,wasalsopresent.32Earlierhehadsoundedofftothekingaboutunchivalrousmethodsofwarfare;evidentlyhehadatonedforhiscontempt.AnothernoteworthyrecentadditionwasJohnStewartofMenteith,towhomEdwardIhadgrantedtheearldomofLennox;thistitlehehadsurrenderedtoRobertinreturnforlandsinKnapdale–

awardedattheexpenseoftheMacSweens–andArran.Manyofthehierarchywouldhaveattendedtheparliament,includingbishopsofDunblaneandDunkeld,andpossiblythoseofRoss,MorayandBrechin.AseniorbishopoftheScottishkirk,RobertWishartofGlasgow,wasthenaprisoner,yethissealwasappendedtothedocumentasthougharepresentativeofhiswere

present;WilliamLambertonofStAndrewsmayhaveattendedinperson,eventhoughEdwardIIstillconsideredhimloyal.Robertmighthaveusedthe

occasionoftheparliamenttodemandagrantoftaxationoftheseworthies,butitisunlikelythathewouldhavetriedtoimposesuchaburdenwhileacutelydependentupontheirsupport.Moneymighthavebeenforthcomingfrom

theScottishChurch,however.Some£7,000ofclericalsubsidieswasoutstandingfromScotlandandhadneverbeenpaidtocollectors,andRobertmayhavebeenformallygrantedthisbyacounciloftheclergythatmetatthesametimeastheparliament.33Opportunitywastakenatthisassemblytopublishaproclamationbyageneralcouncilofthe

ScottishclergyinfulsomesupportofRobert’skingship.Thisdocumentmayhavebeenintendedforaninternationalaudience,atthegeneralcounciloftheChurchwhichhadbeensummonedforViennein1311.ItcontainedargumentsfortheindependenceofScotland,producedin1299and1301,andauthorsoftheseearlierstatementsofScottishindependencemaywellhave

beenpresentatthecouncil.Rehearsingtheeventsof

theGreatCause,theDeclarationoftheClergystatesamythwhichRobertwasdesperatetofosterandperpetuate,that‘WhentherearoseasubjectofdisputebetweenJohnBalliol,latelyinstalledaskingofScotland…bythekingofEngland,andthelateRobertBruceofhonourablememory,thegrandfatherofRobertwhois

nowtheking,concerningwhichofthemhadthebettertitlebyrightofbirth,toinheritruleoverthepeopleofScotland,thefaithfulpeoplehavealwaysbelievedwithouthesitation,astheyhadunderstoodfromtheirancestorsandelders,andheldtobethetruth,thatRobertthegrandfatherwasthetrueheir,andwastobepreferredtoallothers.’Ofcourse‘thefaithfulpeople’representedat

theparliamentandchurchcouncilhadnosuchmemory;neverthelesstheyhadfoundaleaderwho,theybelieved,mightdeliverthemfromforeignoccupationandsafeguardtheirChurchfromsubjectiontotheArchbishopofYork,andsotheywerewillingtoacceptthisrewritingofhistory.Thewholepointofthedeclaration,andofthe1309parliament,wasthatRobert

soughtacknowledgementasthe‘natural’,ordivinelyappointed,ruler.Asecondembassymay

havebeenreceivedduringthistruce.InAugust1309,RicharddeBurgh,theRedEarlofUlster,wassenttowesternScotlandtoreasonwithhisson-in-law.HewaspaidtosetoutontheinstructionsofPiersGaveston,whowasthenlordlieutenantofIreland,andwith

animpressivefollowingofIrishmagnates,men-at-arms,hobelars(troopersmountedona‘hobin’:aponyorhackney)andfoot.Hismissionwasperhapstointimidateasmuchastopersuade.PresumablyRobertreceivedtheearl,butthereisnorecordofsuchameeting.ItispossiblehoweverthatashowofforcebyanAnglo-IrishmagnateinthewestofScotlandmovedAlexander

MacDougalltoalastactofdefiance.ThatsamemonthBrucewasinthefarnorthatLochBroom,wherehecanonlyhavebeencollectingmenandshipsfromhisMacRuaridhalliesforanotherassaultonArgyll.Acharterdated20OctobershowsthathewasagainatDunstaffnage.Onthisoccasionhehadindeedcapturedthecastle.AlexanderMacDougall,nowevictedfromhisancestral

pile,fledtoEnglandandeventuallyjoinedhissonJohnofArgyllinIreland.ThetrucewithEdwardII

wasnowdrawingtoaclose.Cumberlandgentrywereorderedtogototheirborderdemesnes,eitherinpreparationfortheresumptionofhostilities,ortoprotectthemagainstraidingthatwasalreadytakingplace.OnexpiryofthetruceinNovember1309,Robert

increasedthepressureongarrisonsandcommunitiesloyaltoEdwardII,but,aswashiswont,hewaspreparedtobeboughtoff.InDecember1309EdwardadvisedhiscommandersatAyr,Perth,DundeeandBanff,probablyinresponsetoincreasinglydesperatepleasforassistance,todolikewisebytakingwhattrucetheycoulduntilWhitsun,7June1310.Thatwasthe

earliestconceivabledatebywhichanEnglisharmywouldappearinScotland.Thesecastlescouldatleastbeprovisionedbysea,butothersinlandweremorevulnerabletosiege,andtothepleasoftheirgarrisonsEdward’sgovernmentturnedadeafear.EvencommandersatBerwickandCarlisleagreedatruceuntil14January1310,andmoneywaspaidtoRobertaspartofthesedeals.Edward’s

commanderssucceededingettingageneraltruce,intendedtotidethemtothecampaigningseason,butitwaspracticallyworthless.EarlythatsummeradelegationofloyalScottishmagnateswrotetoEdwardIIandadvisedhimthatunlesshesetoutforthenorthinpersonallwouldbelostinScotland.InJulyorderswereatlastissuedforageneralmusteroftheEnglishhost:

‘Sincetheking’senemiestheScots,towhomhehadgrantedatruce,contrarytotheformofthattruce,dailytakefromhimcastles,townsandlands,asheunderstandsfrommeninhisserviceintheseparts,hehasresolvedtobeatBerwickinpersonattheNativityofOurLadynext[8September]withhorsesandarmsaspowerfullyashecan.’ButitwasnotthepleasoftheloyalScotsthathad

forcedEdwardtoattendtohisduty,ratheritwasoutrageatroyalmisruleinEngland.Edwardhadmadelavish

grantstohishatedfavourites.Hehadover-exploitedtheroyalprerogativeof‘prise’,whichallowedthekingarbitrarilytoseizegoodsastheitinerantcourtneededthemandtodeferpaymentforthem.HeavytaxationhadbeenleviedonthepretextofScottishwar,withnothingyet

achieved.Itwasscarcelysurprisingthatacommitteeofthebaronage,knownastheLordsOrdainer,hadbeenappointedtotakegovernmentoutoftheking’shandforthetimebeingandtoregulatehishousehold.Edwarddeeplyresentedwhathesawasusurpationofhisrights.HeintendedhisScottishcampaignof1310–11totakethewindoutofoppositionsails,andtoundermine

reformathome.ThecampaignalsohadthevirtuethathecouldkeephisbelovedPiersGavestonbyhissideandsafefromthehandsofmagnates.Sincethecampaignsuited

allthesedomesticpurposes,EdwardatlastshowedaresolvetoconfrontRobert.Alldidnotgowell,however,andelaborateplansforalandinginArgyllhadtobecalledoffonaccountof

unseasonalweather.AsaresultofGaveston’spresence,manyoftheEnglishmagnatesboycottedthecampaign,andEdwardrodenorthwithonlythreeearlsathisside:Gloucester,WarreneandGavestonhimselfasearlofCornwall.AttheendofSeptember3,000infantrymusteredatBerwick,mostofwhomwereWelsh.Thecavalrycomprisedtheroyalhouseholdof50knightsand

200squiresormen-at-arms,plusthecontingentsoftheearls–whotraditionallydidnotacceptroyalwagesandthereforedonotfigureintheaccounts.Inthefaceofsuchodds

Robertkeptwelltothenorth.On4SeptemberhewasrumouredtobeatPerth,wherehehadmadeatruceuntilMichaelmaswiththebeleaguredgarrison.DouglasremainedintheForestof

Selkirk,probablyseekingaconfrontation.On1SeptemberEdwardadvancedfromWarkintothevalleyoftheTweed,inbusinesslikefashion.Itbeinglateintheyear,hewasableonlytoconsolidatehisgriponaccessiblepartsofsouthernScotland,replenishingandreorganisingthegarrisonsofsouthernScotland.HevisitedRoxburghandthePeelofSelkirk,vitalforchecking

Scottishactivityintheforest.Fromthemainarmy,raidingpartiessallieditsthickcover.TheauthoroftheVitaEdwardiSecundirecountswhathappenedtoonesuchparty:

Oneday,whensomeEnglishandWelsh,alwaysreadyforplunder,hadgoneoutonaraid,accompaniedforprotectionbymanyhorsemenfromthearmy,RobertBruce’smen,whohadbeenconcealedincavesandinthe

woodlands,madeaseriousattackonourmen.Ourhorsemen,seeingthattheycouldnothelptheinfantry,returnedtothemainforcewithafrightfuluproar;allimmediatelyleapttoarmsandhastenedwithoneaccordtohelpthosewhohadbeenleftamongsttheenemy;butassistancecametoolatetopreventtheslaughterofourmen…BeforeourknightsarriveduptothreehundredWelshandEnglishhadbeenslaughtered,andtheenemyreturnedtotheircaves.Fromsuchambushesourmenoftensufferedheavylosses.

Edward’sarmythenproceededbywayofBiggartoLinlithgow–thevitalstaging-postbetweenEdinburghandStirling–andacrossLothiantoRenfrew.ThenEdwardretiredtoLinlithgowandEdinburgh,andthencebyseatoBerwickbythebeginningofNovember.Suchwerethedifficultiesoffindingforageforanimalsinthewinterthatfurthercampaigningwasnot

possible.Theinfantryreturnedhome,theirfortydays’servicecompleted,andtheroyalcourtsettleddownintowinterquartersatBerwick.AtthispointRobert’sforcesreturnedtoharassthegarrisons.Remainingoverthewinter

onScottishsoilwasnotsomuchastatementofEdward’sdeterminationtoreduceScotlandtohisobedience,asanadmissionof

hisfearsassociatedwithreturningtoEngland:fearsoffacingfurthersanctionsimposedbythemagnatesorparliament,orofbanishmentofhisfavourite,Gaveston.TheEnglishexpeditionhadbeenhamstrungbytherefusaloftheEnglishearlstoparticipatefullyinthewar.EvenGloucesterandWarrenemadethepoliticalpointofwinteringjustacrosstheborder,onEnglishsoilandso

nottechnicallyontheking’sservice.Edward’snewandvociferousopponent,ThomasofLancaster,arrivedtodohomagefortwoofthefiveearldomswhichhehadinherited,butrefusedtocrosstheTweed–thatis,toleavethekingdom–toperformtheservice.ThekingofEnglandwashumiliatedintomakingthecrossinghimself.Againstthisbackground,

theEnglishchroniclesare

surelycorrecttotaketheviewthatEdwardwasconsideringmakingadealwithRobertwhichwouldallowhimtofacedownthisdomesticopposition.HedidinitiatecontactwithRobertatthistime;fromaletterwrittenthefollowingFebruaryitseemsthattworoyalistnobles,RobertCliffordandRobertfitzPaynehadtheirking’spermissiontomeetwithRobertatSelkirkon17

December1310.Wedonotknowwhetherthemeetingtookplace.Subsequently,GloucesterandGavestonweretohavemetRobertnearMelroseAbbey,butRobertwaswarnedoftreacheryanddidnotshowup.Eitherofthosearrangementsmighthavebeenforstraightforwardparleywiththeenemy.ButathirdsuggeststhatEdwardIIwastryingtoreachaprivatearrangementwithRobert

behindthebacksofhisbaronage.InFebruaryahigh-rankingclerkoftheEnglishchancery,JohnWalwayn,wasarrestedandthrowninprison‘becausehesuddenlywenttowardsthosepartstospeakwithRobertBruce’.ThatsamemonthEdwardsentGavestonwith200mentostrengthenthePerthgarrison,which,togetherwithDundee,nowmarkedthefarthestlimitoftheEnglish

occupation.GloucesterandWarennemeanwhilepenetratedtheForestofSelkirk,whereDouglasfounditeasytoavoidconfrontation.Robertdidnotconfrontthe

powerfulEnglishearls,butinsteadpunishedtheweakerandmorevulnerableofhisadversariesinthewest.ThatDecember,rumourattheEnglishcourthaditthathehadassembledagalleyfleetintheWesternIslesand

intendedtoattackMan.InFebruaryhewassaidtobemarchingtowardsGalloway.AswinterturnedtospringEdwardbecamedesperatetoraiseanarmy,butintheteethofstoutoppositionfromtheEnglishmagnatesthiswasvirtuallyimpossible.JohnofArgyllhadvisitedthecourtoverthewinter,andappearstohavepersuadedEdward,nowclingingtoanystrawtoavoidahumiliatingreturnto

England,thathecouldraisealargearmyinIreland.AccordinglyordersfortheraisingofimprobablylargeforcesinIrelandwereissued,withJohnattheirhead,andafleetofsixty-twoEnglishandIrishshipsweretoferrythisarmytoAyr.Edwardputgreatstorebythisplan,callingit‘oneofthegreatestmovementsoftheScottishwar’.Theports,however,refusedtosupplytheships,

andtheplanwaslargelyabandoned.JohnofArgylldidsucceed

inmusteringsomesortofforcehowever.AGaelicpraise-poem,araresurvivor,affordsaglimpseofpartofthisattackonScotland’swesternapproaches.ThepoemcelebratestheexpeditionofJohnMacSweenfromthenorth-westofIrelandtoreclaimCastleSween,inKnapdale.

TheMacSweenshadexpandedwestwardsfromScotlandandsettledintheFanadPeninsulainDonegalinthe1260s,andthenhadbeengraduallyoustedfromKnapdalebytheStewartsofMentiethintheearlyfourteenthcentury.By1310theMacSweensundoubtedlyformedapartoftheMacDougallcoalition.InthatyearEdwardIIgrantedKnapdaletoJohnMacSween,

onconditionthatherecaptureitfromRobert’sally,JohnofMenteith,andthepoemdescribesthevoyageofMacSween’smailedgalloglasses.Hereisatasteofit:

WhoisthisbywhomthefleetissailedagainsttheCastleofSweenyofSlieveTruim?Asinewymanwhocouldnot

avoidarrows,oneofthetwopiercinglancesoftheregionofConn.

ItisJohnMacSweenwhoisthecommanderoftheirfleetonthesurfaceofthesea,ahardyleader;Themastsofhisshipsare

exceedinglyprecipitousinheight,thewavewilltesttheminanoceanofsummits.

JohnhasmadeahappylandfallinthebosomofKnapdale,attheendofanoceanvoyage;Thethick-cropped,fortress-

possessing,handsomeeyebrow,withmanymastsandheroes,avigorousmanwithawarrior’smoon.

ThepoemrevealsthatMacSweenwaswelcomedbytheinhabitantsofKnapdale,andthatthecastlewastakenwithoutviolence.ThisillustrateshowenormouslydifficultwasRobert’staskofdislodgingtheMacDougallsandtheiralliesfromtheirancestrallands.ItishardtobelievethatMacDougallinfluencewasfullyextirpatedfromArgyllduringRobert’sreign,eventhoughby1318

thekingofArgyllisreportedtobeaMacDonald.Thepoem,anarrowwindowontheGaelicwest,isalsoinstructiveinthatitremindsusthatthiswholewesterndimensionofRobert’slongwargoesvirtuallyunrecordedintheEnglishroyalrecordsuponwhichwearesoheavilydependent.EdwardII,then,obtained

someserviceinthewestin1311;fromEngland,

however,heobtainedvirtuallynone.Hetriedtoraisetroopsthroughatotallynovelandunparliamentarylevyofonefoot-soldierfromeveryvillageinEngland,buttolittleeffect.WithnotroopsandnomoneytherewasnothinghecoulddoattheendofJuly1311butsummontheEnglishparliamentandleaveBerwickwithabadgrace.InAugust1311Edwardwasforcedtoaccept

thediktatoftheLordsOrdainer,knownas‘theOrdinances’,whichimposeduponhishouseholdaseriesofunpalatablereformsandrestrictions.EdwardII’sworstfearswererealisedasGavestonwasseizedandexecutedbytheEnglishmagnateson19June1312.ThustheEnglishbaronialoppositionhadplayedintoRobert’shands.Itwouldbeinterestingtoknowwhether

Roberthadanycontactwiththem,butatthisdatethatseemsunlikely.Hehad,rather,judgedwiselyandallowedeventstotaketheircourse.InseeingoffEdward,RoberthadnotmerelysurvivedthegreattestofEnglishinvasion,hehadtriumphedinallbutname.TheAnglo-ScottishlordshadlongedforEdwardtoleadanarmyintoScotland;whenthatarmyhadcomeandgone,

manywouldhavereadthewritingonthewall.

7TheroadtoBannockburn(1311–14)

IntheaftermathofEdward

II’swithdrawalfromBerwick,twopowerfulthemesbegintodominatethenarrative:theraidingofEngland,andthecaptureofScottishtownsandcastles.Thetwoaremorecloselyconnectedthantheymightfirstappear.TheraidingofEnglandandtheextractionoftributefromherterrifiedanddefencelessnortherncommunitiesprovidedRobertwiththefundstopayhis

soldierytoundertakeprolongedsiegesofcastlesandwalledtowns.Scottishsubjectswerecustom-boundtoservetheirkingunpaidforonlyfortydays;foranythingbeyondthatthekinghadtopay.Lucrativeraidingopportunitiesmustalsohaveprovidedacarrot,enticingScottisharistocratstoadheretotheBrucecause;thestickkeepingtheminlinewasthedestructionofnotjustenemy-

heldcastlesbutvirtuallyallcastles,privatelyheldorroyal.Aswehaveseen,itwasamatterofpolicyforRoberttodepriveScottishnoblesoftheluxuryofindependenceandchoicebetweenmasterswhichprivatecastlewallsprovided.ThusRobert’scivilwaragainstthe‘Anglo-Scottish’nobleswasintimatelyconnectedwithhispatrioticwaragainsttheEnglish.

OnthedepartureoftheEnglishcourtfromBerwick,RobertseizedtheinitiativeandmountedtwodevastatingraidsonthenorthofEngland.Thefirst,whichlastedfrom12to20August1311isnarratedbytheEnglishLanercostchronicler:‘havingcollectedagreatarmy,he[Robert]enteredEnglandatSolwayontheThursdaybeforethefeastoftheAssumption;andheburned

allthelandofGilslandandthevillofHaltwhistleandagreatpartofTynedale,andaftereightdayshereturnedtoScotland,takingwithhimagreatbootyofanimals;neverthelesshehadkilledfewmenapartfromthosewhowishedtodefendthemselvesbyresistance.’Thefollowingmonth,RobertagaininvadedEngland:

AboutthefeastoftheNativityof

theBlessedVirgin[8September],RobertreturnedwithanarmyintoEngland,directinghismarchtowardsNorthumberland,andpassingbyHarbottleandHolystoneandRedesdale,heburntthedistrictaroundCorbridge,destroyingeverything;alsohecausedmorementobekilledthanontheformeroccasion.AndsoheturnedintothevalleysoftheNorthandSouthTyne,layingwastethosepartswhichhehadpreviouslyspared,andreturnedintoScotlandafterfifteendays;norcouldthewardenswhomthekingof

EnglandhadstationedonthemarchesopposesogreataforceofScotsashebroughtwithhim.

Theseexpeditionswereofadifferentordertothecross-bordercattleraidsthatDouglasandothershadinflictedonthewesternmarchsince1307.Robertwasapparentlyleadinglargeinfantryforcesandsystematicallylayingwasteenemyterritory,ashehad

doneattheherschipofBuchan.Forhisfollowerstheplunderingwasausefulrewardthatincreasedloyalty,butthetroopscouldnotkeepeverythingtheycaptured.Traditionallyonethirdoftheplunderandanyprisonerstakenhadtobehandedovertothelord.ExtractionofmoneyseemstohavebeenRobert’smainobjectiveatthisstage,forheshowedhimselfquitewillingtobe

boughtoff.FollowingtheseraidstheNorthumbrianssentenvoystonegotiateatruce,andtheyagreedtopay£2,000until2February1312.ThemenoftheearldomofDunbar,stillofthekingofEngland’speace,alsopaidaheavyfineforatrucetothatsamedate.Themoneywasneededto

prosecutesiegesoftheeast-coasttownsofPerthandDundee,andforincreasing

militarypressureonBerwick.Barbourtreatstherecoveryofcastlesandwalledtownsinaspecialway.Ashasbeenpointedout,chronicleswerewrittenforentertainment,andsomeofthemostentertainingpassagesinBarbourarethoserelatingtothecaptureofthecastlesofScotlandfrom‘English’garrisons.MorethananyotheraspectofthenarrativetheydemonstratehowtheScotsovercamethe

vastmaterialwealthandsuperiorityinnumbersoftheiradversariesbydeployingslight,thatis,nativewitandcunning.Robertcouldrarelyresorttolongsieges,whichwereexpensiveandwouldleavehisforcesstationaryandvulnerabletoattack;nordidhehaveinsufficientnumberthecatapults,batteringramsorothermachinerythatwouldfacilitatetakingbystorm.

TrickerywastheScots’onlyresource.Thepatternwasalreadywellestablished:asearlyasChristmasNight1308thecastleofForfarwascapturedbystealth.‘PhiliptheForester’andsomeothersusedladderstoscalethewallwhiletheguardsslept,andtheykilledeveryonewithinandhandedoverthecastletoRobert.Hethendemolishedthecastlewallandpoisonedthewell.AtDouglasCastlein

April1308,aswehaveseen,theytemptedthegarrisonoutwiththeprospectofrobbingalineofpackhorses;atLinlithgowinAugust1313theyhidinahaywainwhichtheylodgedinthegatesofthepeeltopreventtheirclosing,springingouttosurprisetheguardsandcapturethecastle.Frequentlytheepisodeissetonafeastday–ChristmasNight,PalmSundayandShroveTuesdayareall

mentioned–whenthesentrieswerelaxordistractedordrunk.UsuallyBarbourgivesakeyroletoanamedfolkhero:TomDicksonplannedtheambushoftheDouglasgarrisoninStBride’sKirk,WilliamBunnockdrovethehaywaininthecaptureofthePeelofLinlithgow,andSymeofLedhousemadetheingeniousropeladdersforscalingthewallsofRoxburghin

February1314.ArivalryemergesbetweenRobert’slieutenantsDouglasandThomasRandolph–whowascreatedearlofMorayin1312–astowhocouldgainmostgloryinthetakingofcastles.

InDecember1312RobertmadehisfirstattempttocaptureBerwick:thefirstofmany.BerwickwasatoncethelargestandrichesttowninScotland;theadministrativeandmilitarycentreoftheEnglishoccupation;thelocaleoftheEnglishsupplyoperation;andthekeystrategicpositionthatcontrolledaccesstotherichNorthumberlandcoastal

plain.Bruce’snight-timeattempttoscalethewallsbywayofropeladderswas,however,foiledbyabarkingdog‘justasoldgeesesavedRomebytheirgaggle’.Robertwasforcedtoturntolessertargets,butinthemeantimethedepredationsoftheenemygarrisonsofLothianweredoinghisworkforhim.NeglectedbyEdwardII,lowonmoraleanddesperateforprovisions,they

raidedthesurroundingcountrysidemercilessly,causingAnglo-ScottishlordssuchasAdamGordontoprotesttoEdwardIIthatthesympathiesofcountrypeoplewerebeingalienatedbyrampaginggarrisons.RoberthadDundeeunder

siegefromFebruary1312.EdwardIIwasanxioustokeepthetownatallcosts,andheforbadeanagreementwhichthecommander,

WilliamdeMontefichet,hadreachedwithRobert,thatDundeeshouldbesurrenderedinexchangeforreturnofEnglishprisoners.Instead,shipsandbargesalongtheeastcoastwerecollectedtoferryheavilyarmouredinfantrytoDundee,butatlast,inApril,Montefichetwasforcedtosurrender,andhisgarrisonwaspermittedtoleaveforPerth.Robert’spossessionof

Dundee,however,madethesupplyofPerthbyseaallthemoredifficultfortheAnglo-ScotsandEnglish.Thechroniclesagreethat

RobertinvadedEnglandnextinmidAugust:

Havingassembledagreatarmy,heinvadedEnglandaboutthefeastoftheAssumptionoftheBlessedVirgin[15August1312]andburnedthetownsofHexhamandCorbridgeandthewesternparts,andtookbootyandmuchspoiland

prisoners,norwasthereanyonewhodaredtoresist.WhilehehaltedinpeaceandsafetynearCorbridge,hesentapartofhisarmyasfarasDurham,which,arrivingtheresuddenlyonmarketday,carriedoffallthatwasfoundinthetown,andgaveagreatpartofittotheflames,cruellykillingallwhoopposedthem.

Thenextday‘despairingofhelpfromthekingofEngland’,themenofthebishopricofDurhamand

thoseofNorthumberlandeachagreedtopaytheScots£2,000forpeaceuntilMidsummer1313.ThedealwiththemenofDurhamwasstruckatHexhamon16August.ThecommunitiesofWestmorland,CopelandandCumberland‘redeemedthemselvesinasimilarway’and,thoughtheydidnothavethecashtogivestraightaway,theysurrenderedthesonsofthechieflordsashostages.In

theEnglishcountiesthenormalmachineryofregulartaxationseemstohavebeenemployedtocollecttheseblackmailpayments,buttherateatwhichRobertexactedthistributefromEnglandwasruinous.The£2,000whichNorthumberlandpaidtoRobertin1311wasdoubletheamountithadyieldedtothekingofEnglandin1296,andNorthumberlandwasmadetopaythesameamount

theverynextyear.Coffersreplenished,Robert

redoubledhiseffortstocapturePerth.Thiswasadifficulttask,forPerthwasprotectedonthelandwardsidebytheRiverTayandbyaditch.ThedefenderswereledbySirWilliamOliphant,Montefichet,andtheearlofStrathearn.OliphantwasthesamemanwhohadvaliantlydefendedStirlingCastletothelastin1304;thisisat

onceanindicationthatRobertwasupagainstexperiencedveteransofsiegewarfare,andasalutaryreminderthatmanypatrioticScotsdidnotapproveoftheBruceregime.Thesiegealsoillustratesthataristocraticfamilieswereoftendividedintheirallegiances:whileStrathearnwasdefendingthetown,hissonandheirwasatRobert’ssideattackingit.BarbourdescribeshowRoberttested

thebedoftheditchwithalongpoletofindoutwhereitwasshallowest,andatlastfoundaplacewheremencouldwadeacross,thoughthewaterwasshoulderhigh.AttheendofDecemberhehadhismenpackuptheirequipmentandfeignretirementfromthesiege,buteightdayslatertheycreptbackindeadofnightwithasmallforcecarryingladders.Itwasthenightof7/8

January.Theylistenedcarefully,butheardnonoisefromsentries.Then‘toshowanexampletohismen’,thekingshoulderedhisladderandslippedintotheicywater,and,usinghisspeartoprodthebedofthemoat,wadedacrosstheditch.Inadmiration,BarbourputsthefollowingwordsintothemouthofaFrenchknightwitnessingRobert’sactions:

Ah,Lord,whatshallwesayOfourFrenchlords,Alwaysstuffingtheirbellieswithgoodfood,Willingonlytoeatanddrinkanddance,Whensuchaknight,sonobleAsthisone,byhischivalryHasputhimselfinsuchdangerTowinawretchedhamlet.

Theking,Barboursays,wasthesecondmantoscalethetownwall.TheFrenchknightmaybeadevice,employed

byBarbourtoreflectupontheking’sbravery,butRobert’senergeticparticipationintheattackonPerthisborneoutbyothersources.Takenentirelybysurprise,thetownsfolkputupnofight,and,thoughtherewaswidespreadspoliation,fewwereslainasaresult.Thewallsandtowersofthetown’sdefenceswerethendestroyed.Strathearn,arrestedbyhisownsonand

heir,wastakenintothepeaceofKingRobert,anotherearldombroughtonside.Inthesummerof1313

RoberthadonlytomakethreateningnoisesfornorthernEnglandtopayup.Intherun-uptomidsummer,whenthetrucewouldlapse,theNorthumbrianswrotetoEdwardIIpleadingforaid.TheirkingrepliedcharacteristicallybyorderingthemenofNorthumberland

todotheirbesttodefendthecountyagainsttheScots.InJuneitwasreportedthattheScotswerereadytoattackinthreeplacesontheMarch,andon5AugustthebishopofDurhamexcusedhimselffromparliamentsayingthatRobertBruce‘hasoflatecausedagreathosttobeassembled’.Tostaveoffdisaster,thenorthernEnglishcountiesnegotiatedforathirdyear,andNorthumberland,

Westmorland,Cumberland‘andotherborderers’offeredlargesumsforatruce,tolastuntil29September1314.WeknowthatonthisoccasionCumberlandwasforcedtopay2,000marks(£1,466),becauseEdwardIIsubsequentlyorderedthatcollectionofthemoneyshouldbeaudited.Fromthisauditweseehowtheburdenwasallocatedtothedifferentwardsandlordshipsofthat

county;thegeneroussumsallowedformaintenanceofthehostages–sonsoflocalknights;theheftyexpensesclaimedbythecollectors,whowerelocalgentry;andthesweetenerspaid.TheselastincludedtwentymeasuresofoatenflourtoKingRobertand£12incash,asalmonandtwomeasuresofwinetoBrotherRobertdeMorton,KingRobert’sattorney.Tousitisremarkablethat,

asanalternativetoprovidingprotection,EdwardIIwaspreparedtocountenancethebuyingofprivateorlocalagreementswithhisenemy.‘Nodealswithterrorists’isadictumtowhichallmodernstatessubscribe.EdwardIImaysimilarlyhaveconsideredthathisroyaldignitywasbeingcompromisedbyagreementsbetweenlocalcommunitiesloyaltohimandhostile

Scots.Yethetoleratedandevenencouragedthemfortworeasons.Firstly,sincethelocalcommandersorlocalcommunitiespaidforthem,theywerecheaperthancampaigning,andsecondly,theysavedhimfromhavingtocompromiseondomesticissuesinreturnforparliamentarytaxationwhichheneededtomountacampaign.But,asEdwarddiscovered,thismethodof

stavingoffenemyattackunderminedperceptionofhimasking:itsappedfaithandconfidenceinhislordship,andultimatelyencouragedlocalcommunitiestoacceptthealternativeofRobert’slordship.In1315thepeopleofNorthTynedale‘gavethemselvesupcompletelytotheKingofScotland’.Asonehistorianhasremarked,bythelate1310safifthofEdward’s

kingdomwaspayingtributetoRobert.Short-sightedandtemporisingEdwardII’spolicymayhavebeen,buthemighthaverecoveredallhiscompromisedlordshipwithasinglevictoryonthebattlefield.Robertdidnotconfinehis

raidstoEngland.InFebruary1313,Robertassistedhisbrother,thenewLordofGalloway,ininflictingfurtherpunishmentuponthe

Gallovidians.ThecastlesofBuittle,DalswintonandDumfrieswerealltakenanddestroyed.On17May1313RobertlandedatRamseyontheIsleofMan‘withamultitudeofships’andbesiegedthecastleofRushenforfiveweeks.TheenemycommanderatRushenwastheGallovidianDungalMacDowall.Inunleashingthisattack,Robertseemstobepursuingabloodfeud,

typicalofaGaelicwarlord.Aswehaveseen,DungalhadcapturedandhandedoverforexecutionRobert’sbrothersThomasandAlexanderin1307;hehadsurvivedEdwardBruce’sassaultonGallowayin1308;inFebruary1313hehadbeendrivenoutofDumfriesCastleandfledtoMan;andnow,ascastellanatRushen,heseemstohaveattractedtheenmityofBrucesonceagain.The

five-weeksiegerequiredawidespreadsearchforfoodstuffs,andRobertsentgalleystoUlsteronthelastdayofMay.‘TheUlstermenresistedthemandmanfullydrovethemoff.Itwassaid,nevertheless,thatRobertlandedbylicenceoftheearl[ofUlster]whohadtakenatruce.’Whiletheearl’spositionasfather-in-lawtoRobertseemsoftentohavegivenrisetosuchsuspicions,

itislikelythatnolovewaslostbetweenthetwomen.Robertmayhavewishedtousetheopportunitytorepayhisfather-in-lawforhistroublemakingvisittoArgyllin1309.RushenfelltotheScotson12June,andRoberthaditdemolished.DungalseemstohavefledtojoinotherScottishémigrésinIreland,towhichplacethevengeanceoftheBruceswouldpursuehimyet.

IntheNorthSeatheatreofwar,theScottishprivateerscontinuedtheirco-operationwithFlemishandEastlandermerchantsagainstEnglishvessels.AsRobertcapturedfurthereast-coastports–Dundeein1312,Perthin1313andEdinburghin1314–theEnglishblockadebecameprogressivelyunenforceable.Englishshipsbegantosailinconvoysforsafety.Tensionbetweenthe

EnglishgovernmentandRobert,CountofFlanders,mountedastheEnglishdemandedsternermeasuresagainsttheprivateers,andthecountprotestedhisinabilitytohinderlegitimatetrade.In1311theEnglishseizedthreeFlemish-ownedvesselsnearAberdeeninScotlandforsupplyingtheScots.Inreprisal,EnglishmerchantsinFlanderswerearrested.Englishvesselssupplying

Scottishcastlesalsofellpreytotheprivateers.From1311protractedtalksbetweenthetwogovernmentstriedtorepairrelations,butthesewereabandonedin1313.Incidentscontinuedtooccur:intheestuaryoftheScheldethreeFlemish-ownedshipssailingfromHulltoFlanderswereattacked,withEnglishmerchantsclaimingtohavelost£4,000inwool,cash,andothercommoditiesinthe

shipment.FiveEnglishmerchantstravellingwiththeconvoyweretakenascaptivestoAberdeenandsoldtotheScots.Inreturnforstolenwool,theScotsacquiredarmsandfoodstuffs.On1May1313EdwardIIwrotetoCountRobertcomplainingoftheactivitiesofthenownotoriousJohnCrabbe,andallegingthataconvoyofthirteenFlemishshipsladenwitharmsand

foodstuffshadlatelydepartedforScotlandfromtheportofZwyn.EdwardIIthenplayedatrumpcard:hedeniedtheFlemishtownsdirectaccesstoEnglishwool,byestablishingastaple,orexclusivetradingpost,atStOmerinArtois,outsideFlandersandintheFrenchsphereofinfluence.Englishwoolwouldhenceforthbetakenheavilyguardedandinconvoytothisstapleport,and

Flemishmerchantswouldhavetopayahigherpricefortheirrawmaterial.Evenso,privateeringontheNorthSeacontinued:atMichaelmas1314anotherEnglishshipwascaptured,andawoolmerchantofBeverleyandhissonwereabducted.In1312Robertrepaired

diplomaticrelationsbetweenScotlandandNorway.InfluentialintheNorthSeaandmoreespeciallyinthe

WesternIsles,NorwayremainedimportanttoScotland’swiderinterests.Robert’ssisterIsabelhadmarriedKingEricII.Erichaddiedin1299,butIsabelcontinuedtolivethereasdowagerqueenuntil1358.ByanagreementsealedatInvernessinOctober1312Robertundertookresponsibilityforpaymentoftheannual100-marktributeduetoNorway.In1266

AlexanderIIIhadpromisedtopaythissumannuallyinreturnforNorway’scedingoftheWesternIslestothekingdomofScotland.WithmoneyextractedfromnorthernEngland,Robertcouldaffordtosquareuptothisforeigncommitment,provingtoNorthSeatradersthatScotlandwasasafeandreliablecountrywithwhichtodobusiness.Commercialand

diplomaticrelationswereonlyoneofanumberofproblemsdistractingEdwardIIfromthetaskofshoringuphisdeterioratingmilitarypositioninScotland.AnewdevelopmenthoweversentScotlandtothetopofhispriorities.AtanassemblyatDundeeon21–24October1313RobertissuedanultimatumtothoseScotswhostillrefusedtoacknowledgehiskingship.Although

hostilitieswouldcontinue,thosewhosubmittedtohimwithinoneyearmightbeallowedtoretaintheirlandsandtitles.HavingtakenLinlithgow,andseveredcommunicationsbetweenStirlingandEdinburgh,hewasnowinapowerfulpositiontothreatenLothian,andconsideredthatbythiswell-advertisedultimatumhemightteartheheartoutoftheScottishresistance.This

decree–sotemptingtotheremainingAnglo-Scottishlords–ensuredthatthekingofEnglandwouldatlastbestirhimselfandleadanarmyintoScotland,andinNovembertheEnglishadministrationsetthewheelsinmotionforafull-scaleinvasionofScotlandthefollowingsummer.As1314opened,the

enemyremainedincontroloftheirfourmaingarrisons–

Edinburgh,Roxburgh,StirlingandBerwick–andstillhadpossessionofseverallesserstrengths.Earlyin1314theearlofMoraysetaboutbesiegingEdinburghCastle.Barbourrelatesthatthecastlewaswellprovisioned,butthatthegarrisoncommander,SirPiersLubaud,cameundersuspicionofwantingtobetraythecastle.Hismenclappedhiminironsandimprisonedhim,and

appointedanEnglishconstabletotakecharge.ThesiegeworeonuntilMarchandstillMorayhadmadenoprogress,asthegarrisondidnotwantforfood.HearingofDouglas’ssuccessatRoxburghhowever,heofferedarewardtoanyofhismenwhomightbeabletoscalethecliffandthecastlewall,andonemancameforward.ThisfolkherowasWilliamFrancis,whoinhis

youthhadbeeninthecastleandhadlearnedtoclimbdowntherockatnighttovisitagirlfriendinthetown.Accordingly,onthenightof14March,MorayandthirtyofhismensetofftofollowWilliamFrancis’ascentoftherock:

Thenightwasdark,asIheardtell,AndsoontheycametothefootoftherockWhichwashighandsheer.

ThenbeforethemWilliamFrancisClimbedinthecleftsAlwaysthefirstamongthemAndtheyfollowedhimattheback;Withgreatdifficulty,sometimesto,sometimesfroTheyclimbedinthecleftsThusuntiltheyhadclimbedhalfthecrag.

Atthefootofthewalltheyusedaladder,andgainedtheparapet.Afterabloodybattletheassailantstookpossessionofthecastle.Theydiscovered

PiersLubaudinthedungeon.PiersdidhomagetoRobertandbecamehisliegeman.Truetoform,EdinburghCastletoowasdemolishedtodenyittotheEnglishoccupation,‘lesttheEnglisheverafterwardsmightlorditoverthelandbyholdingcastles’.Moray’scaptureof

EdinburghhadbeeninspiredbyDouglas’ssuccessintakingRoxburgh.Barbour

statesthatDouglashadropeladders,similartothoseusedatBerwicktwoyearspreviously,madespeciallyforthetask.Theseladderswere‘ofwonderfulconstruction’,andmuchadmiredbytheEnglishchroniclerwhoinspectedtheminpersonandatclosequartersatBerwick.OnShroveTuesday–19February1314–Douglasandhiscompanycrawledupto

thewallandusedalancetoplaceagrapplingcrookintheembrasure.Theclatterwasheardbythesentry,buttoolate,fortheScotshadmountedthewall.Theysurprisedthelargegarrison,whoweremakingmerryinthehall,andkilleduntilitwasclearthattheyhadtheupperhand.Asmallpartyledbythewarden,GuillemindeFiennes,retreatedtoatowerwheretheycontinued

resistance.ButthenextdayFienneswaswoundedfendingoffanassault,and,inreturnforlifeandlimbforthedefenders,hesurrenderedthetower.EdwardBrucewassentespeciallytodestroythecastle;heandhismen‘knockedtothegroundthewholeofthatbeautifulcastle,justastheydidothercastles’.InMarchRobertbegan

puttingpressureonStirlingtosurrender,andinmidMay

EdwardBrucemadeanarrangementwiththecommanderofStirling:unlesstheEnglisharmycamewithinthreeleaguesthecastle,withineightdaysof24June,SirPhilipMowbraywouldsurrenderit.34EdwardBruce’sprominenceatthistime,indeedtheprominenceofallthreeofRobert’slieutenants–Edward,DouglasandMoray–might

suggestthatRobertwasoncemoretemporarilyill.Onlythethreatofa

completecollapseoftheEnglishpositioninScotlandhadstirredtheEnglishkingintoaction,andsomeofhisnoblesintogrudgingco-operation.TwoofthefourkeyScottishcastleshadalreadyfallenthatspring:RoxburghinFebruary1314,EdinburghinMarch.ForthecomingcampaignEdwardII

calledup10,000infantry–including3,000Welsh–withadditionalwritsofarraydemandingmasons,carpentersandsmiths.ClearlyhewasexpectingtobesiegeandretakecastlesthathadfallentoRobert.Afurther10,000troopswereorderedup,chieflyfromnorthernEngland,whichhadbeenlaidwasteandtaxedtoruinbytheScots.ThoughEdwardknewwellthat

20,000menwouldnotturnout,thisdoublingofthecall-outisindicativeofhisdeterminationtooverwhelmtheScots.FullwardrobebookssurviveformanyofEdwardI’sScottishcampaigns,butonecouldnotbecompiledfortheBannockburncampaignsincetherecordswerelostintherout.Wearethereforeforcedtoestimate.Forthemainthrustofattackalongthe

EasternMarchperhaps10,000infantrymusteredforbattle.ThearmylackedthefullquotaofcavalryastheearlsofLancasterandWarwickandtheiralliesagainrefusedtoserveinpersonandsentonlyknightstoperformthestricttermsoftheirservice.Buttheroyalhouseholdprovidedthekerneloftheheavycavalryforce,and,inaddition,the‘royalist’earlsofGloucester,

HerefordandPembrokebroughttheircontingentsofknightsandmen-at-arms.OtherpowerfulmagnatespresentincludedRobertClifford,HenryBeaumont,PainTyptoftandJohnSegrave.ScotswhorodewithEdwardincludedRobertUmfraville,EarlofAngus;JohnComyn,sonandheirofthemurderedJohnComyn;SirEdmundComynofKilbride;andSirIngramde

Umfraville.AnEnglishchroniclerstatesthatEdwardhad2,000horse;allowingforthechronicler’sexaggeration1,000seemsreasonable.SensibleprovisionwasmadeforthepresenceofalargeEnglisharmy.AGenoesemerchantbankerwasemployedtoensurethatenoughgrainwasstoredatthetwinprovisiondepotsofBerwickandCarlisle.Asin1311therewastobea

simultaneouscampaignonthewesternapproachestoScotland:theearlofUlsterwastolead27Anglo-Irishlords,25GaelicIrishchiefsand4,000foot.JohnofArgyll–whomusthavesavouredtheprospect–wastoleadthefleet.Whileitisnotatallclearhowthisarmofthecampaignproceeded,theearlofUlsteratleastlinkedupwiththeroyalarmy.

WhatcouldRobertpitagainstthisformidablearray?TheScottishcavalrywereledbythehereditarymarischal,SirRobertKeith.Theywerevastlyinferiorinnumbersandquality.Atastretchtheremighthavebeen500Scottishhorse,but,whiletheEnglishknightsrodelargespeciallybredchargerscalleddestriers,manyoftheScotswereprobablymountedonlight‘hackneys’or‘hobbies’.Itis

estimatedthatRobertmustered5,000–6,000infantry.Hewasatleastcontemplatingthepossibilityofapitchedbattle.ThereliefofStirling

becameurgentastheEnglishroyalarmyapproachedScotland.AtNewminsterinNorthumberlandon27May,EdwardIIstatedthattheScotscouldbeexpectedtoassemble‘instrongholdsandmorassesbetweenusandour

castleofStirling’.AnEnglishchroniclerelatesthatthehostproceededbyforcedmarches:‘Briefwerethehaltsforsleep,brieferstillforfood;hencehorses,horsemenandinfantrywerewornoutwithtoilandhunger.’EnteringScotland,resplendentwithheraldricbannersandtrappings,theEnglishvanguard,ledbytheearlsofGloucesterandHereford,wasacolourfulandawe-inspiring

sight:

ThesunwasshiningbrightandclearAndarmsthatwerenewlypolishedFlashedinthesun’sraysInsuchawaythatthewholelandwasaflamewithBannersflutteringrightfreshlyAndpennantswavinginthewind.

ThegreathostproceededtoEdinburgh,andoccupiedthetown.Theslightedcastleaffordedlittlecomfort,but

theharbouratLeithwasusefulforunloadingprovisions.ThefollowingdaythevanguardsetouttowardsFalkirkandStirling.Despitethelackofan

Englishroyalwardrobebook,thesourcesforBannockburnareplentifulbycomparisonwithothermajorbattles.Thatblessingcreatesthedifficultyofreconcilingwhatareoftenconflictingaccounts,asthevariouseyewitnesses

recordeddifferentaspectsandepisodesofthebattle.WehavethreegoodchronicleaccountsfromtheEnglish,atleasttwoofwhichwerebaseduponeyewitnessaccounts.However,inthetopographydescribedtherearetwoforests–TorwoodandNewPark–twoapproachroads–theroadrunningnorthtowardsStirlingfromDenny,whichcorrespondstothemodernA80,andtheroad

fromFalkirkandLarbert,correspondingtothemodernA9–andtwochurches–thechurchofStNinian,amilesouthofStirlingCastle,andthechapelatLarbert,twomilesnorthofFalkirk;decidingupontheprecisemeaningofreferencestoplacesisthusfraughtwithdifficulty.Wehaveagoodideaofthegeneralwhereaboutsofthebattle:BarrowandDuncansharea

verysimilarideaastotheexactwhereaboutsofthemainengagementon24June.Artefactsfromtheperiod,possiblyconnectedwiththebattle,havebeendiscoveredinthatvicinity;recently,duringthecourseofaBBCarchaeologyprogramme,twopiecesofstirrupwerediscovered,andin2004a‘bodkin’,orarmour-piercingarrowheadwasunearthed.Thearchaeologistshavedone

well:thefieldwaspickedcleanimmediatelyafterthebattlebytheScottishcampfollowers.IntheBarbournarrative

thecourseofthebattleiscentral,representingthekeyvindicationofthehero-king’sstruggle,andBarbourhasnotresistedembroideringthenarrativewithanecdotesandmaterialtoentertainacourtlyaudience.Consequentlyhisaccountofthebattleoccupies

threebooksofTheBruce.RobertassembledhishostattheTorwood,whichwasaforeststretchingeithersideoftheroadtoStirling,betweentheTorBurnandtheRiverCarron.Understandably,Robertappearstohavebeenrackedbyindecision:tofightorflee?Andiftofight,whereandhow?AtfirsthedecidedtomakeastandontheTorBurn.Hedividedhisarmyintothree:Moraywastolead

thevanguard;EdwardBrucetheseconddivisionandhehimselfthethird,whichincludedthemenofCarrick,Argyll,KintyreandtheIsles.BarbourrecordsafourthdivisionledbyWaltertheStewardandDouglas,butsincetheEnglishchroniclesallrecordthreeitseemsthatBarbourinventedafourthtogiverolestoallhisheroes.Robertpositionedallhisforcesinornearwoodsto

keepthemsafefromcavalryattack.HisowndivisionhetooktothewoodsoftheNewPark,whileMoraywasorderedtostayintheTorwood,withinstructionsto‘keeptheroadbesidethekirk’.DuncantakesthistomeanthechapelatLarbert.Forthepresent,Moraywastoblockthemainapproachroad,theA9route.Roberthadselectedabattlefield,probablytheareaspanning

theA80justnorthoftheTorBurn,whereheorderedhismentodigatrapfortheEnglishcavalry:ahoneycombofshallowholes,‘afootindiameterandasdeepasaman’sknee’,eachconcealedwithtwigsandgrass.Thisdevicehasbeenlikenedtoaminefield;itwouldcertainlyhavedisruptedacavalrycharge.

TheEnglishspentthenightatFalkirk,andontheSunday23June‘afterdinner’theycamewithinsightoftheTorwood.TheywereanxioustoreachStirlingCastleeitherthatdayorthenext,beforeMowbraydelivereditupforlost,sotherewasatendencyforleadinggroupstopressahead.Thereweretwoencountersthatevening,whichtookplaceasthemain

bodyoftheEnglisharmywasstillarriving.Inthefirstincident,agroupofyoungaristocratichotheads,spyingsomeScots‘stragglingunderthetreesasifinflight’,gallopedoffaroundtheTorwoodtocutofftheirretreat.WhattheyhadseenwasMoray,retiringfromhispositionatthechapelofLarberttojoinKingRobertintheNewPark.ProbablyhehadseentheEnglishhost

fromafaranddecideduponwithdrawal.TheEnglishmusthaveseenfurtheractivityaroundtheNewPark,fortheyrodeoffinthatdirection,confidentthattheScotswereinfullretreatbeforethem.Greatwastheirsurprisethen,whentheScottishkinghimselfgallopedouttowardsthem,attheheadofaforceofcavalry:

Herodeuponalittlepalfrey,

Lowandbonny,anddirectingHiscompanywithanaxeinhishandAndonhisbascinetheworeAhatofboiledleatherAndontopofthatAsasignthathewasking,Ahighcrown.

AttheheadoftheEnglisharistocratsrodeSirHenrydeBoun,aknightofHereford’sretinueandpossiblyarelativeofthatearl.Levellinghislance,herodefulltiltatthe

king,butmissed,andashepassedRobertstoodupinhisstirrupsandbroughthisaxedownondeBoun’shead.Withtheforceoftheblow,Barbourtellsus,theaxe-shaftbrokeintwo,andBarbourhasthekingcomplainnonchalantlythathehadruinedabloodygoodaxe.TheEnglishknightsfled.Robert’svictoryinthisone-to-onecombatisattestedbytwoEnglishchronicles,and

suchapersonalfeatofarmsattheverycommencementofbattlesentScottishmoralesoaring.ItwasavindicationinitselfofRobert’srightasking.Enormouslyencouraging,newsoftheencounterwillhavespreadrapidlythroughouttheScottishranks.Shortlybeforeorafterthis,

RobertClifford,whoalsosawScotsclosebythewoods,ledacontingentofcavalryto

skirtaroundthewoodlandandcutofftheScots’retreat.CliffordwasaccompaniedbytheearlofGloucester,HenryBeaumontand,amongothers,toourgoodfortune,bySirThomasGray,whosesonincludedhisfather’seyewitnessaccountinhisnarrative,Scalachronica,writtenin1355–57.TheseknightsgallopedaroundthewooduntiloutofthesightofthemainbodyoftheEnglish

army,andtookupapositiontoblockaretreattowardsStirling.Suddenly,outofthewoods,camearushofScottishinfantry,bunchedcloselytogetherinatightschiltromformation,andcarryingpikes.MorayhadseenthattheEnglishcontingentwasisolated.TheEnglishcavalryhadhaltedtooclosetothetreestoformupandcharge,expectingtheretreatingScotstocomefrom

anotherdirection.ThehorseswerethemaintargetsoftheScottishpikemen,and,maddenedbytheirwounds,thechargersrearedupandthrewtheirriders.SirWilliamDeyncourtwaskilled.SirThomasGraywastakenprisoner.Gloucesterwasunhorsed–anomenofwhatwouldhappenonthemorrow.RobertCliffordwasrouted,andheledtheremainderofthecontingentbacktorejoin

themainarmy.Thusasecondandstrongergroupofcavalryrejoinedthemainbodyofthetroopswithwounds,excusesandtalesofthevalouroftheScots.Bothactionstookplacein

theevening,andthelightwasnowfading.TheEnglish,tiredwhentheyhadarrived,werenowthoroughlydemoralised;theScotswerebuoyant.Thesummernightwasheavywithexpectations,

fullofpossibilitiesandriddledwithpolitics.RobertshouldneverhavefoughttheBattleofBannockburn:inthefaceofsuchahostheshouldhaveprudentlyretiredtothehillcountrytokeephisforcesintactandwaitfortheEnglishtostarve.Yettheseincidentsmeantthat,psychologically,thebattlewasalreadywon.Hehaddecidedagainstpushinghisluck,however,andSirThomasGraytellsus

thathewaspreparingtowithdrawundercoverofnighttothehighcountryofLennoxwhenhereceivedadefectorfromEdward’scamp.ThiswasSirAlexanderdeSeton,whohadsupportedBrucein1308,buthadreturnedtothefaithofEdwardIIafter1310.HebroughtnewsofthedemoralisedstateoftheEnglishcamp,andRobertchangedhismindoncemore,

determiningtogambleeverythingontheoutcomeofthemorrow’sbattle.Setonwasnottheonlydefector:DaviddeStrathbogie,EarlofAtholl,EdwardBruce’sbrother-in-law,hadbeenalienatedfromtheBrucecampbytheknowledgethatEdwardhadscornedhissistertowhomEdwardwasaffianced,orpossiblyevenmarried,bydesertingherforIsabelofRoss.Atholl

defectedtotheEnglish,furtherdiminishingtheScottishcavalryandcarryingoffRobert’sstoresfromCambuskennethAbbey.TheexacttextofRobert’s

crucialeve-of-battlespeechtohislordsdoesnotsurvive,butechoesofithavecomedowntousinseveralversions.Barbourgivesthekingaspeechof150lines,inwhichhecommencesbyaskinghismenwhethertheyshould

fightorflee.Theyoptenthusiasticallyfortheformer.ThenRobertreassuresthemthatinthreewaystheyhavetheedge.‘ThefirstisthatrightisonoursideandGodwillalwaysfightfortheright.’Secondly,thearrivaloftheenemyhostaffordsatremendousopportunityfortheScotstoplunder.Thirdly,theenemyfightonlytodestroythem,buttheScotsfightfor

survivalitself:

AndforourchildrenandourwivesAndforourfreedomandourlandWeareboundtostandinbattle.

LaterRobertputsbeforehislordsthestarkchoicethatliesbeforethem:

Youbearhonour,reputationandrichesFreedomwealthandhappiness,Ifyoucarryyourselveslikemen;AndexactlytheoppositeWillbefallyouifyoulet

cowardiceAndwickednesstakeoveryourhearts.

InonepartoftheBarbourtextthekingacknowledgesthepersonalloyaltyandprofoundtrustthathismenaredemonstratingbytheirpresence:

Youcouldhavelivedinserfdom,But,becauseyouhaveyearnedtohavefreedom,Youaregatheredherewithme.

Thereisalsopracticaladvice:tochargewithspeedtowardstheenemyandnottobetooquicktoplunderortakeprisonersuntilthedayisindisputablywon.Inanotherversion–quitepossiblythe‘official’version,pennedaftertheeventbytheScottishchancery,especiallyforinclusioninchronicles–theseringingwordsareputintothemouthoftheking:

Wehavelostbrothersandfriendsandkinsmen.Yourrelativesandfriendsarecaptives,AndnowprelatesareshutupinprisonwithotherclergyAndnoorderofMotherChurchremainssafe;Thenoblesofthelandhavepassedawayinthebloodshedofwar…They[theEnglish]gloryintheirwagonsandhorses;forusTheNameoftheLordandvictoryinwarisourhope.Happyisthisday!SaintJohntheBaptistwasbornonit;

AndSaintAndrewandThomaswhoshedhisbloodAlongwiththesaintsoftheScottishfatherlandwillfighttodayForthehonourofthepeople,withChristtheLordinthevanguard!

ThemoodintheEnglishcampcontrastsdeeplywiththatintheScottish.ForthetiredEnglishtroopstherewasalotofworktobedoneinthedark.Theinfantrybivouackedinthecarse–themarshlandneartheriver–

andstayedunderarmsthewholenight,expectingScottishattack.Thehorses,however,hadtobemovedontofirmgroundacrosstheBannockBurn,andmakeshiftbridgeswereconstructedfromthethatch,doorsandshuttersofnearbydwellings.Atdaybreakeacharmy

heardmassforthefeastday,andthetroopsconfessedtopriestsandthenbreakfasted.Itwasthecustomthatmen

wereknightedonthemorningofbattle,andRobertusedtheoccasiontoconferthathonouruponWalterStewardandJamesDouglas.ThentheScottishtroopsarrayedintheirthreedivisionswithbannersdisplayed,andemergedfromtheforestofNewPark.AnEnglishchronicledescribesthemintheseterms:‘Notoneofthemwasonhorseback,buteachwasfurnishedwithlight

armournoteasilypenetrablebyasword.Theyhadaxesattheirsides,andcarriedlancesintheirhands.Theyadvancedlikeathick-sethedgeandinaphalanxsuchascannoteasilybebroken.’ChroniclesfromeithersideagreethatatsomedistancetheScotsknelttoprayaPaterNosterbeforeadvancing.‘Yonfolkarekneelingtoaskmercy’remarksEdwardIIintheBarbournarrative,andbyhis

sidetheAnglo–ScotSirIngramdeUmfravillereplies,‘Theyaskmercy,butnotfromyou.TheyaskGodformercyfortheirsins.Iwilltellyousomethingforafact;yonmenwillwinall,ordie;nonewillfleeforfearofdeath.’MeanwhileAbbotBernardofArbroath,thechancellorofScotland,wasmovingamongthetroops,bearingaroundhisnecktheBreccbennach,thelittlesilverreliquary,smaller

thanaman’shand,whichcontainedabonerelicofStColmcilleandwasbelievedtotransmitpotencyinbattle.BycontrastwiththeScots,

theEnglishinfantryremainedinasinglebody.TheEnglishtoohadtheirtalismans:oneEnglishmonkborethebannerofStCuthbert,thepatronofthebishopricofDurham;anotherthatofStJohnofBeverley.Thebattlefieldputthematasignificant

disadvantage.Cavalryneededspacetomanoeuvre,buttheavailablespacewasconfinedbytheBannockBurnandmarshestothesouth-eastandtreestothenorth-west.Moreover,theScotshadtheadvantageofattackingdownhill.Formalitiesover,the

conflictbeganwitharchersexchangingvolleys.ArcheryhadnotyetreacheditsheydayinEngland;

nevertheless,hadtheEnglishbeenabletomasstheirarchersinsufficientnumberstheywouldswiftlyhavethinnedouttheranksoftheScottishschiltroms.Butthenarrownessofthefield,coupledwiththesizeofthehostmadeitimpossibletogroupthemeffectively.Neverthelessthearchershadsomeimpact;anEnglishchroniclestatesthat‘theKingofEngland’sarchersquickly

puttheotherstoflight’.ThentheScottishinfantryadvanced,twoschiltromsabreastofoneanother,andathird,theking’s,behind.GloucesterledtheEnglish,stungintoaction,theVitaEdwardiSecundireports,byanaccusationoftreacherylevelledathimbyEdwardIIthepreviousnight,andhiscavalrysmashedintothephalanxledbyEdwardBruceandinwhichDouglasserved:

‘WhenbotharmiesengagedandthegreathorsesoftheEnglishchargedthepikesoftheScots,asitwereintoadenseforest,therearoseagreatandterriblecrashofspearsbrokenandofdestrierswoundedtothedeath;andsotheyremainedwithoutmovementforawhile.’Manyofthedestriersrefusedtochargeintotheforestofpikeheadsandthrewtheirriders.TheScottishspearmen

targetedthehorsesoftheenemy,andGloucester’shorsewaskilledunderhim.Atalleventstheearlrolledtothegroundwhere‘bornedownbytheweightofhisbodyarmourhecouldnoteasilyrise’.Hisdeathwasapivotaleventinthebattle.Therewasnoneedforittohavebeendecisive,butsuchwasthecriticalroleofgreatmagnatesthatthiseventtookallthesteamoutofthe

Englishattack.Othermagnatestoowereknockedordraggedfromtheirhorses:RobertClifford,EdmunddeMauley,PainTyptoft,andWilliamMarshall.InthemêléeaneweffortwasmadetomasstheEnglisharchers,but,realisingthis,RobertdirectedthesmallScottishforceofcavalryunderSirRobertKeithtoridethemdown.ThisKeithaccomplishedbyridinginto

theflanksofthearcherbattery.TheEnglishchroniclesareconsistentinreportingthatthegreatmassofEnglishinfantryneverengagedtheScots,sonarrowwasthefront.Meetingtheirownmenwoundedandfleeing,theEnglishinfantrythemselvesbegantoflee.Evennow,thebattlewas

notnecessarilylostfortheEnglish,butforachanceintervention.‘Yeomenand

boysandmenonfoot’,cartersandlabourersoftheScottisharmy,whohadbeenguardingthebaggagetrainheardthedinand,witnessingconfusionintheEnglishranks,andbelievingthebattlewon,sweptontothefield.Theywereanxioustosecureashareofthepickings;yetthesepoveraille,or‘smallfolk’,weremistakenforaScottishreinforcement.Itwasthisperceptionthatsecured

victoryfortheScots.AmongtheEnglishtheroutbecamegeneral,andhorsemenandinfantrystumbledintotheBannockBurnandweredrowned.EdwardIIhadappointedtheearlofPembrokeandGilesd’Argentanoneitherside‘totheking’sreins’,thatis,toleadhimoutoftrouble.Gilesd’Argentanrefusedtodesertthefieldandrodeofftoanhonourabledeathinbattle.

Illustratingtheheraldicpracticeofmaintainingrankingsofknightlyreputations,Barbourreportsthatd’Argentanwasthe‘thirdbestknight’ofhistime.ItwaslefttoAymerdeValence,nowEarlofPembroke,toleadEdwardtosafety,thoughtheEnglishkingleftmuchagainsthiswill.TheEnglishchroniclesagreethatEdwardshowednolackofpersonalcourageor

keennessforthefight,andthisistoberemarkedupon,fortheyareseldomgeneroustohim.OnechroniclehasScottishknightsonfoottuggingatthecoveringofEdward’shorsetopreventhisescape,whiletheEnglishking,vigorouslywieldinghismace,knockedthemtotheground.Robertgavethesignalthat

prisonersmightbetakenforransom,andtheScotsfell

uponabonanzaofplunder:horses,armourandweaponsthrownawaybyfleeingknights,harness–‘twohundredpairsofredspursweretakenfromdeadknights’–tentsandpavilions,richapparelandallthecostlytrappingsoftheEnglishroyalandthreecomitalhouseholdswereallforthetaking.AnEnglishchronicleremarksthathadtheScotsbeenlessgreedyforplundertheymight

havehadmanymoreprisoners.Butthevalueofprisoners’ransomswasneverunderestimatedbytheScots.KingRobertclaimedalltheleadingprisoners,aswashisprerogative,andinthebagweretheearlofHereford,theearlofAngus,IngramdeUmfraville,MauriceBerkley,JohnGiffard,AntonyLucy–apowerfulknightoftheEnglishWestMarch–JohnSegraveandmanyothers.

Onechroniclelistsseventy-fivenamesofcapturedgentry,andeventhatwillbeapartiallisting.Allwouldbeforcedtopayransomaccordingtorank.EdwardII,meanwhile,led

byPembroke,arrivedatStirlingCastleandsoughtadmittance.However,hisgarrisoncommander,SirPhilipMowbray,refusedtolowerthedrawbridge.Awarethatthecastlewouldnow

havetobesurrendered,hehonourablysavedhiskingfromcaptivity,andhonourablydeliveredthecastletoRobertinaccordancewiththeagreementhehadreachedwithEdwardBruce.ItistobelamentedhoweverthatMowbraydidnotdishonourablybringabouttheendofthewaratastrokebyadmittingEdward,makinghimprisonerandgiftingtoRoberttheonlythingthatthe

Englishmighttradeforpeace:theirking.SuchwasthecoursetakenbytheconstableofBothwellcastle,WalterfitzGilbert,whoafterthebattleadmittedtheearlofHerefordandretinue,madeHerefordhisprisonerandthen,changingsides,deliveredbothearlandcastletoRobert.Mowbray’sdecisionnottodeliverEdwardintocaptivityenabledwartodragonyearafteryear,

neithersideabletoinflictdecisivedefeatontheother.Forthepresent,then,EdwardIIfledthroughtheKing’sParktoLinlithgow,toPatrick,EarlofMarch,atDunbar,Douglaspursuinghimdoggedlywithaforceofsixtyhorse.Finally,EdwardtookshipforBerwickandsafety.Pembroke,hisrescuer,alsosucceededinbringinghisWelshretainersthroughninetymilesofhostile

countrysidetosafetyinCarlisle.Itwasamagnificent

victory,towhichRobertrespondedwithmagnanimitytowardsmanyofhisopponents.ThebodiesofGloucesterandCliffordwererestoredwithhonourtotheirfamilies.PerhapsweshouldnotbesurprisedthatRaouldeMonthermer,Gloucester’sstep-father,wasallowedtogohomewithoutpayingransom,

forthehouseofGloucesterhadbeenlooselyassociatedwiththeBrucesformanyyears.Robertwasreportedlysaddenedbythedeathoftheearl.Hisbodywasbroughtfromthebattlefieldandplacedinakirkunderguardbeforebeinghandedback.MarmadukedeThweng,veteranofmanyScottishcampaigns,wasalsoreleasedfreeofransom.Robertensuredthatthewidowof

EdmundComynofKilbride,whohadfoughtagainsthim,wasprovidedfor‘untilshecouldrecoverherrightfuldoweraccordingtotheassizeoftheland’.Theseofcoursewerealladversariesofhighrank,andRobertprobablytooknosuchinterestinthefatesoflessercaptives.Suchweretheconventionsoftheage.TherepercussionsofBannockburnwereseismic.IntermsofBritishmilitary

historyitwasrevolutionary:forthefirsttimeaninfantryarmyhadovercomeanarmyledbyheavycavalry,andEnglishchroniclerswerenotslowtodrawparallelswiththebattleofCourtraiin1302,whentheFlemishtownsfolkhadputtoflighttheflowerofFrenchchivalry.TheEnglishgovernmentcollapsed.TheroyalistadministrationheadedbyPembrokewasutterlydiscreditedandthe

dourleaderofthebaronialopposition,ThomasofLancaster,fivetimesanearl,tookcontrolofthegovernmentintheking’sname–totheking’sundisguiseddistaste.InScotlandonlythegarrisonsofBerwickandlittle,isolatedJedburghremainedfaithfultoEdward,andthoughhisgovernmentofScotlandcontinuedtoexistitwasreducedtomanagingthese

garrisonsandtheimmediatevicinityofBerwick.TheScotsenjoyedtheir

windfallofriches,estimatedat£200,000bytheVitaEdwardiSecundi,afigurethatmustbedismissedasawildexaggeration.Theyalsosustainedlosses:BarbournotesthattheScottishknightsWilliamVipontandWalterRossdiedinthebattle.But,atastroke,threemajorcastlestumbledintoRobert’slap:

Stirling,BothwellandalsoDunbar,whichEarlPatrickofMarchsurrenderedonthedepartureofEdwardII.Prisoners’ransomsbroughthugesumsofmoneytoindividualScottishlords.Robert,however,hadrelativestoredeem,andthefollowingyearhewasabletoexchangetheearlofHerefordforfourprisonerswhomtheEnglishhadheldsince1306:Elisabethhisqueen,hissister

Mary,hisdaughtertheladyMarjorie,andhisoldmentor,RobertWishart,BishopofGlasgow,nowblindwithage.Moneypouredintotheroyalcoffersfromtheransomsofotherprisoners:theearlofAngus,JohnSeagrave,MauricedeBerkleyandAntonyLucywereallredeemedbyransom.Yet,agreatdealremained

unchangedbyBannockburn.Robert’svictorydidnot

dissolveEdwardII’sclaimtoberightfulkingofScotland,nordiditbringhimanynearertoanegotiatingtable.TheEnglishremainedthestrongersidebyfar,andhadnoreasontogiveinonaccountofonedefeat.Theverynextyear,andeveryyearthereafter,iftheysochose,theycouldmarchapowerfularmytoStirlingorbeyond.NordiditvanquishtheScottishoppositionto

Robert.InArgyllandIreland,theirredentistJohnofArgyllcontinuedtomaketroublefortheBruces,andsince1313hehadbeenjoinedintheIrishSeatheatreofwarbytheGallovidianknight,DungalMacDowell.Itwouldtakemorethanasinglevictory,howevermomentous,toreconcilethesediehardwarriorstoaBruceregime.

8Triumphsanddisasters(1314–

18)

Famine,warandIreland

TheBattleofBannockburninitiatedauniqueperiodinthehistoryoftheBritishIslesasScotlandenjoyedabriefmilitaryhegemonyfromthateventuntiltheendofRobert’sreign.InthisperiodtheScotscameclosetoconqueringIrelandandtodominatingtheIrishSea.TheychallengedEnglishcontroloftheNorthSeaandtherearesignstoothattheBruceswerefomenting

rebellioninWales.YetScotlandwasstrongerthanEnglandonlyinthesensethatshewasbetterled.Englandontheotherhandhadbeenweakenedontwocounts.Firstly,shewaspreoccupiedbythehostilitythatsmoulderedbetweenEdwardII,stillgrievingandresentfuloverthemurderofGaveston,hislover,andhisbarons,ledbyThomasofLancaster.Secondly,andmore

fundamentally,EnglandwasprofoundlyweakenedbytheonsetoftheGreatEuropeanFamineof1315–18,causedbytorrentialrainswhichruinedsuccessiveharvests,andthereafterbywidespreadanimalpestilence.Asthemorepopulous,andmoretillage-dependentofthetwowarringkingdoms,thefamineaffectedEnglandmoreseverely.Intheseconditionsitwasvirtuallyimpossiblefor

theEnglishtoassembletheprovisionsnecessarytosustainthelargeconcentrationsofmenandbeastsneededforamilitarycampaign.MuchlessisknownabouthowtheScottisheconomyfaredduringthefamineatthistime,butScotlandwasalessdenselypopulatedcountrythanEngland;waslessdependentuponsensitivewheatandmoresouponrain-

tolerantoats;and,inanycase,wasmuchmorepastoralthanarable.TheScotsdeployedrelativelysmallforcesintheirraids,preyingupontheenemyandlivingoffhislands.Whileconditionsvariedenormouslybetweenregions,ScotlandthereforewillnothaveseenthewidespreadagriculturaldistressthattherainscausedinEngland.Ironically,whilefamineinBritainwastheally

oftheScots,famineinIrelandwastheirAchilles’heel.TheIrishcampaignsof1316and1317endedwiththeScottisharmyretreatingandsufferingfromstarvation.Nevertheless,itisundeniablethatthesehistoricalaccidents–thefamineandthebitterdivisionsamongtheEnglishnobles–accountformuchofRobert’ssuccessintheseyears.Warrolledgrimlyon,and

notimewaswastedinfollowingupthevictoryatBannockburn.TheNorthumbrianswerehorrifiedatthenewsofdefeatinScotlandandknewexactlywhattoexpect;witnessthereactionoftworoyalofficialstryingtolevytaxesatMorpethwhentheyencounteredremnantsofthedefeatedEnglisharmyreturningfromthebattle:

RichardandRobertbegantotaxthegoodsofthesaidmen[ofNorthumberland]intheseventhyear[ofEdwardII],andtheysatatMorpethinthesaidcounty;andsuddenlytherearrivedStephenSeagraveandmanyotherswithhimandtheytoldthemthatthelordkingwasretreatingfromStirlingwithhisarmyandwascomingtowardsEngland,andatthistheywereterrified.Theyfledand,likeothersofthecounty,stayedinenclosedtownsandcastlesandforts.Andimmediatelyafterwardsbefore1August,there

cameEdwardBruceandThomasRandolphleadingtheScottisharmy.

AlthoughRobertdidnotparticipateinthisraid,itisworthoutliningitscoursebecauseitsetthepatternformanyotherstofollow.ItisparticularlywellattestedbytheEnglishchronicles,whichaddthatJamesDouglasandJohnSoulesalsoledcontingents.TheScottish

infantryseemstohavemarchedthelengthofNorthumberland,wheretheystayedthreedaysatNewburnonthebanksoftheTyne,burning,wastingandperhapstryingtotemptouttheNewcastlegarrison.Butthecavalryrodeon,throughDurham,whichboughtthemoff,overtheTeesandintoYorkshirewhere,atRichmond,theyturnedwestwardsintoSwaledale.At

theReycrossonStainmoretheymetwithanambushperpetratedbytheCarlislegarrison,buttheScotsfoughtofftheirassailantsandenteredthevalleyoftheEden.TheCarlislemenwereenergeticallyledbySirAndrewHarclay,whobeginstofeatureprominentlyinthenarrativefromthispoint.TheScotsburntthetownsofBrough,Appleby–wheretheydisruptedthe

proceedingsofthecountycourt–andthecastleofKirkoswald.WecantellfromtheaccountsoftheestatesoftheHonourofPenriththattheyvisiteddestructionuponitsfivemanors:Penrith,Carlatton,CastleSoweby,LangwathbyandScotby.AtSalkeldtheydestroyedthewatermill.TheyusedtheirstolenherdstotramplethecropsandthenrodeoffintoLiddesdale.Thepeopleof

Copeland,terrifiedatwhattheysawhappeningtonorthernCumberland,paidtheScots600marks(thatis,£400)foraguaranteeofsafetyfromChristmastoMidsummer,then24June.

This,then,wasthenatureofthewarfarethatRobertunleasheduponthenorthofEngland.InfantrywereinvolvedonlyinborderdistrictsandplaceswheretheScottishpresencecameclosetopermanentoccupation.Thelong-distanceraidswerecarriedoutbyhorsemenmountedonhackneysorponies.TheserodeswiftlyintoEnglandandsweptdown

theEastMarch,devastatingvillagesanddrivingoffcattle,takinghostageswherepaymentcouldbeexpected,tramplingstandingcropsandburningbarns,mills,andhomesteads.Theywerequitepreparedtobeboughtoff,anddealswerestruckwithterrifiedinhabitantscrowdedintotowersorchurches,orontocastleparapets.Religioushousesheldaspecialattractionforthe

raiders:theretheycouldfindsacredvesselsofpreciousmetals,costlyvestments,andotherobjectsofhighvaluebesidestheproceedsofestates,tithesandothercollectionsfromthelaity.SweepingwestwardsintoPenninedales,theraidersdrovethestolencattlebeforethem,pausingonlytowreakdestructionupontheuplandfarmsteadsastheycrossedthePennines.Finally,and

havingreachedtheWestMarch,theyturnednorthwards,bypassingtheheavilyfortifiedcityofCarlisle,intoLiddesdale,orcrossingbythefordsoftheSolwayFirth.MorayandDouglasregularlyledtheselong-distance,U-shapedmountedraidsthroughnorthernEngland.Raidingdevelopedovertime,withtheScotspenetratingdeeperanddeeperintoEnglandand

spendinglongeroneachraid.Thismayhavebeenduenotonlytotheirincreasingaudacity:theymayhavebeenforcedtogoeverdeeperintoEnglandbecausetherewaspracticallynothingleftwheretheyhadbeenpreviously.DuringEdwardBruce’sinvasionofIreland,theraidsbecamelessfrequent,fortheScotsareknowntohavetransferredlordsandtheirtroopsfromonetheatreof

wartoanother.Theraidswerepartlya

naturalconsequenceofvictoryoverahostileneighbourandpartlyanopportunitytorewardandenrichloyalandsuccessfullieutenants,butpartlytootheywereaninstrumentofroyalpolicy.RobertclearlyhopedthatsuchraidswouldforceEdwardIItonegotiatewithhimandconcedehisrighttothekingshipof

Scotland,buthishopewasillfounded.Edwardshowedsomeconcernoverthedevastationofhissixnortherncounties,buthisprimeandoverwhelmingobjectivewastheundermininganddefeatofhiscousin,ThomasofLancaster,whomhehatedwithapassion.OnefifthofEdward’skingdomwasundertributetoRobert,yethispreoccupationwithLancaster

wasunrelenting.Once–andonlyonce–EdwardandThomasmanagedtoco-operateforlongenoughtolaunchanattackagainstRobert,butthateffort,thesiegeofBerwickin1319,collapsedamidastormofrecriminationsandaccusationsoftreacheryonbothsides,andtheirmutualantagonismredoubled.ThefailureoftheraidstoforcetheEnglishtotheconference

tablewasonereasonwhyRobertfeltcompelledtounderwriteEdwardBruce’sgrandandultimatelydisastrousstrategyfortheconquestofIreland.Followingthebattleand

theraidofEdwardBruceandMoray,thefirstcessationofhostilitiesoccurredinOctober1314.OnthisoccasiontheEnglishadministration‘granted’atrucetotheScotsonthe

interventionofKingPhilipofFrance.NegotiationswiththeEnglishwereabletocommenceatDurhamon20October.Theyweretoencompassbothexchangesofprisonerstakeninbattleanddiscussionsaimedat‘aperpetualpeace’.Butitisquiteincrediblethateithersidewasgenuinelyinterestedincompromisingonthecentralissuesofkingshipandsovereigntyatthisstage.Both

stillhadhighhopesofvictory,andthefutilityofcontinuingthewarhadyettobedemonstrated.MoraywasatDurhamon17October1314,presumablyasRobert’schiefnegotiator.Thedetailsoftheprisonerexchangewerefinalised,butthetalksbrokedownsoonafterwards,presumablyassoonastheyproceededtotheissuesofkingshipandsovereignty.Roberthadtoapplyfurther

militarypressure,notthatitwillhavegalledhimtodoso.TheamnestyofferedtoirredentistAnglo-Scotswasduetoexpire,andataparliamentatCambuskennethAbbeynearStirlingon6November1314proclamationwasmadethatallwhohaddiedinoppositiontoKingRobertorwhohadnotyetcomeintohisfaithweredulydisinheritedforevermore.Ontheconclusionofthis

parliamentRobertledanotherinvasionofNorthumberland.Chroniclescontainnodetailsofthisexpedition;indeed,withrespecttothedevastatedandanarchicstateofNorthumberland,thechroniclesatthispointlapseintogenerallamentationsandyieldlittledetail.Itseemslikely,however,thatthiswastheoccasionofRobert’stakinghomagefromthepeopleofNorthTynedale,

andhisgrantofthatregiontoSirPhilipdeMowbray,whohadcomeintohispeaceondeliveringtohimStirlingCastle.RobertwasineffectthreateningtodismemberthekingdomofEngland.ThisposturingappearstohavehadasalutaryeffectupontheEnglish,forfurthernegotiationstookplace,thistimeatDumfries.ByChristmas,theytoohadcollapsed,neithersidebeing

preparedtogivewayonthesubstantiveissue.AgainRobertresortedtothethreatofforce,andearlyin1315YorkshirewasbracedforimminentattackbytheScots.InFebruaryandMarch

intermittentviolenceontheMarchesalternatedwithparleys.WeknowonlythatproposalsconcerningthekingshipofScotlandwerebeingdiscussed,butsimultaneouslybothsides

werepreparingforaseriousescalationoftheconflictinIrelandandthewest.RobertappearstohaveadvertisedhisintentiontointerveneinIreland.Earlyin1315theEnglishchancerylearnedthattheScotswereexpecting‘thirteengreatcogs’loadedwitharmsandsuppliesfromFlanders,probablyintendedtoequiptheexpedition.AmessengeroftheScottishkingwasarrestedinDublin

thatmonth.Pre-emptiveactionwasorganisedandbefore15February1315JohnofArgyll’sforcesrecapturedtheIsleofManforEdwardIIinanticipationoftheScottishinvasionofIreland.35On18FebruaryJohnreceivedorderstoraise10,000menand60ships,mannedatdoublestrength,tobereadyby6AprilforanattackonthewestofScotland.These

developmentsinthewestunderminedanyprogressmadeinnegotiations.Neithersidewassufficientlyinterestedinasettlementatthisstage:inScotlandEdwardBrucewasurgingextensionofthewartoIreland,whileinEnglandLancaster’sadministrationwassimplyplayingfortimeuntilthesummer,whenithopedtoorganiseafreshinvasionofScotland.

TheinvasionofIrelandwasenormousgamble,andthereasonswhyRobertsanctioneditaremanyandcomplex.OnesourcesuggeststhatEdwardhadreceivedaninvitationfromanIrishchief‘withwhomhehadbeeneducatedinhisyouth’;howeveritismuchmorelikelythattheimpetusfortheinvasioncamefromScotland,ratherthanIreland.EdwardBrucehaddynasticambitions

ofhisown,asBarbourrelates:

SirEdward,earlofCarrick,Whowasstrongerthanaleopard,Andhadnodesiretoliveinpeace,FeltthatScotlandwastoosmallForhimandhisbrotherThereforeheformedapurposeThathewouldbecomekingofIreland.

HereBarbourisborneoutbyanotherchronicler,whodescribesEdwardthus:‘very

mettlesomeandhigh-spirited,[he]wouldnotdwelltogetherwithhisbrotherinpeace,unlesshehadhalfthekingdomforhimself;andforthisreasonthiswarwasstirredupinIreland.’DuncanpointsoutthattheprisonerexchangelatelyagreedwiththeEnglishallowedforthereunionofRobertandhisqueen,andifchildrenwereforthcomingEdwardBrucewouldlosehispositionas

Scotland’sheirpresumptiveandanyhopeofgainingakingdomofhisown.Anotherfactor,unrelated

toEdwardBruce’sambition,wasthethreatfromScottishémigrés,ledbyJohnofArgyllandDungalMacDowall.John’sfleetwasdestinednodoubtforthewestofScotland.HehadorderstoreceivetothepeaceofEdwardII,magnatesandcommunitiesoftheWestern

Isles.HisrecentcaptureofManprovidedacentralbasefromwhichhecoulddominatetheIrishSeaandthreatenwesternScotland.ManwassurelycapturedinordertoforestalltheexpectedScottishinvasionofIreland,formostofthetwenty-twoScotsandotherscapturedweredistributedtoIrishgarrisonstoserveashostages.Johnandtheémigrésposedathreatthatcouldnotbe

ignored,andEdwardBruce’sinvasionwasatleastpartlyintendedtotakethewartothem,anddeprivethemoftheirlastrefuge.Other,lesserbenefits

wouldflowfromasuccessfulinvasionofIreland.OneofthesewouldbethecaptureofCarrickfergusCastle.ThismassivestrengthwasownedbytheearlofUlsterandwasideallypositionedtoserveasabaseforthoseattacking

ArgyllorwesternScotland.DevastatingIrelandwouldalsodeprivethecityofCarlisleofthesourceofhalfitsprovisions,andsimilarlystarveJohnofArgyll’sfleetatMan.Finally,RoberthopedthatbycapturingsomeprizeofenormousstrategicvaluehemightforceEdwardIItoconcedehisrighttothekingship.Hecertainlyappreciatedthediplomaticleveragethatthecaptureof

CarlisleandBerwickwouldbring;andhemayhaveseenIrelandintermsofsuchaprize.ThusRobertwaspushed

intoapprovingthewesternadventurebytheambitionsofhisbrother,andsimultaneouslydrawnintoIrelandbythetroublemakingactivitiesoftheMacDougallaffinityandtheprospectofaragbagoflesserbenefits.Andsoinspring1315hevastly

extendedthescopeofhiswarbyassentingtoEdward’sinvasionofIreland.AtAyron26April1315,acouncilmettosettletheevidentlyrelatedquestionsoftheroyalsuccession,andtheco-ordinatedcampaignsinIrelandandonthewesternseaboardofScotland.Aroyaltailzie–aformaldeed,whichsetasidethenormalcourseofthelaw–settledtheroyalsuccessiononRobert’sheirs

male,or,failingthat,onEdwardBruceandhisheirsmale,or,failingthat,onMarjorie,Robert’sdaughterandherheirsmale.Directlyafterthecouncil,

inthemonthofMay,Edward’sformidablearmyembarkedforIreland.WithhimwentMorayandseveralprominentknights,includingPhilipMowbray,JohnSoulesandJohnStewartofMenteith.Onarrival,Edward’sforce

appearstohavebeenwelcomedbytheGaelicIrishofthosepartsofUlsterwhichareclosesttoScotland,but,asourknowledgeofEdward’sIrishcampaignsisheavilydependentuponnon-Gaelicsources,thisdimensionoftheIrishadventureislargelyhiddenfromus.Edward,however,lostnotimeininvestingCarrickfergusCastle–justashisbrotherbegantobesiegeCarlisleon

theoppositeshore.HemayhavestagedaninaugurationofhimselfaskingofIrelandshortlyafterwards,orthismayhavetakenplaceinMayofthefollowingyear.36AfterabriefexpeditionintoLeinster,whereheburnttheIrishseaportofDundalk,hedefeatedanarmyledbytheearlofUlsteron1September1315atConnor.ThisforcedtheRedEarltovacateUlster

andmovetohisotherlordship,thatofConnaught.Edwardco-operatedcloselywithasquadronoffourshipsledbytheprivateerThomasDun,usingthisnavalsupporttoferryhismenacrosstheRiverBannandtoconveyMoraybacktoScotland.DuncarriedoutaspectacularraidontheharbourofHolyheadinAngleseyon12September,whenhecapturedashipladenwithprovisions.InEngland,

Dun’sreputationas‘acruelpirate’anda‘perpetratorofdepredationsonthesea’wasgrowing.Muchofthevalueofthese

IrishcampaignsforRobertwasthattheywereonepartofatwo-prongedstrategyagainsttheMacDougallémigrésinUlsterandtheMacDougallhomelandinArgyll.InviewoftheMacSweenexpeditionof1311,thecapturebytheScots

ofNorthburghCastleinCountyDonegalissurelysignificantasitmayhavethreatenedorblockedthepassageofsimilarexpeditionstoArgyll.Itisimportanttorecognisetheco-ordinationinthecampaignsofthetwobrothers.ThesamefleetthatcarriedEdward’sforcetoIrelandthenproceededagainstArgyll,whereRobertwastakingthehomageofthewesternlords.AtEastTarbert

Robertestablishedanewroyalburgh,intendedtoaugmenthisinfluenceinthearea.Interestingly,whileWaltertheStewardaccompaniedRobertontheArgyllcampaign,nolessthanthreemembersofhisextendedfamilywerewithEdwardBruceacrosstheNorthChannel:JohnStewartofJedburghandanAlanStewartwerethereduringthecourseoftheIrishcampaigns,

andthemagnateJohnStewartofMenteithwasalsopresentinIreland.TheStewartconnectionwasthenheavilyinvolvedinbothaspectsofthisstrategy.ItwasonthiscampaignthatRoberthadhismendraghisshipswithsailsunfurledacrosstheisthmusbetweenthetwoTarberts,whilehehimselfremainedintheship.Thekingwasdoingrathermorethanjusttakingashortcut,asBarbour

underlines:

Fortheyknew,byanoldprophecy,ThatwhoevershouldhaveshipsgoBetweenthoseseaswithsailsWouldsowintheIslesforhimselfThatno-onecouldwithstandhimbyforce.

Intheyear1098,twohundredyearsbeforehand,thekingofNorway,MagnusBarelegs,hadperformedtheverysamesymbolicactionwhenhetoohadneededthemen,galley-

fleetsandmoneyofthewesternseaboardforaninvasionofIreland.Robertwasdemonstrating,asMagnusbeforehimhaddone,thatheclaimedmasteryoftheWesternIslesandthathewouldexercisethefullnessofthatlordship.HiscampaigndealtanotherterribleblowtoMacDougallinfluenceinArgyll,anditwasaMacDonald,AlexanderÓg,whodiedbearingthetitle

KingofArgyllin1318.Bycontrast,EdwardBrucehadnosuchspectacularsuccess;hewasforcedtoinvestCarrickfergusCastleanditdidnotfalluntilSeptember1316.Beforeproceedingtothe

attackonCarlisle–thecounterpartofEdward’ssiegeofCarrickfergus–Roberthadfurtherunfinishedbusinessofapersonalnaturetosettle,thistimewiththepeopleof

HartlepoolinthebishopricofDurham.TheanomalouspositionofthebishopricofDurhamduringtheseyearshaslongintriguedscholars.Since1312ithadbeenwellwithinrangeoftheScottishraiders,butfromthatdateithadconsistentlyboughtoffthethreat.Governedbyitsprince-bishopasastate-within-a-state,itpossessedaunityandcohesionthattheEnglishcountycommunities

ofNorthumberlandand,moreespecially,Cumberlandlacked.Unsurprisingly,Roberttreatedthebishopricashismilchcow.ItcontinuedtopayextortionatelyfortruceslongafterNorthumberlandandCumberlandhadsunkintochaos,andinoneagreementwiththecommunityofDurhamtheScotsreservedtothemselvestherighttoridethroughthebishopricontheir

waytoraidYorkshire.ButinJune1315paymentsseemtohavelapsed,andopportunitywastakentosettleagrudgeagainsttenantsofaformerBruceestate:‘SirRobertBrucecameintothebishopricofDurhamwithagreatarmyandsosecretlyhadhecomethathefoundpeoplesleepingsoundlyintheirbeds.HesentSirJamesDouglastothedistrictofHartlepoolwithmanyarmedmenwhilehe

himselfremainedatthevillofChesterleStreet.SirJamesdespoiledthesaidtown,andheledbackascaptivesmanyburgessesandmanywomen.Havingcollectedmuchbootyfromthewholecountrysidetheyallreturnedtotheirowncountry.’AnothersourceaddsthatthetownspeopletooktoseainshipstoescapetheScots,andthisgivesanotherclueastoreasonsforthisaction:Hartlepoolhad

becomeanavalbasefortheenforcementofEdwardII’smaritimeblockadeofScotland,andfromitsharbourtheEnglishwouldinterceptScottish,GermanandFlemishshipstradingandpreyingonEnglishshippingintheNorthSea.Scotland’scontinentaltrade,whichbroughtincashincomeandweaponry,wasvitaltotheprosecutionofthewar.But,inadditiontothis,Hartness–

andHartlepool–hadformedapartoftheBruceancestrallands,andRoberttookpersonallytheactiveinvolvementofformertenantsofhisfamilyundermininghiswar.HartlepoolremainedatargetforsubsequentScottishraidsin1318and1322,andwasspecificallyexcludedfromthepurchasedtruceswiththebishopric.AsaresultofthisraidanewtrucewithDurham

wasorganised,beginningon1July1315andtolastfortwoyears.Forthisthebishopriccoughedupthehugesumof1,600marks(thatis,£1,066).Now,morethanever

before,Robertneededmoney:notonlywasEdwardBruce’ssiegeofCarrickfergusdraininghistreasury,butintheverymonthaftertheHartlepoolraidhehimselfcommenced

thesiegeofCarlisle.ThattwosuchdauntingchallengeswereundertakensimultaneouslyistestimonytotheBruces’confidenceatthistime;allthemoresowhenoneconsidersthattheywereattemptedinconcertwithincreasedpressureonBerwick.WithhindsightwecanseethatvictoryatBannockburnhadtemptedRoberttooverstretchhisresources;hadthecombined

resourcesofthesethreesiegesbeenappliedseparatelytotheseprojects,allmighthavesucceeded.Asitwas,inthreeyearsRobertgainedtwoofhisthreetargets.Avividnarrativeofthe

siegeofCarlisle,clearlywrittenbyaneyewitness,iscontainedintheEnglishLanercòstchronicle.TheaccountrevealsthatRobertstrovetoapplythesophisticatedtechniqueshe

hadwitnessedatEdwardI’ssiegeofStirlingCastle,butwithfewerresources,inadequatematerialsandinadverseweatherconditions:

Oneverydayofthesiege[theScots]assaultedoneofthethreegatesofthecity,sometimesallthreeatonce;butneverwithoutloss,becausethereweredischargeduponthemfromthewallssuchdensevolleysofdartsandarrows,likewisestones,thattheyaskedoneanotherwhetherstonesbred

andmultipliedwithinthewalls.NowonthefifthdayofthesiegetheysetupamachineforcastingstonesnexttothechurchoftheHolyTrinity…butthereweresevenoreightsimilarmachineswithinthecity,besidesotherenginesofwar.

DefenceofthecitywasenergeticallyorganisedbySirAndrewHarclay,aremarkablyableCumberlandknight.TheScotsresortedtomanyingeniousstratagems.

Theybuiltasiegetower–calleda‘belfry’–topushupagainstthewallsandgaintheadvantageofheightonthedefenders,butsomedistancefromthewallsitstuckinearthsaturatedbythetorrentialrainsoftheworstsummerinlivingmemory.TheScotsattemptedtofillupthemoatbypouringintoithugebundlesofcornandhay,butthematerialwassimplyswallowedupandborne

awaybytheswollenwaters.Theybuiltdrawbridges,buttheseprovedtooheavyandsankcompletelyintothemoat.Onecanalmosthearthehowlsofderisionfromthedefendersonthecitywallsasthesesuccessiveexpedientsfailed.Then,on25July,anall-outassaultontheeasternwallswaslaunchedasadiversionwhileDouglas’scommandostriedtoscalethewesternwall.Douglas

himselfmayhavebeenwoundedinthisattempt.ThenextdayRobertgaveup.Perhapshewassimplyexasperated,buthemayalsohaveheardtwopiecesofbadnews:‘AfalsereportmeanwhilespreadthroughoutEnglandthatourarmyinIrelandhadscatteredtheScots,thatEdwardBrucewasdeadandthathardlyoneoftheScotsremainedalive.HenceRobertBruce,bothon

accountofthesewildrumoursandbecausehehadheardthattheEarlofPembrokehadrecentlyarrivedwithmanymen-at-arms,gaveupthesiegeandsetouttowardsScotland.’AbandoningtheirwarmachinestheScotsmarchedoff,insuchdisarraythatthedefenderswereabletocapturetwoScottishknights.EdwardBrucewasalive

andkicking.Notonlyhadhe

keptCarrickfergusunderconstantsiege,buthehadalsodecidedtoriskawintercampaigntoo.Towardstheendof1315,withwintercomingon,hemarchedsouthfromUlsterforasecondtime–quiteremarkablygiventheweatherconditions–rangingfarintoLeinster,theveryheartlandoftheAnglo–Irishcolony.ButtheEnglishmanagedtoretaintheloyaltybothoftheAnglo–Irishand

ofmanyGaeliclords.Ahigh-rankingroyalclerknamedJohndeHothum,whohadlongexperienceofIrishaffairs,hadarrivedinIrelandinSeptember1315toputbackboneintoEdwardII’sIrishgovernment.Bytakingoathsandhostages,andbyjudiciousdistributionofpardons,grantsandprivileges,HothummadeaninvaluablecontributiontokeepingIrishmagnates

onside.EdwardputtoflightRogerMortimeratKellsinDecember1315,andatArdscullnearSkerriesinJanuary1316heworstedinbattleanassemblyofAnglo–IrishmagnatesledbythejusticiarEdmundButler.Dublinmadereadyfordesperatedefence,andinthecityBrotherWalterdeAquawaspaidtodirectoperationsfrom9Decemberto5May,butEdwarddidnotattack.It

isafeatureoftheBruces’armiesthattheywereill-preparedtotakecitiesbystorm.SomeoftheGaelicIrishclansofLeinsterandMunsterwereinspiredbyhissuccesstoriseinrevoltagainsttheEnglish.ByFebruary,however,lackofsuppliesforcedEdwardtoretreattoUlster,hismen‘soweakened,bothfromhungerandexhaustionthatmanyofthembegantodie’.Some

timebeforeSeptember1316RoberthimselfseemstohavecrossedtoUlster,causingtheCarrickfergusgarrisonatlasttothrowinthetowel.OneofthemainobjectivesoftheIrishexpeditionhadthereforebeenaccomplished.Thethreewarlords,Robert,EdwardandMoray,returnedtoScotlandtohammeroutabasisforcontinuingtheconquestofIreland,andpartoftheagreementreachedwasthat

MorayshouldbegrantedtheIsleofMan,whichwasstillinEnglishhands.Therefollowedalullinthe

raidingofEngland.ScottishenergiesandresourcesmayhavebeendrainedbyEdwardBruce’scampaigninIreland.NegotiationswiththeEnglishgovernmentwereresumed,anditappearsthatatruceuntilMidsummer1316wasagreed.Forhispart,EdwardIIcommittedthekeepingof

northernEnglandtoasuccessionofcommanderswithwidespreadpowers,and–onparchmentatanyrate–significantforcesattheirdisposal.NoneoftheEnglishcommandersmadeanysignificantattackonScotland,andforaparticularlypowerfulreasonalreadyreferredtoabove.Intheyears1315–18summeraftersummerwasruinedbyincessantrain.Swordandfire

havingbeenvisitedonnorthernEnglandbytheScots,itwastheturnoffaminetoimmiseratethelivesofthenorthernEnglishpeasantry.Theraindestroyedcropsandfoodpricesbegantosoar.InnorthernEnglandthefaminewaspartlytheresultofthedevastationwroughtbytheScots.Itbecameimpossibleforcommanderstomustertroopswherethetenantrywere

desertingestatesandwheretherewasnofoodtosustainarmies.In1316theLancasteradministrationstruggledandfailedtomountacampaignagainstRobert,theireffortsrenderedhopelessbyshortageofsupplies,dissension,desertionoftenantryandincessantrain,whichmaderoadsandrivercrossingsimpassable.OntheNorthSeatherewas

notruce.Theadvantage

whichtheEnglishhadgainedthroughtheestablishmentoftheStOmerstaplein1313waslostintheearlysummerof1315,whenRobert,CountofFlanders,roseinrevoltagainstLouisX,hisFrenchoverlord.TheFrenchcalleduponEdwardIItohonourhiscommitmentsunderthealliance,byexpellingFlemishtradersandsendingshipstosupporttheFrenchagainsttheFlemish.ItwasinEdward’s

interesttodoneither.HeneededallhisshipstosupplyBerwickintheNorthSea,andtodefeatEdwardBruceandThomasDunintheIrishSea.TheEnglishwerestilltryingtoenforceablockadeonScotland,maintainingafleetoftwentyshipstokeeptheprivateersatbay;thistheynowhadtodivide.TheaddeddistractionallowedKingRoberttoblockadeBerwickbysea,aswellasonland,and

bytheautumnof1315thegarrisonwasdesperatelyshortoffood.ByOctobermenwerereportedlystarvingandthedesertionofthegarrisonwassaidtobeimminent.InNovemberreliefvesselswereforcedtojettisonmostoftheircargotoescapetheprivateers.Then,around6January1316,RobertandDouglaslaunchedanamphibiousattackonthetown:

IntheweekoftheEpiphany,theKingofScotlandcamestealthilytoBerwickonebrightmoonlitnightwithastrongforce,anddeliveredanassaultbylandandbyseainboats,intendingtoenterthetownbystealthonthewatersidebetweenBrighouseandthecastle,wherethewallwasnotyetbuilt,buttheyweremanfullyrepulsedbytheguardsandbythosewhohadansweredtothealarm,andacertainScottishknight,SirJdeLandelswaskilledandSirJamesDouglasescapedwithdifficultyinasmallboat.Then,inMarch1316,

thewardenwroteinbittertermstoEdwardII:‘Assuredly,sire,yourpeoplearedyingofhungerandIhavenothingbutfinewordsforthem…Andnowlatelymanyareleavingthetownandthosewhostaydieinanguishfromstarvationonthewalls.’

ByMayitwasimpossiblefortheEnglishtosupplythetownbysea;on10MaythemayorofBerwickreportedthattwovesselshadrecentlybeencapturedtryingto

supplythetown.AttacksonEnglishshippingincreased:JohnCrabbenowhadthewholeheartedsupportofCountRobert.FlemishcrewshadbeenexpelledfromEnglandanddeprivedoflegitimateemployment,andhadnooptionnowbuttojointheprivateersandpreyonEnglishvessels.CrabbecapturedtwoshipsfromGreatYarmouthinMarch1316,andofftheIsleof

ThanetheseizedanEnglishwineshipreturningfromGascony.WhatsavedthesituationfortheEnglishontheNorthSea,andforBerwick,wasthecessationofhostilitiesbetweenFranceandFlanderslatein1316,whichmeantthatEdwardIIcouldoncemoredeploythewholeofhisNorthSeafleettosupplyBerwickandsuppresstheScotsandEastlanders,whileFlemish

crewscouldabandonprivateeringandturnoncemoretolegitimatetrade.Assoonashistrucewith

theEnglishended,RobertmercilesslyunleashedhisraidersoncemoreonnorthernEngland.ThefirstmajorraidonYorkshiretookplaceatMid-summer,24June1316.MorayandDouglasprobablyledthisraid;RobertremainedinScotland.TheyrodethroughDurhamandcrossed

theTeesatMortham.ThatsettlementwassubsequentlyabandonedasresultofdestructionbytheScots.Thentheysplitintothreegroups:somecontinuedupTeesdale,devastatingtheestatesatBarnardCastle,andintothevalleyoftheEdenwheretheyburntPenrithandCarlatton.AnotherapproachedRichmondandwasboughtoffbythenobles,bargainingfromthesafetyof

thecastleramparts.TheyturnedupSwaledaletoStainmore.ThethirdgrouprodeintoWensleydale,destroyingthevillageofWestWittonand,meetingupwiththeircomradesonStainmore,rodeonintoKendalandLonsdale,andacrossthesandstoFurness.TheirroutehomealongtheCumberlandcoastisborneoutbytaxationrecords,whichrevealastringofimpoverishedparishesas

farasCockermouth.InJanuary1317Robert

crossedtoIreland.Bythistimehisoldnemesis,JohnofArgyll,hadretiredtoLondon‘impotentinbodyandhislandsinScotlandtotallydestroyed’.Johnlivedonlyayearandahalfafterwards,anddiedaroundthebeginningof1318onapilgrimagetoCanterbury.OtherScottishémigrésremainedinIrelandoraround

theIrishSea–DuncanMacGoffrey,DungallMacDowellandothers–keepingalivetheflameofresistancetotheBruces.RobertjoinedforceswithEdwardandMoray,settingoffsouthwardstolaywastetheheartlandsofLeinster.TheyapproachedDublinjustasEdwardhaddonethepreviouswinterwitheveryappearanceofassaultingthecity,but,asbefore,they

veeredawayfromitwhenthecitizenspreparedforastoutdefence.Fromhindsightandontheevidencewehave,thislookslikeawastedopportunitytodestroytheEnglishcolonyinIrelandandgainthatvitalbargaining-counterthatcouldhavebroughtanendtothewar.OnepossibleexplanationfortheScots’failuretoattackDublinisthatthecitywaswellsuppliedwithhostages.

BesidesmencapturedofftheIsleofMan,SirAlanStewartwasbeingheldinDublinCastleand,aswehaveseen,relatives,theStewarts,contributedsignificantlytomostIrishcampaigns.TheScotscontinued

southwards,destroyingthecountryside,whilethearmyofEdmundButler,thejusticiarofIreland,followedthematadistance,notdaringtoattack.ThenRobert

receivedanappealforassistancefromafactionoftheO’Briens–ClannBriainRuaid–andharedofftothewesttowardsLimerick.WhentheScotsarrivedinThomond,theydiscoveredthatthefactiontheyhadcometohelphadbeendefeatedbytheirrivals–ClannTaidc–andtheyfoundwaitingforthemthesehostileO’Briens.Thedecisionwastakentoretreat;Robertmighthave

receivedwindofthearrivalofafreshEnglisharmyunderRogerMortimer,atYoughalon7April.AtthispointinthenarrativeBarbouralludestoacuriousincident.Roberthaltedtheretreatofthearmy‘fromLimerick’–weshouldsay,rather,thebanksoftheShannon,sincetheScotsdidnotenterthatcity–inorderthatapoorlaundresssufferinglabourpainsmightgivebirth.Barbourincludes

thestorytoillustrateRobert’shumanity;somecommentatorshoweverhavesuggestedthatthestorymightimplythatthelaundresswasbearingtheking’schild.Theonlyactionofthecampaignoccurredon17April,whenaskirmishtookplaceatEliogartyinCountyTipperarywithIrishhobelars,andthiswasfollowedbyalonghardmarchbacktoUlster,duringwhichthe

Scottisharmyasecondtime‘nearlyperishedwithhungerandfatigue,andmanywerelefttheredead’.Thiscostlyandultimatelyfruitlessexpeditionistantamounttoadefeat.JustastheScotsavoidedgivingbattleinEngland,theAnglo-IrishlordshadavoidedconfrontationwiththeScotsandinthiswaysawofftheKingofScots.

Followingagoodharvestandinaclementwinter,campaigningwouldhavebeentough;inearly1317itisincrediblethattheBrucesevenattemptedit.Wastingthecolony,thoughitdeprivedtheEnglishWestMarchofprovisions,canhardlyhavebeenjustificationinitself,andhadRobertbeenseriousaboutthecaptureofDublinhewouldsurelyhavebrought

ormadeasiegetrain,andusedit.Itisquiteclear,however,thatRoberthadexpectedmuchmoresupportfromAnglo-IrishandGaeliclordsthanwasforthcoming.TheO’Brienfactionhadclearlydivertedtheexpeditionfortheirownends,andtheirmanipulationofRobertrecallsasimilarattemptbyanO’ConnorfactiontouseEdward’sexpeditionin1315against

theirlocaladversaries.BythesetwoinstancesweareremindedthatGaelicwasonlyasecondaryculturalinfluenceontheBruces:theycould‘talkthetalk’ofGaeliclords,butmightoccasionallybeshownupasnaiveAnglo-Normans,hopelesslyboggeddowninandsidetrackedbythemicro-politicsoftheGaidhealtachd.Thatsaid,thebrotherswenttosomelengthstopromotetheirstanceas

leadersofapan-CelticallianceagainstEngland.Edward’spropagandawascirculatinginWalesatthistime,andtheScottishroyalchancerymayhavehadahandincomposingtheRemonstranceoftheIrishPrinces.Inthislettertothepope,writtenin1317byDomnalO’Neill‘kingofUlsterandbyhereditaryrighttrueheirtothewholeofIreland’,alistofoppressions

andgrievancescommittedbyEnglishkingsandtheirministers,andEnglishsettlersinIrelandisrehearsed,andO’Neill’shereditaryrightistransferredtoEdwardBruce,‘illustriousearlofCarrick’.Robertwasbackin

Scotlandatleastby14June1317,andprobablywellbeforethat.OnhisreturnhecommendedWilliamSinclair,BishopofDunkeld,whohadseenoffaseaborneinvasion

ofFife,callinghim‘myownbishop’.Robertwasingoodtimeforanexpectedresumptionofhostilities.TheEnglishchanceryhadissuedordersforleviesoftroopsandaccumulationoffoodstuffsinpreparationforacampaignthatsummer.On13JulyEdwardIIwrotetohiscommandersinthenorththatfromafortnightafterMidsummer–8July–theScotshadbeenmusteringfor

aninvasionandthathefeareditwasalreadyinprogress.Buttherewasnochanceofseriouscampaigningbyeithersideinwhatpassedforasummerin1317.Theharvestwasdisastrousandgrainpricesrocketed;theroadshadbecomemires;andthepeasantry,impoverishedanddisplaced,werepreyeduponbyScottishraidersandEnglishgarrisonsalike.Suchweatherislikelytohavebeen

experiencedinScotlandtoo,though,asexplainedearlier,theconsequentagrariancrisisisunlikelytohavebeenquiteasharsh.Unwelcomenewshad

meanwhilebeenreceivedfromtheIrishSeainthesummerof1317.ThomasDun,theprivateerchiefwhohadbeenthescourgeofEnglishshipping,hadprovokedtheEnglishgovernmentintotaking

resoluteaction.InMayEdwardIIorderedtwoships;onewasa140-mangalley,andthereforemuchfasterthanothervesselsontheIrishSea,whereshipswerenormallyof18,22and26oars,tohuntdownthe‘cruelpirate’.AlreadyontheIrishSea‘forthedefenceofIrelandandtheking’slandofScotland’wasasquadronledbyJohnAthy.On2JulyAthyencounteredDun’ssquadron

and,afterafiercesea-battleinwhich40Scotsaresaidtohavebeenslain,thepiratechiefwastakenalive.AsquirecalledGeoffreyCoignerswasrewardedwithapaymentof£10forthisachievement.Beforehewasexecuted,Dunrevealed,orwasmadetoreveal,thatMoraywaspreparinganattackonManandalsointendedthroughtreacherytocaptureAnglesey.Thisdid

not,however,preventMoray’scaptureoftheIsleofMan,whichoccurredaroundOctober1317.Unabletocampaignin

1317,Robertturnedtointrigue.AnewpopehadascendedtheThroneofStPeter,JohnXXII,andherenewedthepapacy’sattemptstoreconcileEdwardIIwithRobert,whomheconsideredtobeEdward’svassal.Twopapallegates,

bothcardinals,hadarrivedinEnglandtosettleavarietyofecclesiasticaldisputesintheEnglishChurch,andalsotoimposeatwo-yeartruceontheAnglo-ScottishconflictatthebehestofEdwardII.Robertignoredthetruce,becauseintheirlettersthecardinalsfailedtoacknowledgehiskingship,andbecausehefelthimselftobeonthebrinkofcapturingBerwick.Heforbade

publicationinScotlandofthepapalbullannouncingthetruce,andhehadthecardinal’smessengersassaultedandtheirletterstornup.Thecardinalsdecidedtovisithiminperson.InSeptember1317theywereontheirwayintoScotlandtothreatenRobertwithrenewedexcommunicationandtoimposetermsforatrucewhollyunacceptabletohim.Travellingwiththemwasthe

bishop-electofDurham,LouisdeBeaumont,andprotectingthewholepartywashisbrotherSirHenrydeBeaumont,amagnateandveterancommanderoftheScottishwars.Aslongasthepapacy

deniedhisroyaltitle,Robertpreferredtoignoreitspeace-makinginitiatives,andhecouldnotaffordtohavetheseseniorchurchmenenteringScotlandandundermininghis

royaldignitybydenouncinghiminfrontofhismagnates.Heavoidedtheunwelcomevisit–itseems–byhiringahostofNorthumbrianrobber-knights,ledbyGilbertdeMiddleton,towaylaythecardinalsbeforetheyreachedDurham.ConsequentlytheseprincesoftheChurchwereambushedatRushyfordon1September1317,theirbelongings–includingthepapalbullssooffensiveto

Robert–stolen,and,humiliatedandseethingwithindignation,theywereforcedtocontinuetoDurhamonfoot.AtthissacrilegetheoutrageofEnglishecclesiasticalandsecularauthoritieswasapoplectic.However,itwasMiddletonandhisadherentswhowereroundlycursed,condemnedandexcommunicated;forRobertthewholeaffairhadthegreatadvantageof

‘deniability’,andenabledhimtopersistinhisviolationofthepapaltrucewithoutanembarrassingshowdownwiththecardinalsinScotland.Severalinterestsbenefitedfromtherobbery.ThemonksofDurhamPrioryhadnolovefortheirbishop-elect,LouisdeBeaumont,whomtheyresentedashehadbeenfoisteduponthemagainsttheirwill.SimilarlyGilbertdeMiddletonandotherlocal

knights,whohabituallyprofitedasmiddlemenorganisingthecollectionofRobert’stribute,resentedtheascendancyofthewarlikeBeaumontsinthedefenceoftheborder,worryingthattheywouldupsettheirapplecart.IntheaftermathoftherobberyMiddletonandhisassociates,ascontenttobehungforasheepasforalamb,ledtheEnglishEasternMarchinawidespreadrevolt

againstroyalmisrule,lackofpay,lackofprovisions,rapaciouscastlegarrisonsandagainsttheprospectofdominationbytheBeaumonts.IntheMiddletonRebellion,asitisknown,retainersofThomas,EarlofLancaster,wereprominent.Mysteriously,theearlhimselfhadbeenonhanddirectlyaftertherobberytoleadtheunfortunateprelatestosafety,almostasthoughLancaster

knewinadvanceofwhatwastohappen.TherobberyofthecardinalsandtheMiddletonRebellionisamurkyepisode,thefulltruthofwhichwillneverbeknown,butthereisnomistakingthehandoftheKingofScots,uponwhosepermissionlifeintheEnglishbordercountiesoutsidecastlesandwalledtownsdepended.Therevolt,whichevenspreadintoYorkshire,wascrushedbycastle

garrisonsandthoseanxioustododowntheirlocalrivalsorcurryfavourwithEdwardII.Capitalisingonthe

confusionhehadsown,towardstheendofSeptemberRobertrenewedhisassaultonBerwick.EdwardIIhastilydispatchedreinforcementsfromYorkandashipfromWhitbywithtwenty-eightarmedsailorsonboard.Thesiegelastedintothewinter,

andinDecemberRobertwassupervisingsiegeenginesbetweenonslaughts,determinedthat‘hewouldhaveBerwick’.InthespringRobertresortedtoguile,andonthenightof1/2April1318apartyofScotsledbyDouglasscaledthewallsofBerwick,ataplacewheretheguardhadbeenbribed.Thetownwastakenatlast.Thegarrisonretreatedtothecastleandheldoutuntil18June,

butthefallofthetownofBerwickheraldedageneralcollapseofEnglishstrongholdsontheEasternMarch.WarkonTweedsurrenderedon21May,andHarbottlearoundthattime‘becausereliefdidnotreachthemontheappointedday’andMitfordwastakenbyguilesoonafterwards.’AttheendofAprilorearlyinMayRoberthaddispatchedMorayandDouglasonadevastating

raidonYorkshire.Theraidwasapointeddefianceofthetwo-yeartrucewhichthepopehadannouncedandsoughttoimpose,and,althoughthereisnootherevidenceofcollusionbetweenLancasterandtheScotsatthisdate,itmayhavebeenintendedtosupportageneralLancastrianrevoltinEngland.TwogroupsofraidersleftScotland.OntheEasternMarchafirstgroup

passedthroughthebishopricofDurham,butstoppedtodevastatetheareaaroundHartlepoolinreprisalforthecaptureofaScottishship.ThentheycrossedintoYorkshireatYarm.AsecondgroupappearstohaveenteredEnglandbytheWestMarchandrodeuptheEdenValleyanddownTeesdaletoBarnardCastle,devastatingvillagesalongthesouthbankoftheriver,untilthetwo

groupsmetandjoinedforcesinlayingwastetheValeofYork.Taxationrecordsenableustotracethetrailofdevastation,andthesearesupplementedbychronicleaccountsandchancesurvivalsamongadministrativerecords.Richmondseemstohaveboughtofftheraidersasecondtime.Riponwasspared,inreturnfor1,000marks,asumnegotiatedwithtownsfolkcrowdedintothe

minsterforsafety.FountainsAbbeyboughtofftheraiders,butalargepartoftheScottishforcestayedattheabbey,andmanyofthegrangesandoutlyingfarmsweredestroyed.Northallertonshirewasdevastatedbyallaccounts,andonSunday28Maytheraidersdestroyedtheking’sgranaryatBoroughbridge.ThetwogroupsconvergedonKnaresborough.Theyburnt

140housesinthetown,leavingonly20standing,andtheysearchedtheForestofKnaresboroughforrefugeeswhomightbehidingtherewiththeircattle.ThearrivalofMorayinKnaresboroughmaynothavebeenbychance.TheearlofLancaster’srivalrywithEdwardIIhaddevelopedintoopenwarinsomepartsofEngland,andfromOctober1317totheendofJanuaryLancastrianrebels

associatedwiththeMiddletonRebellionhadheldKnaresboroughCastleagainsttheking.InJanuary1318Moraywasbelievedtohavebeenapproachingtoaidtherebels,anditmaybethatwhenheactuallysetoutinMayheexpectedtofindtheLancastriansstillholdingout.Whetherornotthiswasthecase,Roberthadnothingtolosebystirringtheantagonismbetween

Lancasterandhisroyalcousin.FollowingtheirusualU-shapeditinerary,theraiderscrossedthePenninesbyseveralroutes,includingAiredaleandWharfedale,wheretaxassessmentsandtherecordsofBoltonPrioryrevealtheirwakeofdevastation.EnteringLancashiretheydestroyeditforsixdays;Warton,CockerhamandGarstangweresaidtobe‘totally

burnt’;PrestonandKirkhamwere‘burntanddestroyed’.Oftheirreturnjourneynothingisknown:sinceitwasmadethroughcountrysidealreadydevastated,itdoesnotfigureintherecords.

WhiletheseeventsweretakingplaceinBritainwehearvirtuallynothingofwhatwashappeninginIreland.AfterRobertleftIreland,EdwardBruceremainedinUlsterforoverayear,butintheautumnof1318headvancedtothebordersofthatprovince.Anintriguingfour-monthgapinthesequenceofRobert’sdatedactsleavesitjustpossiblethat

thekingtookanarmytoIrelandatthattimetoassistEdwardonceagaininhisconquestofIreland.ThereisnofirmevidenceinIrishsourcesofRobert’spresenceinthatcountry,butthatRobertwasexpectedseemstobeimpliedintheAnnalsofClonmacnoise,whereitstatesthat‘fearinghisbrotherRobertBrucekingofScotland(thatcametothiskingdomforhisassistance)

wouldacquireandgetthegloryofthatvictorywhichhemadehimselfbelievehewouldgetoftheEnglishwhichhewassurehewasabletooverthrowwithouttheassistanceofhissaidbrother,herashlygavethemtheassault.’AtFaughartnearDundalkon14October1318EdwardencounteredthreeAnglo-Irishmagnates:EdmundButler,JohndeBirminghamandthe

ArchbishopofArmagh,RolandJoyce.Thebestsourceforthebattle,however,makesnomentionofRobert,yetitclaimsthatEdwardhadalreadybeenreinforced,andthatheapproachedthetownofDundalkwith‘agreatarmyofScotswhichhadnewlyarrived’.CertainlyEdwardwasaccompaniedbyMacRuaridhandMacDonaldchiefs;neverthelesshisforce

wasgreatlyoutnumberedbytheAnglo-IrishandhisGaelicIrishalliesrefusedtocommitthemselvestoafight.TheLanercostchronicleprovidestheclearestdescriptionofthebattle:‘They[EdwardBruce’sarmy]wereinthreecolumnsatsuchadistancefromeachotherthatthefirstwasdonebeforethesecondcameup,andthenthesecondbeforethethird,withwhichEdwardwas

marching,couldrenderanyaid.Thusthethirdcolumnwasrouted,justasthetwoprecedingoneshadbeen.Edwardfellatthesametimeandwasbeheadedafterdeath;hisbodybeingdividedintofourquarters,whichquartersweresenttothefourchieftownsofIreland.’BarbourcontendsthatthecorpseofGibHarper,whowaswearingEdward’scoatofarms–andwhomighthavebeen

Edward’sherald–wasmistakenforthatofEdwardhimself,andthatGib’sheadwassevered,placedinaboxofsalt,andsenttoEdwardII.Robert,wemayassume,

wasdistraughtatthelossofhislastremainingbrother.Allofhisfourbrothershadnowbeenkilledinvindicationofhisright;hewillhavegrievedsorely.HadEdward’sremainsescapedthefinalindignities,itcanhavebeen

ofcoldcomforttoRobert,andhemayhavebeguntowonderwhetherhisregalianrightwasworthsuchslaughter.AnightmareofawarwithoutendbetweenScotlandandEnglandnowloomed,fortheEnglishmightneverconcededefeat.FromthisstageinthestruggleRobertabandonedanydreamsofpan-CelticleadershipandtheconquestofIrelandthathemightstill

haveentertained.InsteadheredoubledhiseffortstoextractsubmissionfromtheEnglishand,iftheywouldconcedehistitleandScottishsovereignty,begantoofferremarkableconcessionsinhopeofalastingpeace.ThroughatinywindowonRobert’spersonalgriefitappearsthatheascribedthisdisastertothewrathofalong-deadIrishholyman:withinamonthofEdward’s

deathhehadprovidedforalampandacandletoburnperpetuallyatthealtarofBlessedMalachyintheCistercianabbeyofCouparAngus.

9Thestrugglefor

peacewithhonour(1318–

23)

AsubtlebutperceptiblechangeoccurredinthenatureofRobertI’swaragainsttheEnglishfromtheyear1318.ThatyearwitnessedthecollapseofScottishgrandstrategywithdefeatintheIrishSeaanddefeatinIreland.However,italsowitnessedthecompletedestructionoftheValeofYorkinthespectacularlong-distanceraidof1318,thesurrenderofkey

NorthumberlandcastlesandtheadventofanimprovedsecurityforScotlandwiththerecaptureofBerwick.TheeuphoriaandunrealisticambitionthatpossessedtheBrucesinthewakeofBannockburnwasnowcurbed,yettherewasnomistakingtherealityoftheScottishmilitaryhegemonyortheextentofEnglishdefeat.Robertonlyrequiredtowrestadmissionofdefeat

fromEdwardIItoenablearealisticsettlementtoterminatetheincessantanddestructivewarfare.ButthenorthofEngland,thepartofEnglandwhichwaswithinRobert’srangeandwhichhecouldstrikeatregularly,didnotratehighlyinEdwardII’spriorities.Consequently,inthisnewphaseofthestruggle,Robertmanifestedamarkedanxietytocaptureavitalpawn,astrategicprize

orhostage,whichhecouldtradeforrecognitionofhiskingshipandpeace.On13April1318Edward

IIreceivedthenewsthatBerwickhadfallen.OnemightimaginethatthelossofBerwickwouldwonderfullyhaveconcentratedthemindsoftheEnglishkingandhismagnates.ThelargesttowninScotlandwasrecognisedasthekeytothesecurityofestatesontheEasternMarch,

avitalharbourinthebattleagainstNorthSeapredators,and,indeed,apotentsymboloftheEnglishclaimtoScotland.ThefollyofbickeringinthefaceofsuchapowerfulthreatasRobertposedhadbeenlongapparent;nowitwasblindinglyobviousthat,iftheEnglishmagnatesdidnotcombinetorecaptureBerwick,thewarwaslost.Alreadyitwastoolateto

organiseacampaignforthe1318season:termsforapeacebetweenthekingandhisobstreperouscousinLancasterwerenothammeredoutuntilAugust1318.Optimisticallythe

chronicleroftheVitaEdwardiSecundibeginsatthispointtolistimprovementsinEngland’sfortunes:thepopehadnowplacedScotlandunderaninterdict;EdwardBrucehad

beendefeatedinIreland;thefoodshortagesofthelastthreeyearshadbeenrelievedbyanabundantharvestin1318;andnowatlastkingandmagnateswereco-operating.Hevoicesthepioushopethat‘treachery,perjuryandhomicide,whichbroughtRobertBrucetothethrone,willleadhimatlasttoadesolateend’.AttheEaster1319

parliamentinYorkEdwardII

soughtandwasgrantedasubsidytomakewarontheScots,andtheamassingoffoodstuffsandthearrayingoffootsoldierscommenced.EnvoysweresenttoRobertclaimingthekingdomofScotland,butofferinghimpersonalsafetyinlifeandlimbifhewoulddesist.Robertrepliedthat‘hedidnotnotmuchcareforthekingofEngland’speace;thekingdomofScotlandwashis

andpertainedtohimbothbyhereditaryrightandbyrightofbattle.Hesaidthathewasjustifiedbythesetitles,andprotestedthatheneitheroughttonorwouldacknowledgeanysuperiororearthlylord.’EarlyinSeptemberthereassembledanarmyofperhaps5,000infantry.Astocavalry,theEnglishkingpaidaformidable1,300horsetocampaign,includingtheearl

ofPembrokeandcontingentssentbyRichmondandArundel;inadditiontothisthegreatmagnateLancastercontributedhisowncontingent.Theaccountsalsofeature500lighthorseorhobelars,themajorityofwhichwereledbyAndrewHarclay,thedefenderofCarlisle.TheEnglishadvancedonScotland.Atfirsttheybroughtnosiegeengines,andperhapstheir

originalintentionwastoseekbattle,butwhentheyreachedBerwicktheysettledinfrontofthetownandbegantoinvestit.SiegeenginesweresummonedfromYork,NorthamptonandBamburgh.RobertwasnotinthetownbutatArbroath.TheEnglish,however,believedhimtohaveswornanoathtorelieveBerwickbeforeacertaintime,andthuslookedforwardtobringinghimtobattle.

ThebriefbutfiercesiegeofBerwickfrom8to18September1319isanotherofthegreatsetpiecesofthewar,andBarbourclearlyrelishesthetellingofit.HesaysthatthetentsandpavilionsoftheEnglishmagnatesmadeatownbiggerthanBerwickitself,andthentheEnglishshipsalsoarrived,fillingtheharbourtotheutteramazementofthedefenders.EachEnglishlordwas

assignedasectionofthewalltoattack,andaftersixdaysofpreparation,duringwhichtheattackersisolatedthetownbydiggingaditchonitslandwardsideasEdwardIhaddonein1296,theEnglishunleashedtheirassault.Theyrushedthewallsbearingladders,whichtheScotsstrovetotopplebackwards.TheScotshadnothadtheopportunitytoimproveonBerwick’sdefences,andthe

townwallswereinsomeplacesperilouslylow.

Ingreatperiltheydefendedtheirtown,For,tobeperfectlyfrank,ThewallsofthetownwerethenSolowthatamanwithaspear[ontheground]couldhitanotheraboveintheface.’

Insidethetownthecommander,WaltertheSteward,andhisfollowersrodearoundthecircuitofthe

walls,helpingwhereverthedefenderswerehardestpressed.TheEnglishmadefulluseoftheirnavalsupport,andtriedtopositionatallshipagainstthewallontheseawardsidesothatitcoulddropadrawbridgeontothewall.Usingbargesrowedbyoarsmentotowtheship,theyendeavouredtokeepheragainstthewall,whilethedefendersfendedofftheshipwithspearsandlongpoles,

attackingcrewandoarsmenwithmissiles.Thetidebegantoebb,however,andtheshipsoonranaground.Whenshewashighanddry,thedefenderssalliedout,attackingtheshipandsettingfiretoit,killingorputtingtoflightthecrew,beforeboltingbackintothetownontheapproachofanothership.Theattackersresumedtheir

effortsbybuildingscaffoldstotoweroverthewalls.They

alsoconstructeda‘sow’,alargeandveryrobustwheeledshelter,designedtoshieldsappersfrommissilesandrocksthrownfromabovewhiletheyunderminedthetownwalls.Itprobablyincorporatedagreatbatteringram.Thedefendershadcapturedanexperiencedengineer,whomtheyforcedtoworkforthem,andtheydeferredtohisadviceonhowtodealwiththesow.This

engineer,whomBarbouridentifiesasJohnCrabbe,constructedawheeledcranetolowerflamingbalesofpitch,tar,flaxandtimberontotheroofofthesow.37On13SeptembertheEnglishlaunchedageneralassault.Againtheytriedtoscalethewallswithladders;againtheScotsshovedbacktheladdersandsentthemcrashingtotheground.ThentheEnglish

begantomanoeuvretheirsowintopositionunderthewalls.Theengineerattackedit,notwiththecrane,butwitha‘mangonel’orcatapult,launchinghugeboulders.Withaneyetokeepinghisaudiencehooked,Barbourdescribeshowthefirstattemptovershotthesowbyalongdistance,andthesecondfellshort,butthethirdstruckthesowdirectlyandbrokeitsmainbeam,causingthe

sapperswithintoscrambleoutandfleefortheirlives,andtheScotstolaughgleefully:

ThemenranoutprettyfastAndthoseonthewallshoutedThattheirsowhadfarrowedthere!

TheEnglishthenrenewedtheattackontheseawardside,sendinghigh-castledshipsagainstthewallinanefforttogainaheightadvantageover

thedefenders.Boatsfullofarmedmenwerehoistedhighupthemaststobringthemlevelwiththeparapets,butoneboatsufferedadirecthitfromthecatapult,smashingtheboat,andtumblingthemenintothewater.WhileEdwardIIand

LancasterweremakingtoattackBerwick,Robert,todistractthem,haddispatchedMorayandDouglasintoEnglandattheheadofalarge

raidingparty.TheycrossedtheborderontheWesternMarchandrodedownTynedale.FromtheretheyravagedNorthumberlandandthebishopricofDurham.TheyhadbeeninYorkshirefromasearlyas3September,buttheEnglisharmyhadrefusedtofallforsuchanobviousployandhadcontinueditsapproachtoBerwick,beginningtoinvestandbesiegeit.However,the

daringoftheScotsatthistimeknewnobounds,andMorayandDouglasappeartohavehatchedaplottowinforRobertthatvitaledge,thepawnthathecouldtradeforrecognitionofhiskingship.Astoryisrecountedinindependentnarrativesthattheraidof1319includedaplottokidnapthequeenofEnglandfromherhouseholdquartersinYork.Asonechroniclerremarks,‘ifthe

Queenatthattimehadbeencaptured,IbelievethatScotlandwouldhaveboughtpeaceforherself’.ItappearsthattheScotsapproachedYorkstealthily,assistedbyanEnglishspy,EdmundDarel–oneofLancaster’smen–andestablishedasecretlairnotfarfromthecity,nearMyton-on-Swale.Inthecity,however,anotheroftheiraccomplicesrevealedtheplottoArchbishopMeltonandthe

citizens,andofferedtoleadthemtowheretheScottishraiderslayinwait.EdwardIIhadorderedthe

wholeoftheYorkshiremilitiatoBerwickforthesiege,andthecityofYorklaydefenceless.QueenIsabellawassenttosafetyinNottingham,andMeltonassembledamakeshiftarmyofcitizens,peasantsfromnearbyvillages,clergyandchanceryclerks–including

thechancellorhimself,JohndeHothum.Thisrabbleheledouton12SeptembertoconfronttheveteransofMorayandDouglas,anditmetwithdisaster.TheScotssetfiretohaystackstocreateasmokescreen,and,emergingoutofthis,theysetupontheinexperiencedEnglishclerics,citizensandpeasantry.Greatslaughterensued;manyweredrownedtryingtofleeacrosstheRiverSwale,andmany

royalservantsweretakenprisoner.BecauseofthelargenumbersofEnglishclergyinvolved,thewholeepisodewasdubbedtheChapterofMyton.ThereaftertheScotscausedwidespreaddestructioninAiredale,WharfedaleandinLancashiretoo,beforeescapinghomewardsbytheWestMarch.Tensionranhighinthe

EnglishcampatBerwickas

newsfromYorkshirewasawaited.On10Septembermostofthelargecontingentofalmostathousandarchersand350hobelarsledbytheCumberlandknightAndrewHarclayceasedtobeattheking’swages;clearlytheyhaddeparted,eithertotrytocutoffMoray’sretreatbytheWesternMarchortodefendestates.NewsoftheChapterofMytonreachedtheEnglishcampatBerwickon14

September,andinstantlytheEnglishfelloutamongthemselvesoverhowtoreact.NorthernlordsledbyLancasterwantedtoleaveanddefendtheirestates.EdwardIIandthesouthernerswereforpressingonwiththesiegeregardless.Accusationsoftreacherybegantofly,‘Foritwascommonlysaidthattheearlhadreceived£40,000fromRobertBrucetolendsecretaidtohimandhismen,

andthatatthesiegewhileeveryonewasattackingthewall,noneoftheearl’sretinueassaultedit,andthatthetownofBerwickwouldhavesurrenderediftheearl’scautionhadnotfoughtagainstthis,andthatJamesDouglasonhiswaybacktoScotlandpassedthroughtheearl’slines,andthattheearlwentthroughthemidstoftheScots.’Amidbitterrecriminations

Edward’sarmybegantodisintegrateandhewasforcedtocalloffthesiege.Thustheraidof1319hadpreciselytheeffectthatRobertintended:theEnglishhadbeendivertedfromthecaptureofBerwickandreturnedhomeon17September1319moredividedthaneverbefore.EdwardIIblamedLancaster,ofcourse;healsoblamedJohnCrabbe,theprivateerchiefand

engineer,andtheCountofFlandersforhisrefusaltoprohibittradewithScotland.HecomplainedbitterlytothecountthatCrabbehadbeenprominentinthetown’sdefenceandthatshipswhichhadsailedfromZwynhadbornearmstoScotland,enablingtheScotstodefeathissiegeofBerwick.Tothis,thecountrepliedon14November1319thatJohnCrabbewaswantedfor

murderandwouldbepunishedonthewheelifcaught.HeprotestedthathehadalreadyprohibitedtheshippingofmilitaryaidtotheScots.OftheconvoytoScotlandthecountsaidheknewnothing;hebelievedthatshipshadgonetoScotlandandIrelandonlytotrade.Therefollowedan

interestingsequeltothesiegeofBerwick.On1November

1319‘whenthecrophadbeenstoredinbarns’MorayandDouglascrossedtheWestMarchintoGilslandandlaidallwaste,asfarsouthasBroughonStainmore.ThereareindicationsthattheWesternMarchhadbeenrecoveringfromearlierdevastations,andthisrecoveryhadbeenreflectedinthesizeoftheforceAndrewHarclayhadbroughttoBerwick.Tojudgefrom

thechronicleaccount,thisdestructionwasofparticularlyintensivenature,moreconcentratedeventhantheburningsvisitedupontheValeofYork,anddesignedtoinflictfamineanddislocationupontheWestMarchforyearstocome.MorayandDouglasreturnedtoGilslandbywayofWestmorlandaftertenortwelvedaysanddevastated‘Cumberland’,beforeretiringtoScotland

withagreatspoilofcattleandprisoners.ClearlythethreatposedbyAndrewHarclayhadbeenrecognisedandactedupon.BeforeDouglasandMoray

hadreturnedhomefromthisdemonstrationofScottishpower,thetrustedclerkandcourtfavouriteRobertBaldockwasonhiswaytoBerwickwithaninvitationforKingRoberttonegotiate.Thetalkstookplaceat

NewcastleinDecember,andtheEnglishteamcomprisedthreemagnateswhoenjoyedthefullconfidenceoftheEnglishking:Pembroke,BartholomewBadlesmereandHughleDespensertheyounger–Baldock’spatronandapowerfulcourtfavourite,andsoontomonopoliseallaccesstoEdwardII.Alsopresent,aschancellorofEnglandandbishopofEly,wastheable

JohndeHothum,hewhohadcontributedsomuchtosavingIrelandfromconquest.TheScottishteamwasundistinguished,butRobertandhiscourtmovedtoBerwick,withinproximityofthenegotiations.Termsforatrucewereagreed.Remarkablyforonewhoheldtheupperhand,Robertmademostconcessions,thechiefofwhichinvolvedcastles.Hehandedbackthecastleof

Harbottle,thegatewaytoRedesdale,toEdwardII’senvoys–asprivatepersons–onconditionthatifnofinalpeacewereagreedbyMichaelmas1321itwouldbedestroyedorhandedbacktohim.Heundertooktobuildnonewcastlesinbordersheriffdoms.Inaddition,Englishships,menorpropertywreckedonScottishcoastswouldbereturned,anddisputesbetweenEngland

andScotlandwouldbesettledbyrepresentativesfrombothsides.Theseconcessions,andindeedthetwo-yeartruceitself,wereincentivesthatRoberthadtoprovidetopersuadetheEnglisheventotalkaboutthesubstantiveissuesofsovereigntyandkingship.AtChristmasitwassettledthatthereshouldbeatwo-yeartrucetorunfrom29December1319,duringwhichitwashopedthata

finalpeacecouldbeagreed.Toincreasehisleverageat

thecomingpeaceconference,andalsobecauseRobertandfourbishopswerecitedtoappearbeforethepapalcuriaatAvignon,thedecisionwastakentosendacarefullychosendelegation,armedwithacomprehensivestatementoftheScottishcase,toJohnXXIIin1320.ThisdocumentwastheDeclarationofArbroath,an

impassionedstatementofScottishrightsandofRobert’stitletothethrone.38Inthespringof1320RobertsentEdwardIIaletterinvitingnegotiations.ItsformalityandtheloftytermsofitsintroductionsuggestthatitwasprobablyintendedtobepresentedtothepopeasevidenceofEnglishintransigence.Itisunconditionalinitsdesireto

achieveapeace:

Sincewhileagreeablepeaceprevails,themindsofthefaithfulareatrest,theChristianwayoflifeisfurthered,andalltheaffairsofholymotherchurchandofallkingdomsareeverywherecarriedonmoreprosperously,weinourhumilityhavejudgeditrighttoentreatofyourhighnessmostearnestlythat,havingbeforeyoureyestherighteousnessyouowetoGodandtothepeople,youdesistfrompersecutingusanddisturbingthepeopleofourrealm,sothat

theremaybeanendofslaughterandsheddingofChristianblood.Everythingthatweourselvesandourpeople,bytheirbodilyserviceandtheircontributionsofwealthcandowearenow,andshallbepreparedtodosincerelyandhonourablyforthesakeofgoodpeace.

Intheeventnothingmuchwasdoneinthefirstyearoftruce:bothkingswerepreoccupied,RobertwiththeSoulesconspiracyandthe

BlackParliament–discussedinthenextchapter–EdwardwithjourneyingtoFrancetodohomagetoPhilipVofFrance,andmagnatepolitics.Earlyin1321RobertgrantedsafeconductsforfiftyEnglishenvoystocometoBerwick.Still,theEnglishenvoyswereinnohurrytoreachasettlement;whiletheywereanxiousfortherespiteoftrucetocontinue,theirroyalmasterrefusedto

countenanceanyconcessiononhisclaimtothesovereigntyofScotland.DuringMarchandApril1321earnestnegotiationstookplaceatlastinthecastlesofBamburghandBerwick.PresentwererepresentativesofPhilipVandofPopeJohn,whohadnowreceivedandrepliedtotheDeclarationofArbroath.ButsinceneitherEdwardIInorRobertwouldcompromiseonthevitalissue

ofsovereignty,thesetalkswerestilldoomedtofail.PeacewouldnotbeachieveduntiltheEnglishadmitteddefeat.UnabletoextractsuchanadmissionfromEdward’srepresentatives,theScotschangedtheirtacticsandproposedalongtruce.Twenty-sixyearswasthetermtheysuggested.Suchaproposalwouldhavesensiblyshelvedtheintractableproblem,allowingtimefor

theBrucedynastytoestablishitself.ButEdwardIIwouldnotcompromise,norcouldhebeseentodoso.Bothpartiesweretoblame

whentheconference,predictably,brokeupwithoutsettlement,andtheexpiryofthetwo-yeartrucenowloomedonthehorizon.Confidentthatthefailureoftheconferencehadprovenhispoint,RobertsenthisaccountoftheScottishcasetothe

curia.Edwardhadboughttimetorecoverfromasuccessionofhumiliatingdefeats,confrontthebaronsoftheWelshMarch,andhenowplannedtoinvadeScotland.AtonceRobertandhislieutenantsbegantostirupdomestictroubleforhim,byenteringintosecrettalkswithhishatedcousin,theearlofLancaster.ThepoliticaltemperatureinEnglandhadrisensharplywhentheking’s

favourites,thetwoHughDespensers,fatherandson,provokedtoviolencethelordsoftheWelshMarch,includingLancaster’smainally,theearlofHereford.MorayandDouglasbegantocorrespondwithLancaster,whointheselettersisreferredtobythecode-nameKingArthur.RobertcanscarcelyhaveseenLancasterasonewhomightbeabletodeliverasettlement,buttheScots

mayhavesecuredapromiseofinactiononthepartoftheearlshouldwarbetweenthekingdomsberesumed.Thetruceexpiredon1

January1322andtheScotswastednotimeinonceagainvisitingdeathanddestructionuponthenorthofEngland.InthelastfortnightofJanuary,Moray,DouglasandtheStewardlaunchedaparticularlysevereraidagainstthebishopricof

Durham,intendedtocoincidewitharevoltstagedbyLancaster,HerefordandotherdisaffectedEnglishmagnates.AnanonymousletternowknowntobewrittenbyLancastertoanunnamedaddressee–clearlyaScottishlord–describestheassemblyofhisforcesandaskshimtonameameetingplace,andtograntpermissionforthirtyhorsemen‘tocomesafelytoyourparts’.KingRobert

sealedtherequiredsafeconduct,thoughwhetheritwasissuedorusedisunknown.OnhiswaytoDurham,MorayissuedafurtherletterofprotectiontoanemissaryofLancaster,whowasonhiswaytoScotlandtobegforhelp.AccordingtoadocumentlaterfoundonthecorpseoftheearlofHereford,thethreeleadersofthisScottishinvasionweretojoin

LancasterandHerefordinmakingwarontheirenemiesinEngland,WalesandIreland.TheScots,however,continuedtoworktotheirownagenda.TheaccommodatingpriorofDurham,GeoffreydeBurdon,hadjustbeendeposedbythewarlikebishop,LouisdeBeaumont.PossiblyasaresultofthisthecommunityofDurhamceasedtopaytributeduetotheScots,and

Robertdecideduponaseverepunishment.MoraytookuppositionontheTees,poisedtointerveneintheuncertainsituationtothesouth.WaltertheStewardledaraidingpartytoRichmondshire,whichcouldbereliedupontopayupifmenaced,andheexactedaheavyfinefromtheinhabitantsinreturnforsparingthemfromdestruction.DouglasravagedClevelandandthearea

aroundHartlepool,afavouritetargetoftheScots.TheyspentawholefortnightinDurham,pillagingandrobbingthoroughly:

Thatsameyear[1322]aroundthePurificationoftheBlessedVirgin[2February]theScotsenteredthebishopric;andthewholeoftheeasternplainwasdestroyed.TheyburntbarnsfullofgrainandthentheymadeasthoughtocrosstheTeesintoRichmondshire;butatnighttheyreturnedsecretlytotheeast.MenandwomenwhohadreturnedbyboatfromClevelandsuspectednothing,andreckonedthattheScotshadcrossedtheTees.Theytookthemintheirbeds.Andhavingperpetratedmanyevil

deeds,theyreturnedtotheirowncountry.Sogreatafaminefollowedthatdevastationinthebishopricthataquarterofwheatmightoftenfetch40s.thatsummer,ifitcouldbehadatall.

Socomprehensivewasthedevastationof1322thatinacontemporarydocumenttheepisodeisreferredtosimplyas‘theburningofthebishopric’.Financialrecordssurvivefortheestatesof

DurhamPriory,revealingthata‘suddenandcatastrophic’lossoccurredatthistime.TheflockofthepriorywassuccessfullyevacuatedtoClevelandforthedurationoftheraid;neverthelessthestockmanreportedthathehadlostfortysheepasaresultofthe‘abominabledepredationsoftheScotsandotherrobbers’.Attheendofthemonththispunitiveraidcametoanend.

Robert,however,keptupthepressureontheborderdistrictsthroughoutthespring,threateninginvasionsoneastandwestmarches.AndrewHarclaypleadedwiththekingofEnglandforassistance.AchroniclerwellinformedabouteventsatcourtcharacterisedEdwardII’sresponsetohimasfollows:‘Youmayknowforcertain,Andrew,thatifRobertBrucethreatensme

frombehind,andmyownmenwhohavecommittedsuchenormitiesagainstmeshouldappearinfront,IwouldattackthetraitorsandleaveRobertBrucealone.SmallwonderiftheScots,whoareinnowayboundtome,invademykingdom,whilethosewhoareboundtomebyfealtyandhomageriseagainstme,plundermymenandsetfiretomytowns.’Butthesmoulderingresentment

inEnglandagainstroyalmisruleeruptedintocivilwarwhenthealliesofLancasterandHerefordbesiegedtheroyalcastleofTickhill.EdwardIIandtheDespensersmarchednorthandconfrontedthematBurtononTrenton10March,causingtheearlstoretiretoPontefract.TherethedecisionwastakentoretiretoLancaster’sNorthumberlandcastleofDunstanburghandthereawaitthesupportofthe

Scots.ButAndrewHarclay,havingreceivedorderstoraiseaforceontheWestMarch,movedswiftlysouthandacrossthePenninestointerceptthem.HemettheearlsinbattleatBoroughbridgeon16March,drawinguppikemenasaschiltrom‘intheScottishfashion’.InthebattlethatfollowedHerefordwaskilledandLancastersurrendered,tobeexecutedafewdayslater.

ForhisservicetoEdwardIIAndrewHarclaywascreatedearlofCarlisle,andthereisnodoubtthat,forhispart,theKingofScotsrecognisedinHarclayaformidableopponent.EnglishpreparationsforaninvasionofScotland,tocommenceon1August,wentonregardless.Robertdecidedtopre-empttheattackbyrepeatinghiseffortsin1319toimpoverishandweakentheWestern

March,andhopefullyneutralisethethreatposedbyHarclay.Roberthimselftookthefield.Attheageofforty-eighthewasalreadyanoldmanbymedievalstandards,yethesaddledupandledanarmyintoEngland,provinghimselftobeastrenuousknightyet:

Theking[EdwardII]musteredanarmyinordertoapproachScotlandaboutthefeastofStPeterin

Chains[1August];hearingofwhichRobertdeBrusinvadedEnglandwithanarmybywayofCarlisleintheweekbeforethenativityofStJohntheBaptist[thatis,around17June],andburntthebishop’smanoratRose,andAllerdale,andplunderedthemonasteryatHolmCultram,notwithstandingthathisfather’sbodywasburiedthere;andthenceproceededtolaywasteandplunderCopeland,andsoon,beyondthesandsofDuddontoFurness.

Thepathofdestruction

describedbythechroniclerisborneoutbyadministrativerecords;weknow,forexample,thattwowatermillspertainingtoEgremontcastlewereburntaroundMidsummer’sday.TheabbotofFurnesswenttomeetRobertandpaidaransomtosavethatdistrictfromdestruction.Robertstayedattheabbey,butthechroniclerrelatesthat,despitethis,theScotssetfiretovarious

placesandrobbedthem.HepressedonfurtherintoEngland,beyondtheSandsofLeventoCartmel,andburntthelandsofCartmelPriory,robbingthemanddrivingofftheircattle.HecrossedthesandsatthemouthoftheRiverKent,visitingdestructionuponYealand,WartonandCarnforthtoarriveatLancaster.TheretheScotsburntthetown,sparingonlytheBenedictineand

Dominicanreligioushouses,nodoubtataprice.AtLancasterRobert’sforcewasjoinedbyanother,ledbyMorayandDouglas.TheyhadarrivedbywayofKendal,Whittington,HornbyCastleandQuernmoreForest.Perhapsthissecondpartyhadmetwithsomeresistance,fortwoScotshadbeentakenprisoneratHornbyMooron2July.TenementsatTorrisholme,nowapartof

Morcambe,weredestroyed.ThecombinedforcestayedatLancasterforfourdaysandnightsandtherewasextensivedamage,robberyandtramplingofcrops.Thecastlewasburnt,andthetownsfolksubsequentlypetitionedtheEnglishkingfortherighttotaketimbertorebuildthetown.Stilltheraidersrodeon,drivingbeforethemlargenumbersofrefugees.Theyentered

Amounderness;atPrestonarentrollof1324bearsevidenceoftheirvisitation.OnlythehouseoftheFriarsMinorwasspared,andagainthetownsfolkhadsubsequentlytopetitionEdwardIIfortimbertorebuild.ThewholevillageofSkertonwasdestroyedandcorntrampleddown.SomeoftheScotsraidedfifteenmilestothesouthofPreston;themanorofSamlesburywas

pillaged.Nodetailsareavailableof

Robert’sreturnjourney,exceptintheregisterofthebishopofCarlisle,whereitisrecordedthattheScotsstayedaboutCarlisledoingdestructionforeightdays,doubtlesstotemptHarclayandthegarrisonintobattle.ThemainchroniclesourcehoweveraddsthattheScots‘re-enteredScotlandonthevigilofStJamestheApostle

[24July]sothattheyspentthreeweeksandthreedaysinEnglandonthatoccasion.’ItgoesontosaythattheScotswhorodebeyondPrestonweresomeeightymileswithinEngland;infactitdescribesarideofaboutahundredandfortymilesintoEngland.FortheScotsthewesternraidof1322wasaconsiderableachievement,whichnotonlydiminishedthemenancewhichHarclay

represented,butaccumulatedfundsfortheexpecteddefensivecampaigninScotlandandraisedtonewheightsthemoraleoftheScotsandtheirconfidenceandprideintheirking.ItispossibletoothattheScotsweresearchingforaveryspecifictargetintheuplandforestsofLancashire,namelytheenormousherdsofcattlepertainingtotheearldomofLancasterwhichareknownto

havegrazedthereinsummermonths.IftheearlofLancaster’scollusionwiththeScotshadsafeguardedthemfromraidingin1319,hisrecentexecutionmeantthattheymightnowbedrivenoff.Itisimpossibletosay,however,whethertheScotsgainedthisenormousbooty.TheraidonLancashire

wouldnotpreventtheEnglishinvasionofScotland,preparationsforwhichwere

nowfaradvanced.EdwardIIhadnowwipedoutvirtuallyalldomesticopposition,andwasfreetodemandmilitaryserviceofunprecedentedseverityfromhissubjects.TheroyalistParliamentofYorkinMay1322nullifiedtheOrdinancesof1311andwentontograntextravaganttaxationtoEdwardtofacilitatehisattackonScotland,includingagrantofonefoot-soldierfromevery

villagetoservefor40days.Thiswasontopofwritsofarrayfor37,800men,comingfromalmosteverycountyinEngland,10,000fromWalesand7,000fromIreland.Furthermore,11,000menweretobestationedattheWesternMarch.Onlyapercentageofthisservicematerialised;neverthelessEdwardIIenteredScotlandwiththelargestEnglisharmyyetdeployed:almost20,000

infantryand1,200hobelarswerepaidbytheroyalwardrobe.Heinsisteduponincreasedrequirementsforarmour,andfavouredheavilyarmouredfootspearmen.Hisarmywas,however,deficientincavalry,theresultofhishavingrecentlyeliminatedsomanyEnglishmagnatesuponwhomtheroyalhostdependedforunpaidservice.Therewereabout300knights–includingearls,bannerets

andbarons–andabout950men-at-arms.Amassivepurveyancingoperationswungintoactiontofeedsuchaforce.AnItalianmerchant,ManentiusFrancisci,supplied2,614quartersofwheattotheNewcastledepot.Edwardwasdependentuponships,however,totransportsuppliestothearmyinScotland,andthiswastoproveafatalweakness.

About10August1322EdwardII’shugearmyleftNewcastleuponTyneandmarcheduptheTweed,bypassingBerwick.TheyenteredScotlandbywayofMelroseAbbeyandLauderdale,makingforEdinburgh.BarbourrecountsthatRobertwithdrewacrosstheForth.HehadpreparedforinvasionbyevacuatingallthelivestockfromLothian;wemayassumethathealso

removedordestroyedsuppliesofgrainandothersustenance.Itwasineffecta‘scorchedearth’reactiontoinvasion.

HelayquietlywithhisarmyAtCulross,forhemeanttotryTocausehisfoestolosestrengthBystarvationandbylongmarches,ThenwhenhehadweakenedtheirstrengthHewouldengageinafightwiththem.

On18AugustEdwardIIwasatCrichton,andnextdayhemovedtoMusselburgh,onthecoast.HewasatLeith,wheretherewasagoodharbour,on20August,andsomeprovisionsfromhisfleetmusthavearrivedthenextday,forhewasabletoissuestorestohistroops.ThearmymeanwhileamuseditselfbysackingHolyroodAbbey.Butthefleetbearingthebulkoftheprovisionsdid

notarrive,andtwoexplanationsareadvancedtoaccountforthis.AdraftletterofthekingtohisbishopsindicatesthatfearofFlemishprivateerspreventedthefleetfromreachingLeith:‘TheFlemingshadcometotheaidofourenemies,theScots,andtheyputtoseainshipsjustasourfleetwasnearingScotland.Theytookshipswithgoodsonthemsothatnonedaredtocometous.’

Notonlyhadthefleetbeenmenacedbyprivateers,butstormshaddestroyedfourteenofthesupplyships.Withthevastarmyalreadystarving,EdwardhadnochoicebuttoretreattoMusselburghon22AugustandfromthereacrossAncrumMooron30August,returningtoEnglandon2September.OntheirretreattheEnglishsackedthemonasteriesofMelroseandDryburgh.AScottish

chroniclerdescribeswithhorrorhowmonkswerekilled,andvariousimpietiescommittedbytheEnglishtroops.Roberthimselfledthe

retaliation,accompanyingMorayandDouglasforasecondlong-rangeraidintoEngland.HemusteredtroopsfromtheWesternIsles,ArgyllandnorthandsouthoftheForth,andon30September1322hecrossed

theSolwayFirthatBowness,and‘ravagedthedistrictaroundCarlisleforfivedays’.AndrewHarclay,whomighthaveprovedaveryableopponent,hadjustdismissedtheforceof500hobelarshehadmaintainedatCarlisleduringEdward’sinvasion.WhileRobertwastedthevicinityofCarlisle,hisraiders,lednodoubtbyMorayandDouglas,sweptonpurposefullydownthevalley

oftheEden,raidingthevillagesofCastleSowerby,ScotbyandCarlattonontheway.ShortlyafterwardsRobertfollowedthem.Awell-informedchronicleclaimsthatfromthefirstRobertwasseekingtoencounterandcaptureEdwardIIhimself.TheseizureofacrucialhostagewouldhavebeenaveryappositereactiontotheEnglishinvasion,foronly

suchaprizewouldpreventfutureEnglishinvasionsandforcetheEnglishtoconcedeRobert’skingship.Englishperceptionsof

Scottishmovementsareinteresting.EdwardIIbecameawarethatRoberthadenteredtheWestMarchon2October,andhesummonedtenmagnates,includingHarclay,toattendhimat‘Blakehoumoor’,anunidentifiedlocationonthe

NorthYorkshireMoors.Harclay,however,hadjustretiredintoLancashiretoraiseanarmy.By5OctoberArchbishopMeltonatNunMonktonhadheardalreadythattheScotswereinYorkshireandnearRichmond.ThenextwehearisthatEdwardII,on13OctoberatRievaulxAbbey,understoodthemtobeatNorthallerton,andbegantopanic.Hewasextremely

angrythatHarclayhadnotyetshownup.Writswerehastilyissuedtosheriffs,keepersandcastellanson2and5Octoberinafranticefforttoraisetroopsfromlocalmilitias.WeknowfromanothersourcethatMoraywasonthatdayonly15milesaway,atMalton,andalreadyalmostinapositiontocutofftheEnglishking’sretreat.TheEnglishmagnatesassembledonahilltop

positionnearRievaulxandOldBylandthathasbeenidentifiedbyBarrowasRoulstonScar,tobartheprogressoftheScotsandtogivetheirkingtimetoescape.Battlewasjoined,andforatimetheEnglishmagnatessucceededinholdingofftheScots,butRobertusedtheIsles-mentoscaletherockyclifftotherear,andtheEnglishpositionwasturned.Meanwhile,EdwardII

‘chicken-heartedandlucklessinwar’,fledtoBridlingtonandtoYork,leavinglootworthafortune.ThehaulfromtheBattleofBylandswasvast.BylandandRievaulxAbbeysweresacked.AmongtheprisonerswasthehaughtyearlofRichmond,JohnofBrittany,whohadbeenguardianinScotlandin1305andagainin1307.Robertandheclearlyhadunfinishedbusiness,and

anangryrowdeveloped:

WhenhesawJohnBrittanyHeshowedhimgreatindignationForJohnwasaccustomedtospeakhaughtilyAndtoomaliciouslyathomeThekingorderedthatJohnbetakenquicklyawayAndseethathewascloselyimprisoned,SayingthatifhehadnotbeensuchawretchHewouldhaveboughthisdisgracefulwordsdearlyAndJohnmiserablybeggedhim

formercy.

Theunfinishedbusinessmightwellhavebeentheearl’spossessionoftheBrucefamilypossessionsofHartandHartlepool,whichEdwardIIhadgrantedtoRichmondin1322.Richmondwasheldincaptivityfortwoyears,afterwhichhisransomwassetatacrippling14,000marks(thatis,£9,333),perhapstwicethe

annualincomeofarichmagnate.HenrydeSully,butlerofFrance,wascapturedbyRobert,andthreeFrenchknightsweretakenprisonerbyDouglas.TheknightswereredeemedandreleasedbyRobert,withaneyetotheFrenchking’sfavour,toreturntoFrancewithoutransom.Robertdidnotresistthe

urgetoflaunthismasteryofnorthernEnglandandhis

humiliationoftheEnglishking.MoraywassenttooccupytheValeofPickering,wherearansomwasextractedfromthemenofthevale.Subsequentreductionsinparishtaxassessmentssuggestthatthedamageinflictedbytheraiderswaswidespread,extendingeventocoastalparishes.RoberttooktemporarypossessionoftheEastRiding,anareathathadhithertoescapedraiding,

andsetuphisstandardatHunsley.ThereligioushousesofBridlingtonandBeverleysentemissariestoRobertatthatplacetoofferco-operationandmoney,hopinginreturntobespareddestruction.OntheapproachoftheScots,thecanonsofBridlingtonevacuatedtheirvaluables,relicsandmunimentstotheirchurchofGoxhillacrosstheHumber.NineScotsandeighteen

horsesarrivedatBridlingtontotakeupbilletatthemonastery.ThenearbyvillagesofRudstonandKilhamwereburntanddespoiled,theircattlebeingdrivenoff.Finally,about22October,RobertledhisraidersbacktowardsScotland.DestructioninAiredale,atSkiptoninCravenandatBarnardCastle,detailedinadministrativeaccounts,revealstheroutes

hometakenbytheraiders.ThoughRobertfailedto

captureEdwardIIonthisgreatraidof1322,itwasanawe-inspiringdemonstrationofScottishpower.ThepersonalprestigeoftheEnglishmonarchwasatanall-timelow.Hehadnowtwicebeenhumiliatedinbattle.Hehadshownhimselfincapableofprovidingprotectionevenforvassalslivingfarbeyondtheborder

regionsofhiskingdom.YeteventhiswasinsufficienttopersuadeEdwardIItomakepeace,andinFebruary1323hewasissuingordersforafreshcampaignagainstScotland.WhileEdwardII’s

insistenceuponfightingawarhecouldnotwinwasmakinggenuinepeacenegotiationimpossible,thereweremagnatesofnorthernEnglandsoutterlyexasperatedwith

theirkingthattheywerepreparedtotakemattersintotheirownhands.AtLochmabenon3January1323RobertmetwithAndrewHarclay,thevictorofBoroughbridgeandrecentlyelevatedearlofCarlisle,andtheyhammeredoutproposalsforapeacetreaty.Harclay’smotivesweremixed.Heisknowntohavebeengraspingandacquisitive,andhisstar–sorecentlyintheascendant–

hadplummetedfromroyalfavouronhisfailuretosaveEdwardIIfromhumiliationatBylands;clearlyEdwardIIsuspectedhimofawaitingtheoutcomeofthebattle,inexpectationofanEnglishdefeat.Nevertheless,HarclaywassurelyrepresentativeofthosenorthernerswhoselandshadbeendevastatedandlivesblightedbytheruinouscontinuationofthewaragainstScotland.Thedetails

oftheproposedsettlementwereasfollows:Robertwastohavehiskingdom‘freeandquit,forhimselfandhisheirs’;eachkingdomwastobedistinctandseparate,eachgovernedbyitsownlawsandcustoms;twelvearbiters,sixfromeachcountry,weretoformacommitteetosettledifferencesthatmightarisebetweenthekingdoms.IfEdwardIIcouldbepersuadedtoacceptthesetermswithina

year,RobertundertooktopayEnglandatarateof4,000marksperyearfortenyears,tofoundandgenerouslyendowamonasteryinScotlandtoprayforthesoulsofthosekilledinthewar,andtoassenttoamarriagebetweenhisheirandtheEnglishroyalfamily.Finally,neitherkingwouldbeforcedtoacceptbackintohiskingdomorrestoreforfeitedlandstoanyonewhohad

foughtagainsthim.Themoststrikingaspectof

theBruce–Harclaytreatyisthegeneroustermsforpeaceofferedbythevictoriousside.ThisisproofpositivethatRobertlongedforanequitableandlastingcessationofviolenceandthat–savinghisroyaldignityandScotland’sindependence–hewaspreparedtomakeenormoussacrificestoachieveit.Thereisfurther

evidencefromBarbourthatthelossoflifeengenderedinpursuitofhisrighttroubledthekingonhisdeathbed.YetRobertalsohadalessaltruisticreasontopursuepeaceatthistime.Robert,CountofFlanders,haddiedinSeptember1322,leavingachildashissuccessor.TheregentswhogovernedFlandersthereafterwerelessinclinedtoturnablindeyetoco-operationbetween

ScottishandFlemishprivateersontheNorthSea,andScotlandhad,ineffect,lostanimportantallythathadboughtherwoolandbroughthervitalimportsoffoodstuffsandweaponry.Asmightbeexpected,

newsofapossiblesettlementwashugelypopularinthenorthofEngland,andLanercostreportsthat‘thepoorfolk,themiddlingsortsandthefarmersinthe

northernpartswerenotalittledelightedthattheKingofScotlandshouldfreelypossesshisownkingdomonsuchtermsthattheythemselvesmightliveinpeace.’HarclaywasquiteincapableofdeliveringEdwardII’sassenttoanysuchagreement,andbeforehehadevenbroachedthesubjectwithhisroyalmaster,localrivals,jealousofhissuccess,lostnotimein

relayingaccountsofhissecretnegotiationswithRoberttothegovernment.HarclayhadreceivedacommissiontotreatwiththeScotsforafinalpeaceinthefailednegotiationsofFebruary1322,buthehadnosanctionwhateverforcommittinghiskingtosuchterms,andconsequentlyhehadviolatedhisallegianceandhishomage.On25February1323Harclaywas

arrestedinCarlisleCastlebyhislocalrivals,andhewastriedandhanged,drawnandquarteredshortlyafterwards.Yet,evenasheprepared

foracampaignin1323,itdawnedonEdwardIIthathecouldnolongerpersevereinyetanothercostly,futileexpedition.Hehadjustexecutedtheonemagnatecompetenttodefendthenorth.RobertsoughttheassistanceofHenrydeSully,

whomhehadrecentlycapturedatByland,toconveyamessagetoEdwardIIwhilehewasinEnglandenrouteforFrance.Inperson,heaskedtheFrenchmagnatetotransmitanofferofatruceuntil22May.ReturningtoFrancebywayoftheEnglishcourtinMarch1323,SullyboreRobert’slettersandhisoralcommentstoEdwardII.SullysentRobertadraftversionoftheletterwhich

wouldshortlybeforthcomingfromEdwardIIandwhichwasaddressednottoRobertasking,butto‘thepeopleofScotlandwhoareatwarwithhim’.BarrowseesinthetextofRobert’sreplytoSullyasenseofhumour,butitcanalsobereadasanexplosionofoutrageddignity:

WedesiredanddesirealwaystonegotiatewiththekingofEnglandafroresaidintheformofafinal

peacebetweenhimandourselves,savingalwaystousandtoourheirsourkingdomfreeandquitandalsotheconditionofourallies…Sironthismatterwehave

receivedlettersofyoursandtranscriptsof[EdwardII]’ssayingthathehasgrantedtothepeopleofScotlandwhoareatwarwithhimatruce;andthismannerofspeakingisverystrangetous,forinothertruceswhichhavebeenmadebetweenhimandus,wehavebeennamedastheprincipalashehasbeenontheother,thoughhewould

notstyleusking……thereisnomorereference

madetousthantothemeanestofourrealm.Anddonotwonderthereforethatwehavenotagreedtothistruce,butifithadappearedinthepropermannerweshouldwillinglyhaveacceptedit…

InfactthefinishedversionofEdwardII’sletterdoesaddressRobertasprincipal.Thissimplecaseof‘crossedwires’demonstratesthatRobertwasindeadlyearnest

abouthisclaimtothethroneandhisinsistenceonroyaldignity.Nevertheless,bythe

beginningofMayteamsofnegotiatorsmetonceagain,thistimeatNewcastle.TheEnglishwererepresentedbyPembrokeandthecurrentroyalfavouriteHughDespensertheyoungeramongothers;theScottishenvoyswereledbyMoray.Byapragmaticcompromise

eachsideacknowledgedthatafinalpeacecouldnotbereachedincurrentcircumstances,butundertooktoshelvetheconflictforthetimebeing,andtohopethatasolutionwouldsomehowemergeinthefuture.Fundamentalissueswereleftunsolved:neitherRobert’sroyaltitlenorScottishsovereigntyhadbeenacknowledgedbytheEnglish.Instead,itwasagreedthat

thereshouldbeatrucefrom12June,andthatitshouldlastforthirteenyears.NonewcastlesweretobebuiltintheEnglishorScottishmarches.ThegoodsofScottishshipsdrivenagroundontheEnglishcoastwouldberestored.EdwardwouldnotstandinthewayofRobert’sapproachestothepapacytohavesentenceofexcommunicationlifted.On30May1323theagreement

wasreached,anditwassubsequentlysealedatBishopsthorpenearYorkon12June1323.Asitwas,theEnglish

noblescouldbarelystomachthecompromise.AttheBishopsthorpecouncil,ominousrumblingsofdiscontentwereheardfromthosewhohadlosttitlesandestates.HenryBeaumont,who,havingfoughtformanyyearsinScotlandandmarried

AliceComyn,consideredthatheheldatitletotheearldomofBuchan,refusedtogivethekingcounselwhenasked,hadtobeorderedout,andonhiswayoutremarkedcontemptuouslytoEdwardIIthathepreferredtobeabsent.Magnateswhoharbouredsuchgrievancesbecameknownas‘theDisinherited’,andovertimetheyweretobecomeaforcepowerfulenoughtodestabilisethe

temporarytruce.Itstandstotheenormous

creditofRobertBrucethathedidnotinsistonfullrecognitionofhisrightsbutagreedtosucha‘fudge’.Now,sincetheexecutionofHarclay,hewouldhavefounditeasierthanevertoinflictfurthermiseryandstarvationuponthepopulationofnorthernEngland,devastatemoreterritory,extractmoresilver,enrichhisfollowers

andenhancehisreputationstillfurther.ItisunlikelythatRobertrealisedfullythegrowingunpopularityofEdwardII’sregimeatthisstage,orforesawanydangerofitscollapseandreplacementbyamorebelligerentregime.ButhewouldhavebeendeeplytroubledbythelossofsupportfromFlemishprivateerswhohadactedashisnavyintheNorthSea;his

worstfearswererealisedwhen,on18April1323,allScotswereorderedtoleaveFlanders.HewascertainlylookingoverhisshoulderatBallioloppositionwithinScotland.Crucially,Robertwasstillwithoutanheir,andexpectationofonemusthavebeendiminishingwithtime.Consequentlyhekeenlyfelttheneedforstabilityandpeacetoassistinestablishmentofadynasty.

Finally,tojudgefromhisofferintheBruce–Harclayagreementofamonasterytoprayforthesoulsofthosekilledinthewar,hewasmovedbyChristianhumanitarianconsiderationstopostponeextractionoftherecognitionthathecravedinordertosparethepresentgenerationtheevilsofanotherwar.ThusheallowedEdwardIIthisface-savingformula,trustingthatthe

futurewouldbringaboutconditionsforafinalsettlement.Forty-nineyearsold,war-wearyandplainlymostanxiousforapeace,Robertwouldhaveexpectedthetrucetolastatleastfortheremainderofhisownlifetime.Hewouldhavebeensurprisedtolearnthathisfightingdayswerenotyetover.

10Robert,Kingof

Scots

ThegovernanceofScotland

Defenceoftherealmwasa

fundamentaldutyofallmedievalkings,andRobertstillhadmuchtodotosecureScotlandfromattack.Yetdefencewasonlyonefacetofmedievalkingship,thoughperhapsthemostimportant.Aboveall,akingwasexpectedtoshowerhisfaithfulfollowerswithfavours,privileges,giftsandsilver.Robert’sexpenditureonwarwasheavy,andtheeconomicburdenprobably

fellheaviestonhispoorersubjects,buttherewardsofsuccessfulwarwerecopious.RaidingtherelativelyrichcountiesofnorthernEnglandanddispossessionofhisScottishopponentsenabledRoberttorewardhisnobilitygenerously,tocreateatleasttheimpressionofagoldenage,fondlyrememberedforgenerations.Thecessationofhostilities

thatlastedfrom1323–26

affordsabreakinthenarrative,andanopportunitytoassessaspectsofRobert’skingshipunrelatedtowarfare.Akinginearlyfourteenth-centuryEuropewasexpectedtolookeveryinchaking;tobehaveregallyinword,gestureanddeed;tobrooknoequal;andtodominatethepoliticalandsociallandscape.Onewhofailedtoliveuptoexpectations–asEdwardIIofEnglanddid–couldfind

himselfinserioustrouble.Amonghisotherroles,thekingwasexpectedtomaintainthelawsandcustoms,providefortheroyalsuccession;safeguardtheinterestsoftheChurch(withouthoweveracceptingdictationfromchurchmen);protecthisownpositionagainsttreachery;managehisnobilitythroughroyalpatronage;maintainarecord-makingbureaucracy;and

sustainrelationswithotherkingdomsandcommunities.Legislationwasacrucial

functionofthemedievalmonarch,andthetendencyatthistimewasincreasinglyforlawstobepromulgatedinparliament,whichimpliedthefullestpossibleassentofthecommunityoftherealm.Novotesweretakeninmedievalparliaments;rathertheseassemblieswereusedbythemonarchtogatherconsentor

legitimacyforhisrule,forspreadingresponsibilityfordecisions,andespeciallyforspreadingfinancialresponsibilities.WeknowoftenparliamentsheldbyRobert,andtheremayhavebeenothers.Robertvaluedtherepresentativenatureofparliament,andonthreeoccasions–1312,1326and1328–heinvitedburgessesfromeachroyalburghtoattendtoenable

representationoftradinginterests.Sincetheburghsgeneratedconsiderablewealththeirinvolvementwascrucialwhenthekingrequiredagrantoftaxation.InJuly1326,attheparliamentofCambuskenneth,Robertwasgrantedforlifeonetenthofallrentsand‘ferms’(profitsorcontracts)throughoutScotland,and,inthesummonstothefollowing

parliamentatEdinburghinFebruary1328,burgesseswereobligedtobringwiththemthesealsoftheircommunitiessothattheirassentwouldbebinding.Atthatparliamenttheburgesseswerealsotogiveauthorityforthecollectionofthefirstinstalmentofthe£20,000‘contributionforpeace’inaccordancewiththeTreatyofEdinburgh–Northampton.After1326,burgh

representationatparliamentbecamethenorminScotland.Robertwasanxiousnotto

beseenasaninnovator,andthelawsheintroducedwereforthemostpartre-enactmentsofthelawsofpreviouskings.AttheSconeparliamentofDecember1318aseriesoftwenty-sevenlaws–theLawsofGoodKingRobert–werepromulgated,manyofthemrepetitionsoflawssupposedlypassedby

KingWilliamtheLioninthetwelfthcentury.TheybeginwithadeclarationthatthefreedomsofHolyChurchweretoberespected,andinclude:an‘assizeofarms’,whichlaiddownwhatweaponsandarmourweretobeproducedatthemusterbymenofvaryingdegreesofwealth;anadjustmentofpropertylawtotakeaccountoftheextensivechangesinpropertyownershipbrought

aboutbyforfeituresofwar;andinjunctionsthatmagnatesshouldkeeptheking’speace.Otherlawsrelatetoeverydayrurallife:oneregulatesthemeshoffishtrapssothatfrymightescape;anotherrestatestheoldlawregardingthesalmoncloseseason;athirdlaysdownfirmmeasurestopreventthespreadofsheepmurrain–infectedbeaststobeslaughteredwithineightdaysonpainofa£10fine.

Thislastmeasurewasapparentlyaresponse–somewhatbelated–totheepidemicofsheepdiseasewhichaccompaniedthefamineyears1315–17.Provisionforthe

successionwasafundamentaldutyoftheking,andthiswasdifficultforRobertbecausewarhadtakensuchaheavytollonhisbloodrelatives.ThereturntoScotlandofQueenElisabethin1315after

anabsenceofeightyears,aspartoftheprisoner-exchangefollowingthebattleofBannockburn,renewedRobert’schancesofanheir–and,aswehaveseen,deprivedEdwardBruceoftheprospectofathrone,motivatinghimtoinvadeIreland.Atthatpoint,theroyalsuccessionhadbeensettledbyaroyal‘tailzie’orentail,whichsetasidethenormalcourseofthelaw.

Robert’sson,werehetohaveone,wouldsucceed,but,intheeventofhishavingnoson,theclaimofhisdaughterMarjorie,hischildbyhisfirstmarriage,wouldbe–withherpermission–setaside,andEdwardBrucewouldinheritthekingdom.Suchwasthepremiumplacedonhavingasoldieronthethrone,abletoprotectthekingdom.OnthedeathofEdwardBruceinIrelandin1318,theroyal

successionwassettledonceagainbytailzieattheSconeparliament:intheeventofRobert’sdyingwithoutmaleheir,thethronewouldpasstoRobertStewart,thechildofthemarriagebetweenWaltertheStewardandMarjorie.ElisabethdeBurghhadpreviouslyborneRoberttwogirls:Maud,whofirstmarriedasimplesquire,butwasthenweddedtoHugh,EarlofRoss;andMargaret,who

marriedWilliam,EarlofSutherland.Roberthashadasmanyassixillegitimatechildrenascribedtohim;infactonlythreeofthesearenowthoughttohavebeenhisoffspring.Noneofthesecouldsucceedtothethrone,thoughtheelder,namedRobert,wasknightedontheeveofBannockburnandseemstohavebeenespeciallytrustedandable.39Atlast,on

5March1324maletwinswereborntoRobert.TheheirwasnamedDavidafterthewiseandsuccessfulDavidI,KingofScots(1124–53);theothertwin,John,diedininfancy.OnDavid’ssecondbirthdayin1326thenoblescongregatedatCambuskennethtoperformhomageandfealty,andthereitwassettled,onceagainbyroyaltailzie,thatRobertStewartwouldinheritonlyif

DavidBrucediedwithoutheir.40Itwasalwaysenvisagedthat,intheeventofRobert’sdyingbeforeDavidshouldcomeofage,Morayshouldbecomeguardianofthekingdomforthedurationoftheroyalminority.Thiscametopassin1328,whenthefive-year-oldDavidsucceededtothethrone.Religionbeingsucha

dominantaspectofmedieval

life,everykinghadtomanageecclesiasticalaffairscarefully.Asstatedalready,theScottishChurchwasremarkableforitsgroupsolidarityandtheclosenessofitstieswithRome.Yetinspiteofpapaldisapprovalandapplicationofthestrongestreligioussanctions,RobertwasabletorelyuponthebishopsofGlasgowandStAndrews,AbbotBernardofArbroathandotherleadersof

clericalopiniontomaintaintheChurchasamainstayoftheBrucemonarchy.41TheDeclarationoftheClergypublishedattheStAndrewsparliamentof1309wassuccessivelyreissuedbytheChurchtoemphasizeitssupportfortheregime.A‘generalcouncil’oftheChurchwasheldatDundee,inthechurchoftheFriarsMinorinFebruary1310,and,

onthereleaseoftheagedbishopRobertWishartafterBannockburn,allthebishopsofScotlandappendedtheirsealstothedeclarationshowingthesolidarityoftheScottishepiscopatewiththemonarch.Inreturnforclericalsupport,Robertwasamunificentpatron.HispatronageoftheFranciscans–theGreyfriars–waspartlyperhapsinpenitenceforthesacrilegiousmurderof

Comynin1306.HegrantedtheGreyfriarsofDumfries,inwhosechurchthemurderhadbeencommitted,anannualrentof40marks,and20markstoeachoftheotherhouses.HecompensatedtheCisterciansofDeerAbbeyfordamageprobablycausedduringtheherschipofBuchan.Inthepresenceofsevenbishopsandfifteenabbots,Robertattendedthededicationofthenewly

completedStAndrewsCathedralon5July1318,makingovertothecanonsofthecathedraltheparishchurchofFordoun,whichwasinhisgift.TheCistercianhouseatMelrosehoweverbenefitedmostfromRobert’sgenerosity.Fortherebuildingofthathouse–possiblyafterwardamage–in1325,hegranteditaclassofroyalrevenuesfromRoxburghshireuntilitshouldhave£2,000.

Then,earlyin1326hemadearemarkablegranttothemonksofMelrose,providingdailytoeachmonkanexpensiveluxury,adishofriceinalmondorpea-water‘tobecalledtheking’sdish’.Ifanymonkrefusedit,itwastobegiventothepoor.Outofincomessetasideforthispurpose,themonksweretoclotheandfeedfifteenpaupersannually.Robert’sexcommunication

wasfirstpronouncedin1307,asmurdererandrebelagainsttheauthorityofEdwardIandhisson,madenormalrelationswiththepapacyimpossible.By1310,thishadbeencancelled.However,PopeJohnXXII,newlyelectedinAugust1316,acceptedtheEnglishviewthattheScottishWarofIndependencewasnothingmorethanrebellionandhecalledontheScotstodesist:

‘theircontumacyacauseofperiltoChristiansoulsandthecauseofthespillingofmuchChristianblood,whileonlytheinfidelwhotrampledontheHolyLandcouldfindinitcauseforrejoicing.’DispatchingthecardinalsGaucelinandLuketoScotlandin1317aswehaveseen,heattemptedtoimposeatwo-yeartrucebetween‘ourdearsoninChrist,Edward,theillustriouskingof

England’and‘ourbelovedsonthatnoblemanRobertdeBrus,callinghimselfkingofScotland’.Atfirsttwoenvoysweresentbythecardinals,bearinglettersannouncingthecoronationofJohnXXIIandothersrelatingtothetrucebetweenthekingdomswhichthepapacywasattemptingtoimpose.OnenteringScotlandtheenvoyswereinterviewedinAugust1317atRoxburghCastlebyJamesDouglasand

AlexanderSeton,thestewardoftheroyalhousehold.TheywerethenescortedbyaroyalclerktoMelrosewhereRoberttoldthem‘notwithoutindignationandwrath’thathewouldnotacceptbullsorlettersthatdidnotaddresshimasking,andthathehadnointentionofallowingpublicationoftheletterswhichaddressedhimonlyas‘GovernorofScotland’.Robertpointedoutthatthere

wereinScotlandseveralRobertBruceswho,incommonwithothernobles,weregovernorsofthekingdomofScotland,and,whileheopenedandreadpapallettersbearingaddresstotheScotsingeneral,herefusedtoopensealedpapallettersthatwerenotaddressedtohimspecificallyasking.IntheirreporttheenvoyscitedaletterwrittenbythebaronsofScotlandto

thecardinalsstatingthat,eveniftheScottishkingwerewillingtoforgotheroyaltitle,hiscouncilandbaronswouldoverrulehim.Thisdidnotreflectpoliticalreality;Robertwasmerelyusingthisconvenientfictiontospreadresponsibilityforrefusaltoco-operatewiththepapacyfromhisownshouldersontothecommunityoftherealm.HeapparentlyhiredNorthumbrianbanditsto

ambushthecardinalsandpreventtheirentryintoScotlandastheyapproachedtheborderon1September1317,asdescribedinapreviouschapter.LaterintheyearRobertsentthecardinalsalettercomposedbyhisbaronsthatspeltouttothecardinalsthattheirkinghadnopowertowaivehisrightsinthismatter.‘Withouttheroyaladdress,therecouldbenodiscussion.’

UnabletodelivertheirlettersintoScotland,thecardinalscomplainedthatRoberthad‘stoppedhisearsafterthemannerofadeafadder,lesthemighthearthewordsofthewisefatherwhoexhortedhim’.TwofriarswhoenteredScotlandbearingthelettershadthemsnatchedandtorntopieces,andthefriarsthemselvesweresetuponandrobbed.Theseatleastwereallowedtogo

unharmed;thenextmessenger,Adam,guardianoftheFranciscanhouseatBerwick,wasnotsolucky.IntrepidationhesetouttofindtheKingofScotson16December.Hedidnothavefartogo:RobertwasinthewoodsatOldCambus,preparingsiegeenginesforanassaultonBerwick.Seton,theroyalsteward,deniedAdamaccesstothekingbutdemandedthelettersfrom

him,sayingthathewoulddeliverthemtoRobert.BeforehandingthemovertoSeton,Adambravelyproceededtoproclaimthetrucethereandthen,whileacrowdgatheredtoshouthimdown.Asexpected,RobertrefusedtoacceptthelettersfromSeton’shandbecausetheydidnotaddresshimasking,andSetonreturnedthemtoAdam,tellinghimtoclearoutofScotland.Seton,

however,deniedhimasafeconduct,andonhiswaybackAdamwasroughedupbyfourmenandrobbedoftheletters,hisclothesandeverythinghepossessed.RobertwentontocaptureBerwickandraidEnglandinpointeddefianceofthepapaltruce.Bythisheprovokedtherenewedpapalexcommunicationof29May1318,ofhimselfbynameandofhissupporters,andthe

impositionofaninterdictontheirlands,excludingthefaithfulfromparticipationincertainservicesandrituals.Sofaraswecantell,thesentencewasignoredinScotland.Thecardinalsgaveup

tryingtodeliverthepapalsentence,anddecidedthatpublishingthelettereverywhereelseinBritainandIrelandwouldhavetodo.Accordingly,byletterposted

uponthechurchdoorsthroughoutEnglandon19August1318,RobertBruceandhissupportersweregiventendaystodesist,orfaceimmediateexcommunication.ThisnewsentenceextendednotonlytoBruce’ssupportersbuttoallwhosomuchasprovidedthemwithsupplies.AllobligationsordebtstotheScotsweretoberegardedasnullandvoid.Thecardinalswithdrewto

FrancefulminatingthatBrucehad‘hardenedhisheartinanidolatrousmanner,notwithoutsuspicionofhereticaldepravity.’On8January1320,the

popecitedRobertandthefourbishopsofStAndrews,Dunkeld,AberdeenandMoraytoappearbeforehiminpersonorbyproxyon1May,andhefurnishedsafeconductstoenablethemtodoso.Robertandthebishops

ignoredthesummons,but,followingaroyalcouncilatNewbattleinMarch1320,decideduponawrittenreplytothebarrageofpapalsanctions.TheresponsetoJohnXXIIisamasterpieceofpatrioticrhetoric,whichexpresseslucidlythepassionofsmallnationseverywhereforfreedomandjusticeandrecognition.IntheDeclarationofArbroathsomeseeonlyRobert’sresponseto

theaccusingpapalbulls,otherstheoriginsofScottishconstitutionalism,whileothersstillviewitasanexpressionofmedievalnationalism.Thefamousletterofthe

baronsofScotlandtoPopeJohnXXII,dispatchedtothepapalcuriaafter6April1320anddeliveredatAvignonbetween17Juneand29Julybythreehandpickedenvoys,hasmanyantecedents.The

earliestandmostobviousmodelistheletteroftheEnglishbaronstoBonifaceVIIIof1301,rejectingpapalinterferenceonbehalfoftheScots.Thoughitborethesealsofsevenearlsandsixty-fourbarons,ithadbeenframedbyroyalclerks.TheDeclarationtoo,thoughitpurportedtobethespontaneousresponseofthecommunityoftherealm,wasclearlyorganisedandwritten

byRobert’schancery.AseconddocumentthatfurnishedmuchofthereasoningintheDeclarationwastheProcessusofBaldredBisset,alsowrittenin1301:itcontainedacomprehensivelistofargumentsforrejectionofEdwardI’sclaims.Athirdantecedent,theRemonstranceoftheIrishPrinceswassenttothepapalcourtbyDonalO’Neillin1317,andcomplainedbitterlyandat

lengthofEnglishinjusticesinthatcountryandembracedEdwardBruceaskingofIreland.However,theimmediateforerunneroftheDeclarationappearstohavebeentheletter,nowlost,writtenfromtheScottishbaronstothecardinalsin1317.Thetextofthedeclarationwasthustheculminationofalongthoughtprocess,towhichtherehadbeenmanycontributors.

TheformandsentimentsoftheDeclarationhadthenbeendevelopedovertwentyyears,anditwascomposedwithgreatcare,probablyunderthesupervisionofRobert’schancellor,AbbotBernardofArbroath.CertainofitsphrasesaredrawnfromtheclassicalauthorsSallustandCicero;otherinternalevidencepointstofamiliaritywiththeOldTestamentbooksoftheMaccabees;italso

drawsfreelyuponcanonlawarguments.Sinceitwasdraftedbyroyalclerks,theDeclarationreflectstheBruceregime’sviewofitself,ratherthantheobjectiveviewofthebarons.ItisscarcelysurprisingthentofindinthedocumentapanegyriconRobert’sachievements,andstressonthedebtScotlandowedtoRobert:

Butfromthesecountlessevilswe

havebeensetfree,bythehelpofhimwhothoughheafflictsyethealsandrestores,byourmostvaliantprince,kingandlord,thelordRobert,who,thathispeopleandhisheritagemightbedeliveredoutofthehandsofenemies,borecheerfullytoilandfatigue,hungeranddanger,likeanotherMaccabeusorJoshua.Divineprovidence,thesuccessiontohisrightaccordingtoourlawsandcustomswhichweshallmaintaintothedeath,andthedueconsentandassentofusallhavemadehimourprinceandking.Wearebound

tohimforthemaintainingofourfreedombothbyhisrightsandmerits,astohimbywhomsalvationhasbeenwroughtuntoourpeople,andbyhim,comewhatmay,wemeantostand.

Whenafaircopyofthedocumenthadbeenmade,thematricesofthemagnates’privatesealswerecollectedinorderthatsealscouldbeattachedatonceandwithoutthedocumenthavingtobebroughtalloverthecountry

totheirvariousresidences.Thefictionthatthedocumentexpressedtheviewsofthebaronswasplayedupontogreateffect;however,itisthoughtthatthegovernment’sroundingupofmagnates’personalsealsgeneratedresentmentandmayhavecontributedtosupportfortheconspiracyofthatyear.Thefollowingclause–the‘constitutionalclause’–expressedtheideathatthe

king’shandsweretiedbytheunanimousandresoluteoppositionofhismagnatestoanydilutionofhisdemands:‘Yetif[Robert]shouldgiveupwhathehasbegun,seekingtomakeusorourkingdomsubjecttothekingofEnglandortotheEnglish,wewouldstriveatoncetodrivehimoutasourenemyandasubverterofhisownrightandours,andwewouldmakesomeothermanwho

wasabletodefendusourking;foraslongasahundredofusremainalive,wewillneveronanyconditionsbesubjectedtothelordshipoftheEnglish.’ThethemethattheKingof

Scots’powercould,undercertaincircumstances,belimitedhadbeenfirstanticipatedinKingJohn’sresponsetoEdwardI’saccusationsattheWestminsterparliamentof

1293,andthenechoedinthebarons’lettertothecardinalsof1317.Thisideaisunlikelytohavehadanyfoundationinlaworcustom;itrepresentsaconvenientfictionadoptedbyScottishkingswhenunwillingtoadoptaparticularcourseofaction,arhetoricalflourish,ratherthanevidenceofanyproto-constitutionalarrangementoractuallimitationofroyalpower.Thelanguageofthe

Declarationbuildsslowlytoamemorableclimax:‘Forwefightnotforglory,norriches,norhonours,butforfreedomalone,whichnogoodmangivesupexceptwithhislife.’Therehasbeenmuchdiscussionastohowthis‘freedom’isintendedtobeunderstood:thepersonalfreedom,ofmenfromanoverweeninglord–incontrastwithserfdom?Orgroupfreedom,ofapeople

fromsubjection?Ifthelatter,thenthereissubstancetotheclaimthattheDeclarationexpressesnationalistsentiment.YetRobertneverclaimedtobefightingfortheScottishnation.Hedisplayedanunderstandingof‘thenation’thatisdifficulttoreconcilewithnationalismasweunderstandit.Inhisletterto‘allthekingsofIreland,totheprelatesandclergyandtheinhabitantsofIreland’he

seemstohaveconceivedof‘ournation’asembracingnotjustthepeopleofScotlandbutthepeoplesofIrelandaswell.Hisideaofthenationwasthereforearchaic,farremovedfrommodernnationalismaswehaveknownitfromtheFrenchRevolutiononwards.TheDeclarationisthe

greatestmonumenttoRobertBruce:itishismissionstatement,hisjustificationfor

wagingwar.Itsvalues–justice,acknowledgementofindependenceandrespectforethnicdifference–applyacrosshistory;anditraisesperennialquestions:whatisfreedom?Whatisthenation?Whatissovereignty?Andwhatjustifiesresistancetogovernment?TheDeclarationmaynotbethefountofScottishconstitutionalism,itmaynothaveinspiredtheAmericanDeclarationof

Independence,butitstimelessqualitiessaveRobertfromdenigrationas‘justanotherwarlord’.Robertconceivedofhimselfasfightingforright,andengagedinajustbutunevenstruggleworthyoftheattentionandrecognitionoftheknownworld.InthefaceofRobert’strenchantopposition,themedievalpapacy,lessimpressedbytheDeclarationofArbroaththanpainfullyawareofitsown

weaknessinthefaceofintractablemonarchies,knewwhentoseekaccommodation,andbytheendofthereign(1328)hadliftedalltheexcommunicationsandtheinterdict,restoringScotlandfullytoitspositioninmedievalChristendom,eventotheextentofgrantingtheritesofcoronationandunctiontoitskings.TheDeclarationof

ArbroathwasintendedtopresentapictureofabaronageunitedinitsdemandforrecognitionofBruce’skingship.Itisironicthat,virtuallycoincidentwiththesendingofthisdocument,thereemergesintothepartiallightaconspiracyagainstthatkingship,knownastheSoulesConspiracy.HistoryhasbeensothoroughlyrewrittenbyRobert’sadmirersthatscantrecord

survivesofoppositiontotheBrucemonarchy.YetweknowfromEnglishsourcesthatsuchopposition–forexamplethecontinuedMacDougallandMacSweenactivityinArgyllandKnapdale–wassignificantandoftensponsoredbytheEnglishgovernment.Legitimacywasaverystrongclaimtokingship,anditisnotsurprisingthatsupportfortheBalliolclaimpersisted.In

1320,aglimpseisaffordedofthestrengthoflegitimistoppositiontoRobert,andasenseofthepotentialforinstabilitywhichexistedintherealmofthehero-king.Untilrecentlythe

collectionbyforceoflords’privatesealsforappendingtotheDeclarationofArbroathwasconsideredtobeaprincipalcauseoftheconspiracy.MichaelPenmanhoweverhastraceditsorigins

backto1318,andidentifiedothercauses:aweaknessintheBruceregimeafterdefeatinIrelandandapplicationofrenewedpapalsanctions;theeffortsofEdwardIItoeffectregimechangeinScotlandthroughhissponsorshipofEdwardBalliolasanalternativecandidateforkingship;failureoftheBrucelandsettlementinthesouthwesttoplaceasinglestronglordincontrolofthe

chieftainsofGallowayandtheformerBalliolretainers;andexclusionfromroyalpatronageofBalliolandComynretainerswhohaddefectedtoRobert’ssideandexpectedtoberewardedwithtitles,landsandgrants.Chroniclesarefairly

consistentastowhowasinvolvedintheplot:themagnateWilliamSoules;Agnes,wifeofearlMaliseofStrathearn;theprominent

knightsSirDavidBrechinandSirRogerMowbray;andtheminorknightsSirGilbertMalherbeandSirJohnLogy.TothislistBarbouraddsRichardBroune,asquire.Therearemanypuzzlingfeaturestotheconspiracy.Barbourclaimsthatitwasrevealedtotheauthoritiesby‘acertainlady’–usuallytakentomeanthecountessofStrathearn–whereasanothersourcestatesthatitwas

MurdochMenteithwhoinformedtheregime.Barbouralsorelates,improbably,thattheconspiratorsintendedtoinstallWilliamSoulesasking.ConspiracyinfavourofBalliolandComyninterestsishowevervastlymorelikely.ItisremarkablehowmanyofthemalcontentshadComynwivesormothers.CountessAgnesofStrathearnwasadaughterofAlexanderComyn,EarlofBuchan;so

toowerethemothersofWilliamSoulesandDavidBrechin,andthewivesofGilbertd’Umfraville,earlofAngusandPatrickearlofMarchandDunbar–allofwhomwere,toagreaterorlesserdegree,involvedintheplot.42AlthoughSoules’fatherhadbeenaCompetitorfortheScottishthronein1286,theSoulesinteresthadneverbeencanvassedasa

seriousalternativetotheBrucemonarchy.Furthermore,hadWilliamSoulesbeenthefocusforrevolt,hewouldmostcertainlyhavesufferedexecutionwhenfoundguilty,whereashewasmerelyimprisonedforlife.MostlikelytheconspiracyaimedtoreplaceRobertwithEdwardBalliol,thesonofKingJohn,whosubsequently,in1324,wasinvitedtoEnglandand

whoseclaimtotheScottishthronewasaccordedfullrecognitionbytheEnglishking.Inthespringof1320the

arrestsweremade.SouleswascapturedinBerwick,wherehehadbeenassemblinghisfollowers,suggestingthatexecutionoftheplotwasimminent.Penmandoesnotruleoutthepossibilityofanopenconfrontationbytherebels,a

battleorindeedashortcampaign,culminatinginthesurrenderofSoules’360liveriedfollowersinBerwickin1320.InAugust,attheBlackParliamentatScone,ashowtrialwasheld,theleadingconspirators–thecountess,SoulesandMenteith–admittingtheirguilt.Menteith,theinformer,wasacquitted;Soulesandthecountesswerebothsentencedtolifeimprisonment.Brechin,

Malherbe,LogyandBrounewereallsentencedtobedraggedbyhorsesandbeheaded.RogerMowbrayhaddiedbeforethetrialcommenced,buthiscorpsewascarriedintocourtonalitterandmadetostandtrial–afactomittedbyBarbour.Thereasonforthismacabreproceedingwasthatforfeitureoflandscouldonlybepronouncedoverthebodyoftheconvict,andthusthe

presenceofthecorpseenabledRoberttoclaimMowbray’slands.Robertsparedthecorpsemutilation,andpermittedburial,yetthisanxietytoseizethedeadman’sestatesrevealsapettyorgraspingsidetohischaracter.PatrickGrahamandfourotherswereacquittedinthetrial;AlexanderMowbray,alsoreportedtobeinvolvedintheplot,fledtoEnglandtoavoid

trial.SuppressionoftheconspiracymayhavecostRobertdearlyintermsofpublicaffection.Barbourshowsgreataffectionfor‘goodSirDavyofBrechin’andsadnessathisexecution;hehasSirIngramdeUmfravilleleaveScotland,disgustedandgrievingforBrechin.UmfravilleismorelikelytohavefledScotlandinfearofhislife,sincemembersofhisfamilywere

involvedintheconspiracy.Thesemaybereflectionsofnoblerevulsionagainsttheexecutions.ThatRobertweatheredthestormmustbedowntothehandlingofthecrisis,andtohisaccumulationofsufficientsupporttowithstandattacksfromBalliollegitimists.Oneofthemainfactors

thatpermittedRobertsuchcontrolofhisnobilitywasthefactthatduringhislongwar

toestablishhimselfaskinghehaddestroyedvirtuallyalltheprivatefortificationsinScotland,denyingthearistocracytheluxuryofremaininguncommittedtohiscause,andplacingthemathismercy.AlltheauthoritiesagreeupontheconservatismofRobertIwithrespecttohisanxietytopreservethetitlesandpropertyrightsoftheScottishnobility.Fewofthegreataristocraticlineageshad

supportedtheBruceclaimfrom1306,theprincipalexceptionsbeingMalcolm,EarlofLennoxandAlan,EarlofMenteith.ToalargeextentthestoryofthereignishowScotland’sgreatfamiliesbecamereconciledtotheBrucemonarchy.Somehewonovertohissidebypersuasion,othershecompelledbythreatsandintimidation.William,EarlofRoss,hehadatfirstto

intimidatein1308,thoughfromthenRossremainedafaithfulally.Malise,EarlofStrathearn,wascompelledearlytodohomage.MalisethendefectedtotheEnglishanddefendedPerthagainstRobertin1312and1313,and,thoughhewasallowedtoliveinpeace,heappearstohavebeendivestedofhislandsandtitleandhissoninstalledasearlinhisstead.David,EarlofAtholl,

defectedtoRobert’ssidein1312;Duncan,EarlofFife,in1315.SinceDuncanhadlefthiswifeinEnglishcustody,aspecialtailziehadtobedevisedonthisoccasiontoensurethattherewouldalwaysbeanearlofFife;itwas,afterall,theearlofFifewhobycustomledthemonarchtothethroneontheoccasionofenthronement.Robertdidnotgenerally

raiseuppretendersto

earldomswheretheearlsidedagainsthim.Wehaveseenhow,attheparliamentofDundeeinOctober1313,Robertissuedanultimatumthat,afteroneyear,anyAnglo-ScotswhohadnotcometohispeacecouldnotexpecttoinheritinScotland.AyearlateritwasdulyproclaimedattheparliamentofCambuskennethinNovember1314thatScotswho‘hadnotcomeintohis

peaceandfaith,althoughoftencalledandlawfullyawaited,bedisinheritedforeveroftheirlandsandholdingsandalltheirotherestatewithinthekingdomofScotland,andbeheldasenemiesofthekingandkingdom,deprivedofallvindicationofheritablerightoranyotherrighthereafterforthemselvesortheirheirsforever.’RoberthadrefusedtodisinheritMar,Dunbar,

AngusorAthollwhentheseearlschosetostayloyaltoEdwardII.Duringthirtyyearsofwarfare,Robertinonlytwocaseswasdriventodisinheritearls:AtholldesertedRobertontheveryeveofBannockburn,andasaconsequencehecouldhardlydootherwisethandisinherithiminNovember1314.ThetitleoftheUmfravilleearlsofAngus,whofoughtconsistentlyagainstRobert,

wasnotinterferedwithuntiltheveryendofthereignwhenRobertgrantedittoSirJohnStewartofBunkle.Justastherewasno

wholesaleintrusionofmenoflowerstatusintotheancientearldoms,sotherewasaminimumofinterferenceintheirstructure.Robertdismemberedoneearldomandcreatedoneother.HehadalreadydestroyedthelandsoftheearldomofBuchanwith

fireandswordwhentheComynearlsfailedinthemaleline,withthedeathwithoutchildrenin1308ofJohnComyn,ConstableofScotland.Thereweretwoco-heiresses,niecesofJohnComyn;one,thewifeofJohnofRoss,cameintohalftheestate,butsincehersister,theotherco-heiress,wasoutsidetheking’speace–shewasinfactthewifeoftheking’senemyHenryBeaumont–

Roberttookadvantageofthesituationtodismemberanearldomwhichwasafocusofbitteropposition,andheparcelledoffitslandsandappurtenancestohisfaithfulfollowers:SirRobertKeith,SirGilbertHay,ArchibaldDouglasandothers.TheearldomwhichRobertcreatedwasthatofMorayin1312,forhisnephewandchieflieutenantThomasRandolph.Itcomprisedvariouslands

heldbythecrown,includingBadenochandpartsofLochaber,whichhadbeenheldbythemurderedJohnComyn.Robertistobefaultedfordiminishingtheestateofthecrown,yet,giventhatthekingwasexpectedtorewardhisfaithfulfollowers,thisisscarcelytobewonderedat.Theearldomwascreated,afterall,forhisownclosestcompanionandhischiefcommander,aman

towhomheowedaverygreatdebt.AccordinglyRandolphreceivedmanygeneroustitles:thelordshipofNithsdalefromabout1306,theearldomofMorayfrom1312,theoldBrucelordshipofAnnandalefromthesametime,andthelordshipofManin1316,arewardforpromisedserviceinIreland.TheIsleofManwassubsequentlyregrantedtohimin1324,intermsthatwere

spectacularlycompleteintheiralienationofroyalrights.EvenpleasofthecrownandadministrationofroyaljusticeonManweremadeovertohim.Intermsofthelargessehereceivedfromthecrown,MorayeclipsedevenEdwardBruce:Edward’searldomofCarrick,grantedin1313,carriednocomparableprivileges.Moray’spre-eminentpositionamongthenoblesofScotland

wasundoubtedlyanimportantfactorinmotivatingEdwardtoseekakingdomofhisowninIreland.Forfeituresofwarprovided

Robertwithenormousreservesofpatronagewithwhichtorewardfaithfulfollowersandtemptrecalcitrantnoblestocometohispeace.SeizuresofthepropertyofsuchpowerfulmagnatesasJohnBalliol,JohnComynofBadenoch,

and,aswehaveseen,JohnComyn,EarlofBuchan,gavethekingvastestates,privileges,titlesandrightstodisposeof.A‘dangerousmess’ofclaimsandcounter-claimsexisted–especiallyinthesouth-westofScotland–inthewakeoftwodecadesofwarfare.ThechiefflawinRobert’spost-warlandsettlementwashisfailuretoappointasinglecontrollinginterestinthisdeeply

troubledregion,overtheformerBalliollandsinGallowayandWigtownshire.JohnBalliol’slordshipofGallowaywasgrantedfirsttoEdwardBruceand,followingEdward’sdeathin1318,thekinggrantedthechiefcastleofthatlordship,Buittle,toJamesDouglas.DouglasalsoreceivedBalliol’spropertyofLauder.RobertBoydreceivedKilmarnockandRobertStewart,theking’s

grandson,gainedformerBalliollandsinCunningham.InthefarwestofScotland,RobertI’sexpulsionoftheMacDougallsallowedhimtorewardJohnofMenteith–towhomRobertgavetheMacSweenterritoryofKnapdale–andtherelativesofSirNeilCampbell–ArthurCampbellreceivedDunstaffnageCastleandLorn,andDuncanCampbellwasgivenLoudonand

StevenstoninAyrshire.ButRobert’smainalliesinthewestweretheMacDonalds,ledbyAngusÓg.Robertprobablyaccordedhimmanygrantsandprivileges,butfewareextant.AnguswasprobablyconfirmedinhispossessionofIslayandthetraditionalMacDonaldlandsinKintyre,andhewasrewardedwiththeformerComynlordshipofLochaber,MorvernandArdnamurchan,

alongwithDurorandGlencoe.FormerMacDougalllandsofMullandTireeweregrantedtoAlexanderofIslay,whowassuccessortoAngusÓg.PerhapstheMacDonaldsreceivedmanymoreterritoriesthatweknownothingof,butperhapsnot,forRobertseemstohavebeenconsciousofthedangerofraisingupover-mightysubjectsinthewest.Manylandsthatmighthavebeen

grantedtotheMacDonaldswenttoothers,andRoberthimselfretainedDunavertyCastleinhisownhands,andbuiltanothercastleatTarbert,increasingroyalpoweranddiminishingthatoftheGaelicclans.Nevertheless,MacDonaldsupportforRobertprovidedthefoundationoftheireventualaccessiontopower,forthe‘lordshipoftheIsles’emergedwithinafewyears

ofRobert’sdeath.AlongwithMorayandthe

MacDonalds,therewereothersparticularlyfavoured.ThefamilyofthehereditarystewardofScotlandwasrepeatedlyandlavishlyrewarded.WaltertheStewardreceivedin1315thehandinmarriageofMarjorie,thenRobert’sonlychild.HealsoreceivedthebaronyofBathgateandmostoftheComynbaronyof

Dalswinton.Hissonandhisrelatives,theStewartsofBunkle,alsobenefitedfromroyallargesse.JamesDouglastoowasgrantedmanyforfeitures:Buittle,Lauderdale,Cockburn,Bedruleandothers.Besidesrewardinghisleadingcommanders,Robertalsoremuneratedthosewhohadshownfaithinhimatanearlystage:thesmallgroupofearlysupporterswho

embracedhiscausein1306andthosewhosharedhisoutlawexistenceinGallowayandCarrickin1307–8.TheyincludedChristopherSeton,NeilCampbellandSimonFraser,eachofwhomwasrewardedwithmarriagetoasisteroftheking.SirRobertKeith,themarischal;SirGilbertHay,thehereditaryconstableofScotland;andSirRobertBoydallreceivedspecialmarksofroyalfavour.

Onthebackofahugelysuccessfulforeignwar,RobertIdidnotperhapsneedtobeaconsummatemanagerofroyalpatronage.Neverthelesstherewasnothingrandomorunpredictableaboutthedistributionoffavours,titlesandprivileges,andthosewhosupportedtheregimewererewarded,oftenhandsomely,andatthelong-termexpenseofthecrown.TheEnglandof

EdwardIIfurnishesastarkcontrast,whereaccesstothecornucopiaofroyalfavourwascontrolledbyanarrowcliqueofgreedyroyalfavourites,andwhereagrowingsenseofinsecuritycharacterisedrelationsbetweenmagnatesandcrown.Itisremarkablehowthe

royalbureaucracy,shatteredbydefeatin1296,wasrevived,firstbytheguardians,andthenbyKing

Robert.Thewholeoftheexistingroyalarchive–therollsuponwhichcopiesofoutgoinglettersweremade–appearstohavebeencarriedoffbyEdwardI.ButRobertwillhavebeenabletocalluponsomeofAlexanderIII’schancerypersonneltocompensateforthis,amongthemAbbotBernard.BernardservedRobertaschancellorfrom1310or1311to1328.Forthelastyearofthereign,

WalterTwynhamtookovertheoffice.Chancellorandchamberlainco-operatedclosely,and,becauseofthesmallsizeofbothbureaucracies,thereappearstohavebeengreatflexibilityintheiroperation.Aregisterofdeedswaskeptonrollsofparchment,and,thoughallbutoneoftheoriginalrollswerelostwiththefounderingofashipin1660,muchoftheinformationtheycontained

hasnowbeenrecoveredfromothersources.Robert’schartershavebeenpainstakinglycollectedfromscatteredsourcesandeditedbyProfessorDuncan,forgeriesdiscoveredanddiscarded.Likethechancery,thechamber,theroyalfinancialapparatus,musthavebeenfullyrestoredandfunctioningaccordingtousageofAlexanderIII’stimebyabout1309,whenthe

BrucecourtwaspossessedofsufficientgravitasandcashtoconductrelationswiththekingofFrance,toentertainthreeEnglishearls,andtostage-manageageneralcounciloftheScottishKirk.Theexchequerrollof1326–27showsthatrestorationofthechamberwasconservative,aswemightexpect.Nevertheless,theresuscitationoftheapparatusoftheAlexandrine

bureaucracywasatremendousfeat,andthesingleaccomplishmentthatunderpinnedmostofRobert’sotherachievements.Regulatingtheeconomy

wasofcoursefarbeyondthecompetenceofanymedievalmonarch,yettheactivitiesofkingshadprofoundeconomicrepercussions.Robert’sachievementofkeepingtheEnglishlargelyoutofthecountrywillnothave

protectedScotlandfromtheilleffectsofthemovementoffriendlyarmies,ofteneverybitasharmfulasforeigninvasion.Duringthe1310sScotlandwasboundtohavebeenaffectedbythesamemeteorologicaldisastersastherestofEurope:shewillnothaveescapedthefamineandmayhavebeenparticularlybadlyaffectedbydiseasesofsheepin1315–17andofcattlefrom1318to

1322.InthesedifficultcircumstancesspoilsofsuccessfulforeignwarwillhavehelpedsecureRobertonhisthrone,butitisimpossibletosaywhethertheinfluxoflootandtheransomsextortedfromthenorthofEnglandeasedtheplightofthepoorinanyrespect,orwhethertherewasinanysenseageneralenrichmentofScotland.Ariseinthepricesoffoodandeverydaycommoditiesmight

indicateaninfluxofbullionintothecountry,butthereisinsufficientdataonthebehaviourofpricesatthisstage.Agreatdealofcashmustalsohaveleftthecountry,muchofitforthepocketsofIrishkingsandmagnatestopurchasetheiralliance.Muchtoowasspentonimportsoffoodstuffsandwarmaterials–thecargoesofthethirteengreatcogsof1315willhavecomeata

heavycost.Kingswere,however,

expectedto‘liveofftheirown’,toprovidefortheroyalhouseholdoutofroyalestatesandcustomaryincomes,andonlyexceptionallytoburdentheirsubjectswithdemandsfortaxation.Financialrecordsoftheking’sincomeexistonlyfortheveryendofthereignhowever:thehalfoftheexchequeryear1327andthewholeof1328and1329.This

representsapartialsnapshotofroyalfinances;whatislackingisafilmshowingtheirdevelopment,anditisimpossibletoknowwhetherRobert’sincomeswereincreasingordecreasing.Exportdutiesonwoolandhideswereamajorsourceofrevenue,theking’s‘greatcustom’broughtin£1,851in1328.OnethirdofthiscamefromBerwick,andtheportsofEdinburgh,Aberdeenand

Dundeecontributedsuccessivelysmalleramounts.Townsproducedlesserincomestoo,butratherthancollectthesethroughroyalofficialsinlargetowns,Robertfarmedouttheprofitsoftheburghtothecitizens.In1319heallowedtheprofitsoftheburghofAberdeentobeheld‘infee-farm’bythecitizens,and,inreturnforanannualpaymentof£213,allrevenuesduetothekingwere

waived.Tollsonproduceenteringandleavingtheburgh,feesandlevieswerehenceforthcollectedbythecitizensandusedforcommunalprojects.Largertownstooweregrantedfee-farmcharters:in1320royalprofitsofBerwickweresoldinthiswaybythecrownfor500marks(£333);in1329thoseofEdinburghwerecommutedfor£34.Littlecansafelybeinferredfromthe

differingratesofcommutation;muchwillhavedependeduponroyalwhim,andweareuncertainastowhethertheseagreementswerebutapartofwiderbargainsstruckbetweencrownandburghs.Thiswasgoodfortheburghs,whichsufferedlessfromroyalinterferenceandenjoyedmoreself-government,butnotsogoodforthemonarchywhichhadsettledforan

annualfixedsum.Profitsofthetwenty-sixroyalburghscameto£1,133in1328.RobertcreatedanewburghatTarbert,thenarrowisthmusbetweenKintyreandKnapdale,whichappearstohavebeenaneconomicsuccesswhilehisreignlasted.Therehealsobuiltalargecastle,costinginexcessof£450atEastLochTarbert,andhadatrackcutforthehaulageofgalleystoWest

LochTarbert,wherehebuiltasmallerfortification.ClearlyRoberthopedtounderpinastrategicconsolidationofroyalpowerinthewestbytheestablishmentofaprosperousurbancommunity.Medievalmonarchshad,

finally,tomanagerelationswithotherkingdomsandcommunities.Sincetheydominatethehistoryofthereign,relationswithEnglandherselfarenotconsideredin

thisbriefsurvey.RobertreopenedrelationswithNorwayin1312bytheTreatyofInvernessatatimewhenthemusteringofgalleyfleetsforwarintheIrishSeabecameofcrucialimportance.OnewonderswhetherhereceiveddirectassistancefromtheNorwegianterritoriesofShetlandandOrkneyforhisassaultsontheIsleofManandUlster;howeverthatmaybe,

harmoniousrelationswithNorwaywillhaveservedhimwellwhenheneededtoassemblethegalleysoftheHebrides.Francewas,ofcourse,potentiallyScotland’smostpowerfulally,andin1309and1326Robertpursued,asbesthecould,thealreadytime-honouredtraditionofthe‘auldalliance’,cultivatingFrancewhenEnglandthreatened.France,however,wasbut

rarelyavailabletoRobertasanally.Theearlyfourteenthcenturywascharacterisedbyco-operationbetweenFranceandEnglandagainsttheirsmallernorthernneighbours,FlandersandScotland.IntheDeclarationofArbroath‘theScottishnobles’remindthepopebitterlythatthelargerkingdomsco-operatedtocrushsmallercountries:‘ThenrousetheChristianPrinceswhoforfalsereasons

pretendthattheycannotgotheHolyLandbecauseofwarstheyhavewiththeirneighbours.Theotherreasonthatpreventsthemisthatinwarringontheirsmallerneighbourstheyanticipateareadierreturnandweakerresistance.’However,Robertwas

remarkablyfortunateinthe1310sthatthecountofFlandersatthistimewassufficientlyindependentof

Francetotoleratetheco-operationofScottish,FlemishandGermanprivateersinrobbingEnglishwoolships.ThisindeedwasRobert’smostnotable‘foreignpolicy’enterprise:co-operationnotwithpowerfulprincesbutwithsmallercommunitiesand‘irregulars’intheNorthSeathatallowedlifelines–accesstoforeignmarketsforScottishproduceandimportsoffoodandmaterial–

makingpossiblethemaintenanceofScotland’sindependenceinspiteofEnglishblockade.Itisnotgoingtoofartosaythat,withouttheFlemings,RobertwouldnothavesucceededinwinningScotland’sindependence,andwhenin1323FrenchinterestscametocontrolFlanders,RobertwiselymadeatrucewithEngland.RobertmayhaveseenhisrelationswithIreland

inthesamelight:anallianceofsmallercommunities–theGaelickinshipgroups–and‘irregulars’–disaffectedAnglo-Normanlords–againstthemajorplayers–thelordshipofIreland,andtheAnglo-Irishlords.Inthewest,however,thevitalcommercialaxiswaslacking.Irelandprovidedsupplies,andperhapssomewarmaterials,butnotinthesamequantitiesasFlanders,and

certainlynothingthatjustifiedtheenormousScottishcommitmentrepresentedbytheinvasionofEdwardBruceandtheinvolvementofMorayandRoberthimselfin1317.TheIrishSeaandNorthSeatheatresdifferedinthattheformerreturnsweremeagreandtheoutlayvast.WhatissurprisingisthatRobertdidnotabandonhiswesternaspirationsin1318,butreturnedtothemin1327

andagainin1328,asisrelatedinthefollowingchapter.Robert’s‘artofkingship’

haditslimitations.TheBrucecourtwasneveratanystageacentreofgreatartorculturesofaraswecantell;therewasneitheranEdwardianoverhauloflegislation,noranAngevindevelopmentofadministrationsuchasoccurredinthereignsofgreatEnglishkings.Manyof

Robert’sgrantsofextensiveprivilegestonoblesandreligioushousesreducedroyalgovernment,impoverisheditandultimatelytendedtowardsweakeningthemonarchy.Somemedievalkings,suchasEdwardI,arerememberedasgreatbuilders;Robert,bycontrast,wasagreatdestroyerofcastles,and,besidesTarbert,builtlittlethatweknowof.TheSoules

ConspiracyandtheBlackParliamentcastthereigninaslightlysinisterlight.Victoryovertheinvaderdidnotexpungeearlierloyalties,andRobertlivedwithausurper’sinsecurityandsuspicion.Recoveryofthekingdom;repulseofEnglishinvasionsin1311,1314and1322;theraidingofEngland;andtheattemptedconquestofIrelandmustallhaveenormouslydisruptedeveryaspectoflife

inScotland.Nevertheless,againstthisturbulentbackground,Robert’sgovernmentalachievementsareimpressive:revivaloflocalgovernmentthroughbolsteringthepowerofmagnatesandbaronage;restoringthemachineryofjusticethroughsheriffsandjusticiars;renewalofforeignrelationswithFranceandNorway;andwinningroundthepapacyfromapositionof

completealienationtoapositionwhereitwaspreparedtograntnotonlyrelieffromexcommunication,butrighttofullcoronationtoScottishkings.Inadditiontothese,Robertsucceededinachieving–albeitforashorttime–thatkeytoScotland’ssecurityandprosperity,peacewithEngland.

11EndgamewithEngland,anddeath(1323–29)

Wehaveseentheenormous

difficultythatRobertIexperiencedintryingtoconverthisstringofimpressivemilitaryvictoriesintodiplomaticandpoliticaltriumph.In1323,withthethirteen-yeartruceofBishopsthorpe,itseemsthatRobertgaveupforthepresenttheideaofforcingtheEnglishkingtoconcededefeatandyieldrecognitionofhissovereignrightinScotland.Yetaftertwenty-

sevenyearsofwar,thetrucecouldhardlyusherinaneweraofgenialityinAnglo-Scottishrelations.Contactsbetweenthekingdomscontinuedtobefrostyatbest,andoccasionallyviolent.Atsea,EnglishmarinerscontinuedtoharassandattacktheScotsenroutetoFlanders,andScotsandFlemingswhoputinatEnglishportswereilltreatedandmightbekilled.An

appallingmassacreoccurredwhenaFlemishvessel,thePelarymwasseizedbyEnglishsailors,bearingacargoworth£2,000.Scotsonboard,includingpilgrims,womenandchildrenwerekilled.In1324EdwardIIwrotetoEdwardBalliol,whowastomanyScotsthelegitimateheirtotheScottishthrone,invitinghimtocometoEnglandwiththeobviousintentionofunderminingthe

Bruceregime.Ballioldidnottakeuptheinvitationuntil1331;however,thismovewasclearlyinspiredbythebirthofanheirtoRobertthatsameyear.Bothsidescontinuedtolobbythepapalcourt,andin1323amissionledbyMoraysucceededinhavingthePopeaddressRobertforthefirsttimeasKingofScots.Contrarytothetruce,EdwardIIwrotetothepopeon24September1325

urginghimnottorevoketheexcommunicationofRobertBruce,andwroteagaintothankhimwhenthepopehaddonehisbidding.Inretaliation,theScotsmadeborderforaysinviolationofthetruceandmountedanocturnalattackonCarlisleCastleinthespringof1325.Thoughhumiliatedby

ScotlandandincreasinglythreatenedbyFrance,EdwardIIofEnglandwas,in

domesticterms,attheheightofhispowerinthe1320s.HehadcowedoppositionfromthebaronsoftheWelshMarch;hehadusedHarclaytoseeofftheLancastrianthreatin1322;andthefollowingyearhehaddispatchedHarclayhimself,fortreasonablenegotiationswiththeScots.WealthfloodedintotheEnglishroyalcoffersfromconfiscatedlands,and,opposition

vanquished,unpopularexchequerreformswereforceduponthecountrytofurtherincreasethetaxyield.Anarrowcoterieoffavouritescontrolledallaccesstothekingandtoroyalpatronage.ThetwoHughDespensers,fatherandson,RobertBaldockandEdmundfitzAlan,EarlofArundel,betweenthemmonopolisedroyalpatronageandterrorisedallopposition.

Theregimewasdeeplyunpopularandoppressive,anditsfailuretodefeatScotlandaddedtotheopprobriuminwhichitwasheld.EdwardIIwasnomore

adeptatmanagingrelationswithFrancethanhewaswithScottishaffairs.RelationsbetweenEnglandandFrancedeterioratedmarkedlyin1324asaresultoftheaccessiontotheFrenchthroneof

aggressiveCharlesIVin1322,adisputeoverthejudicialrightstothetownofSaint-Sardos,andthedemandthattheEnglishkingperformhomageforhisFrenchfiefofGascony.Seeinghischance,Robertbeganpressingmoreaggressivelyforafinalpeace,andissuedasternwarning.AchroniclerparaphrasesRobert’swords:‘Manyofmymenhaveagreedtothesetruceswithdifficulty.

WhenceIfearthatifpeaceisrefusedImaybeunabletokeepmyword,forIcannotalonerestrainthefuryofaragingthrong.’NegotiationstookplaceatYorkinNovember1324,butaccordingtothisaccountRobert’sdemandsbythistimeincludedaclaimtoperambulationofthemarches,returnoftheformerBrucebaronyofWrittleinEssexandreturnoftheStone

ofDestiny.HealsoproposedaroyalmarriagebetweenadaughterofhisandEdwardII’syoungsonEdward–laterEdwardIII–tosealaperpetualpeace.EdwardII,however,refusedtocountenancetheseproposals:

Forhow,withoutprejudicetoourCrown,canwesurrendertherightwehaveinScotland,whichfromthecomingoftheBritonstothecomingoftheSaxonsanddowntoourowntimeisknownalwaysto

havebeensubjecttoourancestors?…TheycannotclaimanyrightintheMarch,ofwhichtheyneverhadpossession…RobertBruceclaimstheinheritancewhichmyfatheroncetookfromhimformanifestcrime…Weshouldmakelittledifficultyaboutreturningthestone,iftheirotherdemandswerenotbeyondallreason…ThemarriagewhichRobertofferswedonotagreetoatpresent,sincewethinkthat,asoffered,itisunsuitableforus…Theirdemandsaretoodamagingtous,theyshallreturnhomeunsatisfied.

OnrejectionofhisdrafttreatyRobertneverthelessagreed,showingimmenseforbearance,thatthetruceshouldcontinuetobeobserved.ButwhentheWarofSaint-SardosbrokeoutbetweenEnglandandFrancein1324,RobertseizedtheopportunitytoratchetuppressureontheEnglishandhenegotiatedatreatyofmutualassistancewithFrance,threateningEngland

withwarontwofronts.ThepactisknownastheTreatyofCorbeil,sealedon26April1326andratifiedbytheStirlingparliamentofJuly.ByiteachkingdomundertooktogivemilitaryaidtotheotherintheeventofeithergoingtowarwithEngland.ItincludedclausesforbiddingeitherkingdomtomakeaseparatepeacewithEngland.RelationswithEnglandhad

becomestrainedtoapointwherearenewalofthewarhadbecomealmostinevitable.ButarevolutioninEnglandintervenedbeforewarmaterialised.TheleaderoftheEnglishmarcherbarons,RogerMortimerofWigmore,hadbeenimprisonedbyEdwardIIintheTowerofLondon,butinAugust1323,hisgaolershavingbeendruggedwithasleepingpotion,heescapedto

France.QueenIsabella,whohadbrokeredpeacewithFrancefollowingtheWarofSaint-Sardos,usedtheopportunityofadiplomaticmissiontoFrancetoescapetheEnglishcourtforthatofherbrother,CharlesIV.BeforeherdisaffectionbecameovertEdwardsenthisheirtoFrance–thefutureEdwardIII–toperformhomageforhisFrenchfiefsinhisstead.Hefeared,with

everyjustification,thatifhehimselfleftEnglandhisfavouriteswouldbeover-thrown.AttheFrenchcourt,IsabellaandMortimercommencedanopenliaisonandrefusedtoreturntheyoungEdwardtoEngland.InFrance,andlaterinHainhault,acountyinmodernBelgium,agrowingbandofEnglishémigréscoalescedandplottedthedownfallofEdwardII.

Isabellaadoptedwidow’sweedsasthoughherhusbandhaddied,refusingtoreturnuntiltraitorstothekingandrealmhadbeenremovedfromEdward’scompanyandpunished.HenryBeaumont,whoseclaimtoScottishestateshadbeensweptasidebythetruceofBishopsthorpe,joinedher;sotoodidEdmundofWoodstock,theking’shalf-brotherandearlofKent.InSeptember1326

MortimerandIsabellainvadedEnglandwithasmallforcespearheadedby700men-at-armsledbyJehandeHainault.AmongthoseinEnglandwhoflockedtoIsabella’ssidewereothersoftheDisinherited,ThomasWakeandHenryPercywho,likeBeaumont,feltthatEdward’speacewithScotlandhadcheatedthemofestatesandtitles.ThetyrannousregimeofEdward

IIcollapsedalmostwithoutawhimper.TheLondonmobriotedandmurderedseveralprominentcourtiersincludingBaldock,andinNovemberEdwardIIhimselfwaspursuedbyMortimerandothers,asachroniclerelates,intoWales:

lesttheyshouldembarkthereandsailacrosstoIreland,theretocollectanarmyandoppresstheEnglishastheyhaddonebefore.

AlsotheaforesaidlordsfearedthatifthekingcouldreachIrelandhemightcollectanarmythereandcrossoverintoScotland,andbythehelpoftheScotsandtheIrishtogetherhemightattackEngland.Foralready,alarmedatthecomingtoEnglandoftheFrenchandsomeEnglishwiththeQueen,thekinghadbeensoill-advisedastowritetotheScots,freelygivinguptothemthelandandrealmofScotland,tobeheldindependentlyofanyKingofEngland,and(whichwasfarworse)bestoweduponthemwithScotlandanda

greatpartofthenorthernlandsofEnglandlyingnexttothem,onconditionthattheyshouldassisthimagainstthequeen,hersonandtheirconfederates.

ThereisnoevidencethatEdwardIImadeanysuchoffertoRobert,yetEdwardclearlysoughtsafetyinthewest,andthroughDonald,heirtotheearldomofMar,whoresidedattheEnglishcourtandwasaclose

confidentoftheEnglishking,hehadapossiblecontactwithRobert.EdwardIIwassooncapturedandimprisonedbythequeen’ssupporters,andinJanuary1327thereoccurredinEnglandastrangeand,fortheMiddleAges,rareevent,thedepositionofalivingmonarch.Adeputationofchurchmenandnoblesrenouncedhomageonbehalfofthekingdom,andinabriefceremonyEdwardIIwas

triedanddeposed,withthelossofScotlandcitedasoneofmanyreasonsforhisinadequacy.HisheirwascrownedEdwardIIIon1February1327.Asmightbeexpected,the

formerkingbecameafocusforrestorationplotsandescapeattempts.TheKingofScotsmayhavepreferredtheancienregimeofhisoldadversary,withwhomhehadatreaty,totheunpredictable

andillegalregimeofIsabellaandMortimeranditsDisinheritedsupporters.OntheverynightofEdwardIII’scoronation,theScotsattemptedtocapturebysurprisethecriticallyimportantbordercastleofNorham.Robert’snephew,DonaldofMar,whohadbeentakenprisonerandrearedattheEnglishcourt,wasdeeplyattachedtoEdwardII.Capturedin1306whenonly

fouryearsofage,hehadin1315refusedtoberepatriatedinaccordancewiththeexchangeofprisonersthatfollowedupontheBattleofBannockburn.DonaldwasthenassociatedwiththeelderDespenserinfutileeffortstoresistthequeen’sinvasionofEngland,and,followingthetriumphofIsabellaandMortimer,hefledtoScotland.Robertreceivedhimbackwithcordiality,and

Donaldwasinvestedwithhisearldom.However,hedidnotabandonthecauseofEdwardII.OnechronicledescribesMaras‘hopingtorescue[EdwardII]fromcaptivityandrestorehimtohiskingdom,asformerly,withthehelpoftheScotsandofcertainadherentsthedeposedkingstillhadinEngland’.MarsentagentstotheWelshMarchestostiruptroubleforthenewEnglishregime,and

hemayhavemadeheadwayinpersuadingRoberttosupporthisplanstorestoreEdwardII.IsabellaandMortimerhadeveryintentionofmakingwaronScotlandwhentheywereready.ButinMarch1327,towardofffurtherScottishattacks,theyappointedenvoystotreatforafinalpeaceinYorkandconfirmedthetruceofBishopsthorpe.Atthesametimehowever‘precautionary’

measureswereputinplace.AmusterwasplannedforNewcastleon18May,torestrainpossibleScottishaggression,andfleetswerepreparedonbothNorthandIrishSeas.IsabellaappealedforhelptoJehandeHainault,whohadprovidedmercenariesfortheirinvasionofEnglandthepreviousautumn,andtowardstheendofMaytheHainaultersreturnedtoEngland.Among

themwasJehanleBelofLiège,whokeptarecordofhisexperiencesinhisnarrative,LesVrayesChroniques.JustasScottishenvoysarrivedinYorktotreatofthepeace,furtherwritsofarraywereissuedtomusteranEnglisharmy.Thenegotiations,intendedonlytobuytimefortheEnglishtoprepareforwar,soonbrokedown.OntheirdeparturetheScottishenvoysnailedtothe

doorofStPeter’schurchinStangatethefollowingcurioussatiricalcommentonEnglishdressandcustoms:

LongbeardheartlessPaintedhoodswitlessGaycoatsgracelessMakeEnglandthriftless.

Patienceatanend,Moray,DouglasandMarstruckdeepintoEnglandinthemiddleofJune.Movingunpredictablyandwithgreatspeedthe

ScottishveteranraidersburntandplunderedvariouslocationsinthebishopricofDurham.On15JulytheEnglishhost

arrivedatDurham.LeBelgivesagraphicaccountoftheWeardalecampaignof1327,amadcapchaseaftertheraidersthroughbogsandforests,barrenhillsidesandswollenriversthatlastedthreeweeks.Inthesereminiscencesherecountshis

disorientationasaforeigner,thefightingbetweentheEnglishinfantryandhiscompatriotstheHainhaulters,thediscomfortsoflifeinthefieldanddisappointmentsatthefailure,timeandagain,tobringtheScotstobattle.WhenleBelandhiscomradesfinallyencounteredtheScotson30July,theraiderswereensconcedinapositionofextraordinarynaturalstrengthinStanhope

Park,fromwhichtheycouldnotbetemptedtomoveorgivebattle.Theyhaddrovesofstolencattletoliveoffandcouldnotbestarvedintosurrender,whileleBelandhiscomradesstarvedandshiveredintherain.BeforefinallygivingtheEnglishthesliponthenightof6/7August,DouglasmountedadaringforayintotheEnglishcamp,duringwhichhecuttheguyropesoftheroyal

tent.ItistemptingtoseeinthisincidentafurtherattemptbytheScotstocapturearoyalprisonerandforcetheEnglishtoconcedeRobert’ssovereignty.MorayandDouglasturnedback,drivingagreatbootyofcattleintoScotland,andontheirwayhomemettheearlsofMarchandAngus43leadingafreshforceofraidersintoEnglandtoensurethattheenemywas

givennorespite.WellbeforeDouglasand

MorayhadcrossedintoEngland,Robert,nowaged53,himselftookanotherforceacrosstoUlster,wherehelandedatLarnearoundEaster–12April.RicharddeBurgh,theRedEarl,haddiedon29July1326.AsaresultofEdwardBruce’sinvasion–and,onesuspects,ofcontinuedScottishintervention–theearl’s

lordshipinUlsterhaddeterioratedgreatly,anditisnotsurprisingthat,onhisdeath,Robert,hisson-in-law,shouldtakepossessionofalordshipofsuchstrategicimportancetohiskingdom.AreporttothemotheroftheheirtoUlster–thiswasElisabethdeClaredeBurgh,widowofSirJohndeBurgh,theRedEarl’seldestson,andmotherofheir,WilliamdeBurgh–statedthatunlessthe

heirarrivedsoontoclaimtheearldom,themenofUlstermight‘chooseanotherlordinorderthattheymighthavemaintenance’.ThisisprobablyanobliquereferencetotheKingofScots,theonlyotherlord-abletofillthevacuumleftbytheRedEarl.Furthermore,therehadasyetbeennorevolutioninIrelandcorrespondingtothatwhichhadoccurredinEngland.JohnDarcy,EdwardII’s

justiciarofIreland,wasstillinofficeandhehadinFebruarysentaFranciscanfriarasaspecialmessengertoScotland‘tofurthercertainconfidentialbusinesstouchingthelordking’.Wecanspeculateastowhatmayhavebeenonthetable:anofferofassistanceinrestoringtheoldkingtotheEnglishthrone;detachmentoftheIrishgovernmentinDublinfromtheregimeof

IsabellaandMortimer;with,possibly,anoffertoRobertoftheearldomofUlster,orwardshipoftheheir,inreturnforaScottishinitiative.Theseatanyratewerethesortsofrumoursnoisedabroad.ItisnotonlytheEnglishchroniclesthatexpressthefearthatScots,IrishandWelshwerecombiningtoeffectarestorationoftheancienregimeinEngland.Thereporttotheheir’s

motherstatedthatRoberthadarrivedtosecureIrishco-operationforthelandingofanarmyinWaleswhichwastoattackEngland.TheIrishadministrationwaskeentoascertainwhichwaythechiefmenoftheearldomwouldjump.Atadateunspecifieditdispatchedtheseniorchanceryclerk,RogerOutlaw,priorofKilmainham,toUlster‘totreatwiththemenofUlsterandto

scrutinisetheirheartsonresistancetotheScots,enemiesandrebelsofthesaidlordking,andoncurbingtheirmaliceifitshouldhappenthattheylandthere’.ThisatanyratewasthepretextgivenforOutlaw’smissionayearlatersothatexpensescouldberecovered;wewillneverknowthetruenatureofthemission,orwhetherOutlawactuallymettheKingofScotstodiscuss

co-operationagainsttheregimeinEngland.

HowtypicalofRoberttofishinthetroubledwatersofUlsterevenwhilegravelyill.Therehasbeenmuchspeculationastothenatureofthisillness.ElisabethdeClare’sinformantseemsconfidentthatRobertwasdying:‘RobertBruceissofeebleandsofailedthathewillnotlastthatlongwithGod’shelp,becausehecannotmoveanythingexcept

histongue.’Robertwasparalysed,possiblybyastroke.Yethisconditionstilllefthimabletospeak,andthuspursuehisaimsbydiplomacy,andwarifnecessary.RobertstayedinUlsterforfourwholemonths.Perhapshewastooilltobemoved,orperhapstherewasapurposebehindhiscontinuedpresenceinUlster.Probablyhehadtoomuchrespectforpropertyrightsto

considerintrudinghimselfasearl.Neverthelessheseemstohaveeffectivelytakentheearldomintohisownhandsduringtheperiodoftheheir’sminority,1326–28,asthoughhe–andnotthekingofEngland–wereoverlord,awaitingpaymentofarelieffromtheheir.TheknightsandminorlordsofUlsterdecidednottoresisthimanditisevenpossiblethathestayedinitiallywiththe

connivanceofthejusticiarofIreland,JohnDarcy.However,JohnDarcywasforcedtofleeIrelandinMay,whenthegovernmentofIsabellaandMortimerimposedThomasfitzJohn,EarlofKildare,asthenewjusticiaron12May1327.ThenextdaythereignofEdwardIIIwasproclaimedbelatedlyandforthefirsttimeinIreland.Roberthadthentosoundoutasecondset

ofIrishofficials.Inthemeantime,on12

JulyatGlendunontheAntrimcoast,RobertmadeanagreementwiththestewardofUlster,HenrydeMandeville.Thelocationmaybesignificant:Robert’spresenceinlandswhichweregrantedinthetwelfthcenturytohisgreat-grandfather,DuncanofCarrick,mayindicatethathewasstrivingtorevivethatclaim.Robert

maynotthenhavecovetedtheearldomofUlsteritself,butwasratherpursuingtheoldclaimtotheGallowaylands,longsinceabsorbedbythatearldom.Thatwouldbeincharacter.WehaveseenhimattempttoreviveBrucefamilyclaimstoWrittleinEssexandtoHartnessinDurham.BytheagreementhegrantedatrucetothepeopleoftheearldomofUlsterforoneyearinreturnfor100

measuresofwheatand100ofbarley,halfatMartinmas–11November–andhalfatWhitsun–22May1328.Robert’salliesamongtheGaelicIrishofUlsterwerealsotobeincludedinthetruce,whichmayhavebeenparticularlygallingforMandevilletoaccept,forRoberthadboundhimtodoso,onpainofforfeiture.Duringthesummerof1327therewasalloverIrelanda

markedriseinthelevelofviolencebetweentheGaeliclordsandtheAnglo-Irishcolony.WesurmisethatRobert’sinterventioninUlsterwasintendedtomenacethenewIrishgovernment,andperhapshisverypresencewasenoughtocauseGaelicIrishrevolts.Achronicleentry,

apparentlymisdatedto1328,relatesthatRobert‘senttothejusiciarofIrelandandtothe

councilthattheyshouldcometoGreencastle[theearldom’ssouthernmostcastle]todrawupapeacebetweenScotlandandIreland,andbecausethesaidJusticiarandCouncildidnotcomeashewishedhereturnedtohisnativelandafterthefeastoftheAssumptionoftheBlessedVirginMary[15August]’.Thisisborneoutbyaninquisitionintotheepisodetakenin1331bytheIrish

government,andbypaymentsof100shillingstoRobertCruysandJohnJordan‘forgoingtoUlstertoexpeditecertainmatterstouchingthebusinessofthekingandhislandofIreland’.FurthermoreJohnJordanwaspaidasmallrewardfor‘goodandpraiseworthyaction’.ThispraiseworthyactionwasprobablybreakingthenewstotheKingofScotsthatthenewIrishgovernmentwould

standbytheregimeofIsabellaandMortimer,andnotbebulliedintoalliancewithScotland.OnreceivingthisresponseRobertgaveuptryingtodetachtheIrishgovernmentfromtheEnglish,andwithitprobablyallthoughtofrestoringEdwardIItotheEnglishthrone.HereturnedtoScotlandjustadayortwoearlierthanstatedintheIrishchronicle,forhewasatMelroseon14August.

MorayandDouglashadjustreturnedfromgivingtheEnglishhosttherunaroundinWeardale,andMarchandAnguswerekeepingtheEnglishoccupied.ElisabethdeClare’s

informantmayhaveexaggeratedtheextentoftheking’sinfirmity,forsoonafterhisreturntoScotlandhemountedhorseandrodeonalastcampaignintoEngland.Itwasacriticaltime.Hisheir

wasbutathree-year-oldchild,sohemusthavebeenextremelyanxioustowrestfinalandlastingrecognitionofhissovereigntyfromtheEnglishbeforehisowndeath.HehadtestedandgivenuponthepossibilityofeffectingarestorationofEdwardIItotheEnglishthrone:theonlycourselefttohimwastobringsuchmilitarypressuretobearonthenorthofEnglandthatIsabellaand

Mortimerwouldhavenochoicebuttoconcedehisright.AnyairofdesperationthataccompaniedRobert’slastgreatcampaignhasbeenwrittenoutofhistorybyRobert’spropagandists,andthereis,ifanything,alight-heartedfeeltotheScottishnarratives,fullofadmirationatRobert’smagnificenceanddaring.IttakesanefforttorememberthatneitherinWeardalenorin

NorthumberlandweretheScotstoyingwiththeEnglish:bothcampaignswereindeadlyearnest,forRobertprobablyknewhisdayswerenumbered.HesethissightsonthegreatbordercastlesofNorthumberland,thelossofanyoneofwhichmightbringtheEnglishgovernmenttothenegotiatingtable.Accordinglyheraisedagreatarmyanddivideditintothree:oneparttobesiege

Norham,oneAlnwick,andonetorangefreelyacrossNorthumberland,devastating,takinghostagesandmoney,andweakeningtheEasternMarchineveryconceivablemanner.Barbourrecountsthatthekingleftthedetailedprosecutionofthesiegestoothers,andtookhisleisurehuntingintheparksofborderlordsandgrantingawaytheirlandstohisownfollowers:

ThekinglefthismenbeforethosecastlesAsIexplainedAndheldhiswaywiththethirdhostFromparktoparkforhisrecreationHuntingasthoughitwereallhisown.TothosewhowerewithhimthereHegavethelandsofNorthumberlandThatlaytherenearesttoScotlandInfeeandinheritageAndtheypaidthefeeforsealing.

Iffeeswerepaidforthesealingofthesedeeds,Robert’sgrantingawayofNorthumberlandestateswasregardedasnoemptygesture.InthepasthehadmadespeculativegrantsoflandintheEnglishborderstoencouragegranteestotakepossession,but,inthecontextofsiegesandtributetaking,thislookslikeadeterminedefforttoannexNorthumberland

permanently,andwasintendedtobeunderstoodassuch.MorayandDouglas

besiegedAlnwickcastle,heldbyHenryPercy,forafortnight,hostilitiesbeinginterspersedwithoccasionaljoustswiththeenemy.ThentheygaveupthatsiegeandattackedWarkworthinstead,allowingPercytosallyoutonaraidintoTeviotdale.TheypreventedPercyfrom

returningtoAlnwickhowever,andforcedhimtoretiretothesafetyofNewcastle.FinallytheyretiredtoassistwiththesiegeofNorham,wheretheFlemishengineerandprivateerchiefJohnCrabbehadbuiltsiegeenginestohastenitscollapse.WitnessingthedevastationofNorthumberland,othercountycommunitiesofnorthernEnglandhastenedto

purchaseimmunityfromattack.ThebishopricofDurham,Carlisle,WestmorlandandevenClevelandandRichmondinYorkshire,allpaidupreadily.IntheaccountsofDurhamCathedralPriorythereisevidenceofalevyoneachmanorandanotheroneachchurchlivingtomeettheransomdemandforatruceuntil22May1328.

TheEnglishgovernmenthadtheimpressionthatRobertwasrevivingtheScottishking’sancientclaimtoNorthumberland,andfearedageneralcollapseofresistanceandultimatelythearea’sannexation.TheysummonedaparliamenttoLincolnfor15September,andsubsequentlystatedthatBrucehadthreatenedtosubjugatethepeopleof

Englandandtodestroythem;thathehadbuiltandgarrisonedpeelsandfortalicesinNorthumberland;andthathehadgrantedawayEnglishlandsbycharter.Inthemid1310sRoberthadalsobuiltpeelsinEnglishterritoryandgrantedlandsinNorthumberlandtohisfollowersbycharter,butitappearstohavebeenthecombinationofthesewiththethreatstoEngland’scrucial

frontiercastlesthatwassodeeplydisturbing.TheunstableruleofIsabellaandMortimercouldnotaffordfurthermilitarycatastrophe,andtheirgovernmentwaspanickedintofreshpeacenegotiations.PlotsandattemptstoreleaseEdwardIIhadcontinuedtoplaguetheirregimeofdubiouslegality.Onthenightof21/22September1327Mortimer’shenchmenarethoughttohave

disposedoftheformerking.Tothisdayitisnotcertainhowtheoldkingdied;andtheoriesofhissurvivalarestilladvancedbyscholars.Suchrumoursdonotconcernus,forRobertappearstohavegivenupallhopeofresuscitatingEdwardII’sregime.Forthefirsttimeboth

EnglishandScottishgovernmentswerebothtrulydesperatetoachieveapeace.

On9OctobertheEnglishappointedHenryPercyandWilliamDenholmetotreatofafinalpeace,andon18OctoberRobertsetoutsixtermswhichtousseemextraordinarilyreasonable:heinsisted,ofcourse,uponrecognitionofhiskingshipanduponholdingthekingdomofScotlandfreeofanyobligation;heofferedhisinfantsonDavidinmarriagetoEdwardIII’ssister,Joan

‘oftheTower’,asameansofmakingthesettlementlast;therewastobenorestorationoftheDisinherited,thoseEnglishandAnglo-ScottishlordswhohadlostestatesandtitlesinScotland;eachkingdomwastoassisttheotheragainstitsenemies–thoughthiswasnottoapplytoRobert’srecentlynegotiatedTreatyofCorbeilwithFrance;theEnglishweretoassistintheremovalof

papalsanctionsagainstScotland;andfinally,andmoststrikingofall,Robertoffered£20,000tobepaidwithinthreeyearsofconfirmationofthepeace.WehaveseenfromtheBruce–Harclaytreatyof1323thatRoberthadforsomeyearsbeenpreparedtopayhandsomelytosecureapeace,astrangepositionforthevictorofalongandbitterstruggle.Itwasnotspecified

exactlywhatthepaymentwasfor;itwasneithercompensationforRobert’stributetakinginEngland,norwasitcompensationforlossofthekingofEngland’srightsinScotland.ItisnotdescribedasreparationfortheexactionofransomsortheimmensedamagewhichScottishraidshadinflicted:Durhamaloneclaimedtohavepaid£20,000totheScotsovertheyears.Itis

simplydescribedas‘contributionforpeace’.RobertmayhaveseenpaymentasadevicetogivetheEnglishagreaterstakeinthepeace;perhapsheknewthatpayingoffoftheHainhaultersandthecostsofcampaigninghadlefttheEnglishgovernmentflatbroke–theWeardalecampaignhadcost£70,000.IsabellaandMortimer

rapidlyrespondedthatthese

termscouldserveasabasisfornegotiation.TheEnglishparliamentofFebruary1328atYorkconsideredtheterms,andsenttwobishopstodiscusscertainarticleswiththeScots.On1MarchEdwardIIIformallyagreedthatthe‘magnificentprince,LordRobertbythegraceofGodtheillustriousKingofScots’shouldholdScotlandfreefromanysubjectionordemand,‘separateinall

thingsfromthekingdomofEngland,assuredforeverofitsterritorialintegrity,toremainforeverquitandfreeofanysubjection,servitude,claimordemand’.ItissignificanttoothattheEnglishhadtotraveltoEdinburghtosuetoconcludethetreaty.TwobishopsandthreenobleswerenominatedtojourneytoEdinburgh,anytwoofwhomwereempoweredtoswearonthe

king’ssoulthathewouldabidebythearticles.Theyarrivedaround10March,andRobertsummonedaparliamentfortheoccasion.On17March1328theagreementwasformallyconcludedintheking’schamberatHolyrood,whereRobertagainlayill.Itwasindeed‘thesubstanceofeverythingforwhichBrucehadfought’.Finalnegotiationsadded

refinementstotheterms.Robertconcededonlyoneofhissixpoints:ageneralprohibitionoftheclaimsoftheDisinheritedwasnotwrittenintothetreaty,andhefirstpermittedHenryPercytherighttosueinScottishcourtsforlandsgrantedhisfatherbyEdwardI,andthenmadehimanoutrightgrantofthoselands.Inexchangeforthisrecognitionoftherightsofthemostimportant

Disinheritedlord,itmayhavebeenintendedthatScotlandshouldreceivebacktherelicslootedbyEdwardIin1296.TheStoneofDestinywasorderedtoberemovedtoScotland,buttheLondonersandtheAbbotofWestminsterpreventeditsremoval.Itispossible,however,thatatthistimetheScotsregainedtheCrossofStMargaret,theBlackRood;atanyratetheyhadpossessionofitin1346–

whentheylostitagaintotheEnglishattheBattleofNeville’sCross.AlldocumentsimplyingthesubjugationofScotlandweretobesurrenderedandarecordmadeoftheirdelivery.GreatimportancewasattachedbyRoberttothemarriagebetweenDavidandJoan,asthoughheconsideredthistobeameansofensuringthatthesettlementwouldlast.Asdower,Joanwouldreceive

landsworth£2,000inannualrentinScotland.TheKingofScotswasnottoaidtheenemiesofthekingofEnglandinIreland;norwasthekingofEnglandtoaidtheenemiesoftheKingofScotsinManorotherScottishisles.TherightsoftheChurchinbothrealmsweretobesafeguarded,whichseemstohaveimpliedthatlandsforfeitedfromreligioushousesweretoberestored.

TheancientLawsoftheMarchesbetweenthekingdomsweretobekept,andanydisputesreferredtothecouncilsofthetwokings.Finally,theEnglishparliamentwastoratifythepeacebeforeAscensionDay–12May1328;itwasactuallyratifiedbytheparliamentofNorthamptonon4May.ItisasignofIsabellaandMortimer’sgreatweaknessatthispointthatthe

TreatyofEdinburghwasoneofveryfewforeigntreatiesmadebyanEnglishmedievalgovernmenttobesubmittedtoparliamentforratification.RobertconveyedtoDavid

theearldomofCarrick,inorderthathisfourandahalf-year-oldsonshouldbedignifiedwithacomitaltitlefortheoccasionofhismarriage.But,clearlyasamarkofhispersonaldisapproval,EdwardIIIgave

nodowrywiththeseven-year-oldJoan.On17July1328theroyalmarriagebetweenDavid,aged4,andJoan,aged7,tookplaceatBerwick,but,althoughIsabella,nowqueenmother,waspresent,EdwardIIIconspicuouslyabsentedhimselffromtheceremony.ExplainingRobert’sabsencefromthenuptialsofDavidandJoan,Barbourstates:

ForanillnessafflictedhimsobadlyThatinnowaycouldhebethere.HisdiseasearosefromcatchingachillThroughhiscoldlyingWhenhewasinhisgreattribulationsThatseriousillnesscameuponhim.

His‘coldlying’seemstorefertoRobert’ssleepingroughintheheatherwhileafugitiveandguerrillachief.

ButtheabsenceoftheEnglishking,intendedasasnub,mayhaverequiredRobert’sreciprocalabsence.However,thequestionof

whatRobertwassufferingfrominAntrimin1327andpossiblyagainatBerwickin1328remainsunsettled.Itmayhavebeenasymptomofafinal,lingeringillness.Englishchronicles,includingthegenerallyreliableLanercost,assertthathehad

contractedleprosy.Consideredavileandloathsomedisease,leprosywasregardedasa‘diseaseofthesoul’,andofteninterpretedasdivinepunishmentforlechery.ThesereportsinEnglishchroniclesmaybefalse,butcannotaltogetherbediscounted.Scottishchronicles,bythesametoken,cannotbeexpectedtoownuptotheirking’s

contractingleprosy,asitwoulddetractfromthevisionofregalitythattheysoughttoportray.Themedievaldiagnosisofleprosymightinanycasehaveextendedtovirtuallyanyseriousskindisorder.Recentlyanauthorityontheosteologicalappearanceofleprosyclaimedtohavedetectedfeaturesassociatedwithfaciesleprosa,thefacialcharacteristicsofleprosy,in

theplasterofPariscastthatsurvivesofRobert’sskullmadein1820,thoughheaddedthat,withoutexaminationoftheskullitself,hecouldnotbecertain.ThefactthatthereisnorecordofRobert’ssegregationfromhumancontactdoesnotnecessarilyhaveabearingonthequestion.BaldwinIV,thetwelfth-centuryleperkingofJerusalem,wasnot

segregatedinanywayduringhisreign.Moresignificant,perhaps,arethefactsthatnocontemporarysource,noteventhosemosthostiletoRobert’sregime,levelsathimtheaccusationthathehadcontractedleprosy.Othermedicalauthoritiesassertthatthecastbearsevidenceofsporadicsyphilis.ProfessorKaufman,themostrecentauthoritytoexaminetheproblem,considersthatthe

castbearscharacteristicsconsistentwitheitherleprosyorsyphilis.AthirdsuggestionisthatBrucehadcontractedRaynaud’sdisease–whichcanbecontractedfromlyinginthedamp–andthatitssymptomsmight,intheMiddleAges,havebeenconfusedwiththoseofleprosy.Theresurvivesafingerbone,lootedfromtheexhumationof1819,analysisofwhichmayyieldfurther

evidenceofmaladiesfromwhichRobertsuffered.Theillnessesof1327–the

firstrealenough,thesecondprobablya‘diplomatic’illness–didnotpreventRobertfromattendingtomattersheconsideredimportant.WilliamdeBurgh,theyoungandrecentlyknightedheirtotheearldomofUlster,hadattendedtheBerwicknuptialsandsoughtassistancefrombothIsabella

andRobertingainingcontrolofhispatrimony.TheEnglishgovernmentbegrudginglyissuedthenecessarywarrantfortransferringcustodyofCarrickfergusCastleintoWilliam’scustodyinNovember1328,andassentedtoRobert’stakingpersonalchargeoftheyoungearl’sinstallation.ThisisanindicationbothofRobert’sresidualpowerinUlsterandofhisanxietytoensurethat

thestrategicallyimportantcastleshouldremaininthecareofaclientearl.TogetherwithMurdoch,EarlofMenteith,RobertsetsailforUlster,escortingWilliamtoCarrickfergusandmakinghimapresentofstockfishtohelphimprovisionthecastle.Hereagain,asquidproquo,RobertmayhavebeenseekingrestorationfromthenewearlofUlsterofthe‘Gallowaylands’inAntrim,

towhichhemighthavelaidclaim.HedatedaletteratLarneLoughon13August1328,andprobablyreturnedtoScotlandsoonafterwards.Duringhislastyears,1327

to1329,Robert’sfavouriteresidencewashismanorhouseatCardross,aretreatwhichhehadplannedandbuiltforhimself.Hisqueen,ElisabethdeBurgh,predeceasedhiminNovember1327.Shehad

diedatCullen,whereshemayhavebeenonpilgrimage,andherentrailswereburiedthereintheLadyChapel.Onesurmisesthat,giventheantagonismbetweenRobertandhisfather-in-law,Elizabeth’sreportedremarksatRobert’sinauguration,andtheexistenceofillegitimatechildren,theirmarriagehadneverbeenacloseunion.RobertarrangedthatachaplainatCullenwaspaid

£4annuallyforcelebratingmassesforhersoul.Thiswasmodestprovisionforthesoulofaqueen;Roberthadsetaside£20perannumforthesoulsofAlexanderIIIandJohn,EarlofAtholl.NeverthelessRobertshowsattachmenttoElisabethinthatherbodywasbornetoDunfermlineAbbeyforburial:heclearlywantedhisspouseathissideindeath.Havingenduredthelossof

hisfourbrothers,Robertseemsalwaystohavevaluedmalecompanionshipmoredearlythanfemale.TheclosestofallhiscompanionswasMoray,oftenwithhimintheselastmonthsandsharinghisactivities.ThekinghadanewchamberbuiltatCardross–withglassworkinthewindowsandapaintedinterior–agarden,andashedforhisfalcons,andhemaintainedaconsiderable

huntingestablishment.Helivedwell,threwfeastsanddispensedgiftsandcharity.Hekeptapetlion,astheyoungandriotousEdwardofCaernarfonhaddonetwentyyearsbefore.HeandMoraytookspecialinterestintheking’s‘greatship’,makingrepairs,andorderingsails,pitch,ironandothermaterials.OnoneoccasionRoberthadithauledfromtheseashoreintotheriverbeside

thehouseformaintenance.Robert’slastjourney

appearstohavebeenapilgrimage;thiswaspossiblyinsearchofamiraculouscure,thoughequally,aspilgrimagesoftenprovidedexcuseforwandering,itmayhavebeenmerelyapretextforanoutingonhisgreatship.WithMorayhesetofffromCardrossforTarbert,thencetoArranwherehecelebratedChristmas1328at

thehallofGlenkillnearLamlash,andthencehesailedtothemainlandtovisithissonandhisbride,merechildren,nowinstalledatTurnberry,theheadoftheearldomofCarrickandoncehisownmainresidence.HejourneyedoverlandtoInch,southofStranraer:houseswerebuiltthereandsuppliesbroughttothatplace,asthoughtheking’sconditionhaddeterioratedwhilehewas

beingcarriedacrosstheisthmus.AttheendofMarchhewasstayingatGlenluceAbbeyandatMonreith,fromwhichStNinian’scavewasvisited.EarlyinAprilhearrivedattheshrineofStNinianatWhithorn.HereturnedbyseatoCardross,wherehewasplaceduponhisdeathbed,Moraynodoubtbyhisside.Barbourrelates–andheisborneoutbyothersources–thatRobert

summonedthelordsofthekingdomtohisbedsideforafinalcouncil,atwhichhemadecopiousgiftstoreligioushousesandrepentedofhisfailuretofulfilavowtoundertakeacrusade.Hedispensedsilvertoreligiousfoundationsofvariousorders,sothattheymightprayforhissoul.IntothemouthofthedyingkingBarbourputsaspeechwhichincludesanalmostmodernrepentancefor

‘warcrimes’:

IthankGodforgivingmeTimeinthislifetorepent,Forbecauseofmeandmywar-makingTherehasbeenmuchspillingofbloodInwhichmanyinnocentmenwereslain;ThereforeIacceptthissicknessandpainAsrewardformytransgressions.

Whetherthesesentimentswereactuallyexpressedby

thedyingkingisuncertain;itisunconventionalforamedievalkingtoexpressguiltabout‘collateraldamage’inflictedoninnocentsinpursuitofhisright,andforthisreasonitmightindeedrepresentanactualdeathbedutterance.Robert’sfinalwish,however,reflectsconventionalpietyexpressedinanovelfashion,quitepossiblyintendedtoperpetuatehismemory:after

hisdeathhisheartwastoberemovedfromhisbodyandbornebyanobleknight,onehonest,wiseandbrave,againstGod’senemies–probablyintendedfromthefirsttobeJamesDouglas.44Robertdiedon7June1329havinglivedalifeextraordinarilyrichandvaried.Hediedutterlyfulfilled,inthatthegoalofhislifetime’sstruggle–

untrammelledrecognitionoftheBrucerighttothecrown–hadbeenrealised,andconfidentthathewasleavingthekingdomofScotlandsafelyinthehandsofhismosttrustedlieutenant,Moray,untilsuchtimesashisinfantsoncouldholdthereinsofstate.Howevergreathisfinalagony,hecouldnothaveaskedforgreatercomforts.Sixdaysafterhisdeath,tocompletehis

triumphstillfurther,papalbullswereissuedgrantingtheprivilegesofcoronationandunctionattheenthronementoffutureKingsofScots.TheobsequiesofRobertI

wereasbefittedagreatking.Thebodywasembalmed.Separateburialofheartandbodyhadbeenforbiddenbyapapalbullof1299,butthecustomwasattractiveinthatmorethanonereligiouscommunitycouldbeinvolved

inintercessionforthesoul.IthadbeencarriedoutatthefuneralsofLouisIXofFrance,RichardIandHenryIIIofEngland,EleanorofCastile–EdwardI’squeen–and,aswehaveseen,inthecaseofRobert’sownqueen.AccordinglythebreastboneofRobert’scorpsewassawntoallowextractionoftheheart,whichDouglasplacedinasilvercaskettobewornaroundhisneck.Thebody

wastakenfromCardross,throughDunipaceandCambuskennethtoDunfermline,themausoleumoftheScottishkings.Barbourclaimsthat:

whenhispeopleknewthathehaddiedSorrowspreadfromhometohome.Youcouldseementeartheirhair,Andfrequentlyknightsweepingcopiously,Strikingtheirfiststogetherandtearingtheirclotheslikemadmen,

Mourninghisseemlygenerosity,Hiswisdom,strengthandhishonestyButaboveallthewarmcompanionshipWhich,inhiscourtesy,heoftensharedwiththem.

Wecannottellwhetherthegildedhearsewasfollowedbycrowdsofmourners;nordoestheresurviveanymorereliableindicationofgenuinewidespreadgrief.Therewillhavebeensomereliefand

anticipationfromtheanti-BruceelementsthatRoberthadsuppressed,yetwecanscarcelydoubtthatthefuneralwasanoccasionforanoutpouringofaffectionsuchasBarbourdescribes,forakingwhohadendedforeignoccupation,ledsuccessfulandlucrativeforeignwar,distributedlargesseabundantlyandtriumphedmagnificentlyandrepeatedly.Anenormousweightof

wax–478stone,orjustover3,000kg–waspurchased,presumablyforthemakingoffunerarycandles;copiouslengthsoffinelinenandblackclothwereprocuredformourningclothes:black‘budge’forknights,othervarietiesforofficersofthehouseholdandtheirfollowers.Robeswerebought,andfursforknights.Amarbletomb,whichRoberthadcommissionedyears

previouslytobemadeinParis,wasbroughtbywayofBrugestoDunfermline.GoldleafwasacquiredinEnglandforitsdecoration,andanironrailingplacedaroundthegrave.Achapeloftimberwaserectedoverthegraveonthedayofthefuneral,andRobertwasinterredinwhatwasthentheverycentreofDunfermlineAbbey,beneaththehighaltar,andbesidehisqueen.Thoughthechurch

arounditisgreatlyaltered,theplaceisnowmarkedbyamagnificentVictorianbrass.ThefaithfulDouglashad

beenselected–probablypre-selected–tofulfilRobert’scrusadingvow.InacodatohisepicpoemBarbourrelateshowDouglassetofffromBerwickforSpaintodobattlewiththeMoors.Itwasanactofpiety,butforbothBruceandDouglasitwasalsoself-promotion,a‘farewell

Europeantour’.Noonehadevergoneoncrusadeinquitethisfashion,andtheexcursionwasintendedtocultivatethelegendsofRobertBruceandtheBlackDouglas.NoexpensewassparedtodeckoutDouglaswithasplendidentourage.HepassedthroughEngland,andinSeptember1329EdwardIII’schanceryequippedhimwithlettersofprotectionandcommendationtoKing

AlfonsoXIofCastille.HisshipanchoredinthebusyportofSluisinthesouthernNetherlandsfortwelvedays,butDouglasdidnotdisembark.Rather,guestswereinvitedonboardtobidfarewelltoalegend,andDouglasentertainedthem‘asthoughhewerekingofScotland’.Douglas’sfamewentbeforehimandhewasreceivedinSpainwithhonour,aboveallfromthe

Englishknights.InbroadtermsBarbour’sversionofeventsinSpainisborneoutbyleBelandbyaSpanishsource.Douglaswasclearlypreparingtoexitthislife,andhadnointentionofreturningsafelyfromSpain.Hewaskilledinaskirmishon25August1330atTebasdeArdales,thedaybeforethemainengagementthere,alongwithSirWilliamSinclair,andRobertandWalterLogan.

Traditionhasit,fromlinesinterpolatedintotheBarbourtext,that,seeinghispositiontobehopeless,Douglastossedthecasketbearingtheking’sheartintothethickofthefight,andchargedtheenemywiththewords:

Nowpassthouforthbefore,Asthouwaswontinfieldtobe,AndIshallfolloworelsedie.

Recoveredfromthefield,

Douglas’sbodywasboiledinordertoremovefleshfrombones–anothernotuncommonfunerarypractice–andthenhisbones,togetherwiththeheartofRobertBruce,werebornebacktoScotlandbySirWilliamKeithofGalston.Douglaswasburiedinhisparishchurch,StBride’sKirkatDouglas,wherein1307hehadambushedtheenemygarrison,and,inaccordance

withtheking’searlierwish,theheartofRobertBrucewasinterredatMelroseAbbey.

12Theimage,thelegendandthelongshadowofRobertBruce

ThelifeofRobertBrucewasnottheunqualifiedsuccesswhichpropagandistsforhisdynastyhaverepresented.Inparticular,Barbour,FordunandBowerexaggeratethedegreetowhichScotlandunitedbehindRobert.Thestrengthofanti-BrucefeelinginScotlandisrevealedbythedoggedresistanceofJohnofArgyll,bythetreasontrialsoftheBlackParliamentthatrevealenduringpro-Balliol

sympathiesandbythesuddencollapseoftheBrucepowerbasewithinafewyearsofRobert’sdeath.Undoubtedlytoo,RobertBrucehadbeenfortunate.HeappearstohaveacknowledgedreadilythattheincompetenceofEdwardI’ssuccessorenabledhimtorecoverthekingdomofScotland.AlsoreadilyapparentisRobert’sgoodfortuneinthepowerlessness

ofEnglishgovernmentthatoccurredinthedecadeafterBannockburn,causedpartlybystrifebetweentheEnglishkingandhisbarons,andpartlybythenaturalcatastrophesoffamineanddiseaseofanimals.Itisnotsurprisingthat

Robertfailedtoachievesainthood,thatultimateaccoladeofpopularmedievalkings,fromeitherChurchorpeople.Sainthoodwas

associatedwithcaseswhenthebodydidnot,foronereasonoranother,decay,butRobert’sbody–whetherleprousornot–wasalreadymanifestlyindecaylongbeforehisdeath.Besides,Robertdiedanexcommunicate,thoughthismightnothavebeengenerallyknowninScotlandatthetime.‘Canonisationbypopulardemand’,or‘politicalcanonisation’,wasaccorded

tocertainpopularlordsintheMiddleAges,andcontemporaryexamplesofthisoccurredinEngland.Afterhisexecutionin1322EarlThomasofLancasterwaswidelyrecognisedasamartyrandsaint,andpilgrimagesweremadetothesiteofhisgrave.EdwardofCaernarfon,Robert’scontemporaryandoldadversary,hadalively‘afterlife’.Storiesabouthow

EdwardIIescapedmurderin1327andwanderedfarandwideuntilaslateas1338weresufficientlyconvincingandnumeroustocausethemagnificenttombinGloucesterCathedraltobeopenedinOctober1855toestablishtheexistenceofacoffin,andtohavesowndoubtinthemindsofsomemodernhistoriansastowhetherEdwardwasmurderedasreported.Thez

ofinventedafterlivesandpopularcanonisationwastosalvagesulliedreputationsandlacklustrecareerstotheembarrassmentofpoliticalauthorities.ButtohissupportersRobert’sreputationamongScotswasunsullied–despitethemurderandsacrilegeof1306–andtocontemporarieshiscareerlackednolustre.Canonisationand‘afterlife’wereunnecessaryand

inappropriate.Thetrulygreatarenever

allowedtorestinpeace.DuringtheProtestantReformation,DunfermlineAbbeywasattackedbyCalvinistreformersandthemarbletombwithgold-leafdecorationwassmashed,probablyfornootherreasonthanitrepresentedagravenimage,forbiddenbyOldTestamentstricture.Butcenturieslater,in1817,

magistratesoftheburghofDunfermlinedecidedtobuildanewchurchonthesiteoftheabbey,andthelandhadtobeclearedtoallowrebuilding.RobertBruce’stombwasoneofmanydiscovered–othersincludedthoseofStMargaretandMalcolmCanmore.SuchwasthefascinationofcontemporarieswiththeMiddleAgesthat,afterthenewchurchhadbeenbuilt

aroundit,Robert’sremainswereexhumedinNovember1819,measured,andleftabovegroundforfivedaystoallowforthoroughexamination.Thereisnodoubtthatthe

remainsbelongedtoRobertBruce:thebreastbonehadbeensawntoallowfortheremovaloftheheart.AplasterofPariscastoftheskullwasmade,duringwhichtwoorthreeteethmayhave

comeout.Examinationyieldedconsiderableevidenceofinjurytothehead.Theofficialreportread,‘Thereisakindofmarkontherightsideofthesagittalsuture,mostprobablytheconsequenceofasevereinjury,andofsubsequentexfoliation.’Itisalsoofinterestthataconsiderableportionoftheleftzygomaticarch,onthesideoftheskull,ismissingfromthecast.

AccordingtoPearson,whowrotein1924,‘Thecastlackstheleftzygomaticridge,whetherbrokenoffintheskullormorerecentlyfromthecastisnotclear…detailedanalysisofthecaststronglysuggeststhatthisdeficiencywaspresentwhenthecastwasmade,andthetwoendsofthearchappeartoshowevidenceofhealing…’Inlife,then,Roberthadsustainedasevereblowon

thetopofhisskull,andanotherontheleftsideofthehead,exactlyaswemightexpectofawarriorking.Hewillhavebeenbadlyscarred,anditmaybethatsuchscarringgaverisetothenotionentertainedbyhisdetractorsthathehadcontractedleprosy.Phrenologywasapseudo-

sciencemuchinvogueinthenineteenthcentury,andtheskullwassubjectedto

examinationbyphrenologistswhoclaimedtoreadcharactertraitsfromtheshapeofthehead.Phrenologicalobservationswerepublished,andthoughcouchedin‘scientific’termsitisclearthattheywereheavilydependentuponwrittenaccountsfortheirassessmentofBruce’spersonality.Acuriousstoryexiststhat,duringthistime,alocaldignitaryenteredthechurch

atnightandremovedatoe,togetherwithapieceoftheshroudandfragmentsfromthecoffin.AlthoughtheseitemsarepreservedintheHunterianMuseuminGlasgow,ithasbeenimpossibleforthemuseumauthoritiestoverifythatparticularpieceofantiquefleshasRobert’stoe:itistoodecayedforDNAtestsorcarbon-dating.Afingerwasalsoretainedbyasouvenir

hunter,asreferredtointhepreviouschapter.OtherreputedbonefragmentsareheldatStConan’sKirkatLochawe,andalsointhemuseumofDunfermlineAbbey.Whenthescientists–andthesouvenirhunters–hadcompletedtheirwork,thebodywasreturnedtotheleadcoffin.Moltenpitchwaspouredintothecoffin,ameasureintendedtopreservetheskeleton,andthena

numberofarticleswereplacedinit,amongthemacopyofthe1714editionofTheBruce,oneofKerr’sHistoryofScotlandandsevengoldandninesilvercoins.Thetombwasthenrebuiltandresealed,andasuperbVictorianbrassnowmarkstheplaceofburial.Furtherexhumationstook

placeinthetwentiethcentury.Aconicalleadcontainer,teninchesinheightandbelieved

toholdBruce’sheart,wasdiscoveredbeneaththeflooroftheChapterHouseatMelroseAbbeyinMarch1921.Itwasconfirmedthataheartwasenclosed,andthecontainerwasreburied.Thesamecontainerwasfoundasecondtimein1996andinvestigatedusingfibreopticcable.Thisrevealedaninnercasket,alsooflead.Sincehowevertherewasnodoubtitcontainedthemuch-decayed

heartofRobertBruce,nothingwastobegainedbypenetratingitandthecontainerwasreburiedintactin1998.OnthatoccasionthesecretaryofstateforScotlandunveiledaplaqueonthefloorovertheplacewheretheheartisburied.TheinscriptiononthestoneistakenfromBarbour,andreads‘Anoblehartmayhavenoease,giffreedomfailye.’Theplaquebearsasimplecarvingofa

heartentwinedwiththeStAndrew’sCross.Fascinationwiththe

subject’scorporalremainsisonlyoneofanumberofyardsticksbywhichthesignificanceofanhistoricalfiguremaybeassessed.Anothertestof‘greatness’ishowlongafterdeaththeindividual’sachievementslast.Athirdishiscontributionmadetothehostsociety.Afourthindicationof

significancemightbethedegreeofinteresttakeninthesubjectsincehisdeath.Thereareyetothersstill:whatplacethesubjectholdsinthepopularpantheonofheroes,andwhetherthesubjecthasanyrelevanceforcontemporaries.InsofarasRoberthelped

topreserveadistinctandvibrantScottishidentity,hiscontributionsurvivesthetestoftime;however,his

particularachievement,thepoliticalsettlementof1328,wasdoomedtolastlessthanfouryears.Awarethatnoscrapofparchmentwasanyrealguaranteeofhisson’sthrone,Roberthadbuiltintohissettlementsuchsafeguardsaswereavailabletohim:installationofhismosttrustedandablelieutenant,Moray,asregent;marriagebetweentheroyalfamilies,designedtolockthe

kingdomstogetherinharmony;andpaymentofaverylargesumofmoneyspreadoutoverthethreeyearsfollowing.ThesetermshoweverwerenotnearlysufficienttoreconciletheEnglishtothetreatytheydubbedtheShamefulPeace.EnglishchroniclesuniformlydenouncetheTreatyofEdinburgh–Northamptonasasell-out.Realisingthedepthofitsunpopularity,the

Englishregimedidnotevenpublishitsterms,andthesecrecysurroundingtheagreementservedonlytoattractfurthervilification.YoungEdwardIII,however,beingunder-age,wasabsolvedfromtheopprobrium:‘accursedbethetimethatthisparliamentwasordainedatNorthampton,fortherethroughfalsecounselthekingwastherefalselydisinherited;andyethewas

withinage’.Thatkinghadmadenosecretofhisdispleasureatthesettlement,andwhenthetimecameEdwardIIIusedthispretexttoavoidhonouringtheagreement.On19October1330

EdwardIIIcarriedoutadaringcoupd’état,overthrowingthegovernmentwhichhismotherandherloverhadcarriedoninhisname.Mortimerheexecuted;

Isabellahesentintohonourableconfinement;andsoattheageofeighteenhegraspedthereinsofpower.WaitinginthewingsweretheDisinherited,ledbyHenryBeaumontandThomasWake,whofeltthemselvescheatedbythepeaceoftitles,landsandincomesinScotland.Beaumont’sclaimtotheearldomofBuchanwasthroughhiswife,AliceComyn;Wakeclaimedthe

baronyofKirkandrewsandtheborderlordshipofLiddesdalethroughhisgreat-grandmother,Joand’Estuteville.AmongtheotherDisinheritedlordswereGilbertdeUmfraville,whomRoberthaddisinheritedoftheearldomofAthollandhalfthelandsofJohnComyn,whomRoberthadkilledatDumfries.TheotherhalfofthoselandswasclaimedbyRichardTalbot,whohad

marriedtheotherco-heiress.EdwardIIInowlentunofficialEnglishroyalsupporttothedemandsofthetwomostpowerfuloftheaggrievedlords.TheScotspaidnoattentiontohisadvocacyoftheDisinheritedcause;theymighthavebeenwisertobuyoffBeaumontandWake,thetwomostdangerous,asRoberthadvirtuallypromisedthemrestorationinanycase.On

Midsummer’sDaythelastinstalmentofthepromised£20,000waspaid,andScotlandlostthesecuritythatthepromiseofpaymenthadafforded.BeaumontbegantoorganisetheDisinheritedlordsforanexpeditiontoScotlandtorealisetheirclaimsbyforce,andinanastutemovehebroughtovertoEnglandEdwardBalliol,thesonofKingJohn,toleadtheexpedition.Theinvaders

wouldthenbeabletotapintolegitimistsentimentthatwasstillstronginScotland.EdwardBalliolsecretlydidhomagetoEdwardIIIforthekingdomofScotland,andEdwardIIIlentBalliolandtheDisinheritedhistacitco-operation.Inviewofthegrowing

threatposedbytheDisinherited,Moray,GuardianofScotland,broughtforwardthedateof

thecoronationofRobert’ssonasDavidII,andon24November1331theseven-year-oldDavidwascrownedandanointedinaparliamentatScone.HewasthefirstKingofScotstobeaccordedthefullritesofroyalinauguration;fordecadesScotshadbeenlobbyingthepapacyfortherightstocoronationoftheirkings,andthesolemnitiesandfestivitiesonthisoccasionmaybe

consideredasthelasttriumphofRobertBruce.YetScotlandhadbeenprofoundlyweakenedbythedeathsofmanyofherleadingmagnates.KingRobert’sdeathhadbeenfollowedbythatofJamesDouglas,WaltertheSteward,theformerchancellorBernardofArbroathandbishopsDavidofMorayandWilliamLambertonofStAndrews.Thisstringofcatastrophes

concludedwiththedeathoftheguardian,Morayhimself,atMusselburghon20July1332,whileorganisingthedefencesofsouthernScotlandagainsttheanticipatedonslaught.ItisallegedthathewaspoisonedatthecommandofBeaumont,thoughtheevidenceforthatisunconvincing.Hearingthenewsof

Moray’sdemise,theDisinheritedwerequicktoset

sail,andtheylandedatKinghornon6Augustwith500men-at-armsand1,000foot.Invasionbyseawasamasterstroke:itwasintendedtoallowEdwardIIIdeniabilityintheeventofadebacle,itkepttheScotsguessingastowheretheywouldland,andfinallyitdeprivedtheScotsoftheopportunitytoretreatbehindscorchedearth.TheinvadersvanquishedthefirstScottish

forcethatmetthem,andthusgainedafoothold.TheenormousScottisharmywhichthenconfrontedthemwaspoorlyledanddisorganised.Theleaderssquabbled:DonaldofMar,recentlyelectedguardianinplaceofMoray,felloutwithSirRobertBruce,thelateking’sillegitimateson,onthedayofconfrontationwiththeinvaders.ThebattleatDupplinMooron11August

shouldhavebeenwoneasilybytheScots,buttheScottishhostshowedlackofdisciplineanditscommanderscompletelymismanagedtheencounter.Defeatofsomanybysofewwaswidelyinterpretedasamarkofdivinefavour,andwhentheDisinheritedcapturedPerth,ScottishnoblesbegantodefecttoBalliol’sside.ThecoalitionofnobleintereststhatRobert

hadweldedtogetherbyforceofpersonalityandbyfearnowstrainedandcracked:incredibly,Duncan,EarlofFife,ledBallioltothethroneatSconeon24September1332,andBishopWilliamSinclairofDunkeld–whomKingRoberthadfulsomelypraisedas‘hisownbishop’–crownedBalliolKingofScotsatScone.ThusthestagewassetforarenewalofthatScottishcivilwarwhich

RobertIhadallbutwonatBannockburn.Therewakeningofthe

Bruce-Balliolcivilwar,fuelledbyEdwardIII’ssupport,andtheunravellingofRobert’splanfordynasticuniononanequalbasisbetweenthekingdomswerecatastrophesforEnglandandScotlandalike.ThoughBalliolwasdrivenoutofScotlandbeforetheyear1332ended,hereturned,thistime

withEngland’sdeclaredbacking.AnarmyheadedbyEnglishmagnatescapturedBerwickandwonasignalvictoryatHalidonHillon19July1333,andBalliolwasre-installedinScotland.ButEdwardIIIsoonlostinterestinScotland,asfrom1336ScotlandbecameasideshowinEngland’sHundredYearsWaragainstFrance.KingDavid’sfortunesebbedandflowed:from1334to1341he

wasexiledinFrance;in1346hehadrecoveredsufficientlytoraidNorthumberlandandDurham;then,havingbeencapturedattheBattleofNeville’sCross,wasfrom1346to1357aprisonerinEnglishjails.EdwardBalliolenjoyedasimilarebbandflowoffortune;buteventually,havinglosthislastfootholdinScotlandin1356,heresignedtoEdwardIIIhisclaimtothekingship.

ThisclaimtoScotlandEdwardandhissuccessorspursuedduringrespitesfromtheFrenchwar.ScotlandandEnglandbecamelockedintoafutilecycleofviolence,inwhicheachkingdomcouldinflictgreatharmontheother,butneithercouldwindecisivevictory.TheScotsraidedtheEnglishbordercountiesperiodically,devastatingthecountrysideandwastingthelabourof

centuries;theEnglishmarchedexpeditionstoEdinburghvirtuallywhenevertheywished,forcingtheScotsintotemporaryretreatnorthoftheForth.TheAnglo-Scottishborder,apreciselydefinedandmutuallyagreedlinethatin1296crossedthecountrysidefromonelandmarktothenext,blurred,expandedinwidth,andbecameabroadtractofbanditcountry,whereclans

ofraidersrodeatwill,andwherethewritofneitherkingran.Robert–nomore

responsiblethanEdwardIorhissonforunleashingwar–canscarcelybeblamedforthewell-nighperpetualhostilitybetweenEnglandandScotlandintheMiddleAges.Beforehisdeathhehaddoneeverythinginhispowertopromotelastingpeacebetweenthekingdoms.Itis

truethathehadorderedandparticipatedintheimpoverishmentofnorthernEngland,yetbydoingsohedemonstratedtoScottishkingswhocameafterhimhowScotlandmightwithstanditshostileneighbour.GoodKingRobertwastraditionallysaidtohavebequeathedtotheScotstheexampleofhowshemightbestdefendherself.ThepopularbeliefthatRobert’s

innovationsintacticsandstrategyassistedlatergenerationsofScotstoresistforeignoccupationisreflectedintheverseknownas‘GoodKingRobert’sTestament’.Pennedbyanunknownauthorinthemidfourteenthcentury,itrepresentsthefolkmemoryofRobert’sresponsetotheinvasionsof1319and1322:

OnfootshouldbeallScottishwar

LethillandmarshtheirfoesdebarAndwoodsaswallsprovesuchanarmThatenemiesdothemnoharm.InhiddenspotskeepeverystoreAndburntheplainlandsthembeforeSo,whentheyfindthelandliewasteNeedsmusttheypassawayinhasteHarriedbycunningraidsatnightAndthreateningsoundsfromeveryheight.Then,astheyleave,withgreatarray

Smitewiththeswordandchaseaway.ThisisthecounselandintentOfGoodKingRobert’sTestament.

Thesestricturesamounttocommonsenseforasmallnationfacedwithamightyenemy,butthereisjusticeintheclaimthatRobertpioneeredthemethodologyofresistanceandshatteredchivalrictaboosagainstguerrillawarfare.

Paradoxicallyperhaps,ScotsofthelaterMiddleAgesalsoclaimedthatRobertwasaparagonofchivalricvirtue.ThemythofhimselfwasperhapsRobert’smainlegacytothekingdomofScotland;aswehaveseen,herepresentedhimselfasthemostgallantofknights,acrusader,‘anotherMaccabeusorJoshua’whohadsavedhispeoplefromservitude.InhisownlifetimeRoberthad

becomealegendofchivalricvalour.JehanleBel,theHainaultermercenarywhoin1350–58wroteofhisownexperiencesintheWeardalecampaignof1327,recountedsomeofthestoriesofRobert’scareerthatwerecurrent.ThispassagefromleBelimpliesthatRoberthimselfcontributedtothelegend:‘Onetime,itissaid,andfoundinastorytoldbythesaidKingRobert,thatthe

goodKingEdwardhadhimchasedthroughthesegreatforestsforthespaceofthreeorfourdays,bydogsandleashhoundstobloodandtrainthem,buthecouldneverfindhim,nor,whateverthemiseriesheendured,wouldheobeythisgoodKingEdward.’WhetherRoberthimself

activelycontributedtohismyth,hislegendgrewandgrew.Robertrepresentedhis

careeringlowingtermsasisevidencedbytheDeclarationofArbroath.ButanaltogetherseparatearistocraticdynastyfoundeditsfortunesontheBrucelegend:theBlackDouglasesincorporated‘theBludyHart’intotheirheraldicarms,andmadethemostofthepropagandaaffordedthembytheparticipationofGoodSirJamesinKingRobert’sheroicachievements.

TheBrucelegendwasmostfamouslyexpoundedinBarbour’sTheBruce,composedaround1375,butwasalsopopularisedbyFordun,writtenafter1363,theninthefifteenthcenturybyWalterBower.BarbourdescribesGilesd’Argentineasthethird-bestknightofhisday;later,inhisnarrationoftheBattleofBylandsin1322,heindicatesthatSirRalphCobhamwasesteemedthe

bestknightinallEngland,butthatfromthatdayforthhiscompanionatBylands,SirThomasUghtred,wasesteemedaboveSirRalph.Whothenwasthepickofthechivalriccrop?AnanecdoteisretailedbyBower,thatatthecourtofEdwardIIthequestionofwhowasthegreatestknightinChristendomwasputtoaherald,who‘saidopenlybeforeeverybodythatthe

mostpeerlessandgallant,themostdaringandmightiestinwarlikedeeds,wasthatinvincibleprinceKingRobertBruce;andthisheopenlysupportedandmadegoodbymanyarguments,andheofferedtodefendhisopinionwithhisbody.HenceheincurredthegreatdispleasureoftheEnglish;butheearnedtherespectandgoodwordofthestrangerswholovedthetruth.’

LongaftertheMiddleAges,thememoryofRobertBruceremainedapowerfulsymbolofpatriotismandpoliticalindependence.ThereisasenseinwhichRobertdefinedtheScottishidentity:hiscareerdeterminedthatScottishidentitywouldhenceforthtoalargeextentbedefinedin,andassociatedwith,oppositiontoEngland.Oneofthepracticalimplicationsofthiswasthatit

wasnolongerpossibleforlandownerstoholdlandinbothkingdoms.Secondly,herevivedtheScottishmonarchy,whichtheEdwardiansettlementof1305hadplacedinabeyanceandmightwellhaveabolished.Thatiswhy,againandagain,fromhisdeathuntilthepresent,thememoryoftheself-declaredherokinghasbeenpressedintoservicetoinspireScotlandtocherish

herindependenceandseparateidentity.Fromtheearlynineteenthcentury,publicmeetingshavebeenheldannuallyonthesiteoftheBattleofBannockburntocelebratethevictoryof1314.Itissurelythemostfrequentlyre-enactedbattleoftheMiddleAges.MagnificentstatueshavebeenerectedinRobert’smemory.InthelatertwentiethcenturyRobert’smemory,andhismission

statement,theDeclarationofArbroath,werefreelyavailedofbyScottishnationalistsandfiguredprominentlyinthedevolutiondebates.ThroughoutthecenturiestothepresentdayBarbour’sTheBrucehasenjoyedcontinuingandwidespreadpopularity;thestirringrhetoricoftheDeclarationofArbroathhasbeenrecitedwhereverthreatstotheScottishidentityhavebeenperceived.

YetinsomewaysitissurprisingthatRoberthasnotachievedwarmerrecognitionfromsubsequentgenerationsofScots.InScotlandhismemoryisrevered,ratherthancherished.HiscareerwasoneofseveralfactorswhichensuredthatScotland’s‘nationalquestion’,theissueofwhetherheridentitywastobemergedwiththatofhersouthernneighbour,wassettledearly–muchearlier

thanmostotherEuropeannationalities,and,indeed,wellbeforemodernnationalismitselfwasbornintheFrenchRevolution.Robert’spartintheearlysettlementofScottishidentityeffectivelymeantthathisownreputation,gloriousintheMiddleAgeswhiletherewasanexternalthreat,wouldgrowstalewhenthatthreatreceded.Consequently,whenin1603thethroneofEngland

passedtotheKingofScotsandthecrownswereunitedinthepersonofJamesVIandI,Scotlandnolongerhadneedofamythichero-king,oranideologyofresistance.TheimagesofRobert,BannockburnandtheDeclarationrapidlybecamehackneyed,stockepithets,recallingpastglorieswhichoftencontrastedruefullywithpresentadversity.When,in1707,unionofthetwo

kingdomsandparliamentswasdebated,thedukeofHamiltontriedtostirScottishpeersintoresistingtheUnionbyasking,‘Arenoneofthedescendantshereofthoseworthypatriotswhodefendedthelibertyoftheircountryagainstallinvaders,whoassistedtheGreatKingRobertBrucetorestoretheconstitutionandrevengethefalsehoodofEnglandandtheusurpationofBalliol?’

GeorgeLockhartofCarnwathremarkedthatHamilton‘outdidhimselfinhispatheticallremonstrance’.Thepre-VictorianandVictorianlearnèdelites,fascinatedbyallthingsGothic,showedconsiderableinterestinthefigureofRobertBrucefollowingtheexhumationof1819,buttheirconceptionofhimappearstohavelingeredoverlongwithus,andnowhisimage

appearsoftenasstuffy,moribundandofmerelyantiquarianinterest.InmanymindsBruce,BannockburnandtheDeclarationofArbroathbelong,asitwere,totheoutmodedhistoryof‘dates,kingsandbattles’ratherthantothetrendierhistoriesofideas,ofperspectivesandsocialrelations.Furthermore,Robert’sreputationhasbeenoneofthecasualtiesofthe

divisionofhistoryintonarrownationalperspectives.FreshapproachestohistoryhaverecognisedhisplaceinthehistoryofnorthernEngland,ofIreland,ofthe‘IrishSeaProvince’,oftheGaidhealtachd,oftheBritishIsles,ofthe‘NorthSeacommunity’andindeedofEurope.Robertrarelystandsonhis

own:heishabituallymentionedinthesamebreath

asSirWilliamWallaceandoftenappearssomewhatinWallace’sshadow.Thissituationdatesfromtheearlynineteenthcentury,whenthemartialvirtuesshownjointlybyWallaceandBrucewereextolledasanticipatingthecontemporaryexploitsoftheBritisharmyinempire-building.Theselfless,patrioticanduncomplicatedlymartialfigureofWallacewasmoreeasilyabsorbedintothe

ideologyofBritainandtheEmpirethanthatofthewilysoldier-politicianwhohadhimselfmadeking.From1800to1858oversixtyworksonthelifeofWallacewerepublished,andstatuestoWallacesprangupatDryburgh,Falkirk,AyrandCraigieinAyrshire,beforetheWallacemonumentatStirlingwasconstructed.TherewasnotthesameinterestinBruce.Inthe1859

designforanEdinburghmonumenttotheWarsofIndependence,thefigureofBrucewasincludedasrepresentingPerseverance,whilethatofWallacewaspresentedastheepitomeofPatriotism.Itisinterestingtonote,inthisandsimilardesigns,thatmidnineteenth-centurytendencytocommemoratetheWarsofIndependence,notbecausetheysecuredScottish

independencefromEngland,butbecausetheyultimatelyenabledScotlandtoenteronanequalbasisintopeacefulandprosperousunionwithEnglandfivehundredyearslater!ThecareerofRobertBrucewasdifficulttoaccommodatewithinsuchanhistoricaloverview.RobertBruce’sreputation

generallysuffersfromcomparisonwithWallace,afactespeciallyapparentinthe

wakeofthe1996motionpictureBraveheart.Anactionmoviethatdisplayedonlyanoddingacquaintancewithhistoricalaccuracy,BraveheartportrayedBruceasascheming,turncoatpolitician.OnmanylevelscomparisonwithWallaceisinvalid.WeknowonlyalittleofWallace,hisbackground,properties,activitiesandmotives.Infact,weknowonlythebarehighlightsofhis

career;whereasweknowagreatdealaboutBruce,hisshortcomingsanderrorsaswellashisbrilliance.Wallaceisthusasimplercharactertoportray,whileunderstandingBrucerequiresamoresophisticatedappraisal.PortrayalofWallaceasaproletarianhero,ademocraticdynamowhoeclipsedthevacillatingandtimidScottishnoblesofhisdayisnotfoundedinfact.Thesonofa

squireandthusamemberofthegenteelclasses,WallacehadcertainlynomoreregardfortheopinionsandwelfareoftheScottishpeoplethanhadBruce.ThepopularappealofWallaceliesinhisperceivedsimplicity:hissingle-mindeddevotiontohisliegeKingJohnandhismartyr’sdeathforwhathebelieved.Asfarasweknow,Wallacehadnodynasticorpersonalinterestinthewar;

noclaimtothethronetoconsider;nolandsinEnglandthatmightbeforfeited,andnotenantswhosewelfarehadtobetakenintoaccount.RobertBrucebycontrastcamewithallthesecomplications.ThusitiseasytoportrayWallaceasanattractive,unselfishidealistwhosufferedamartyr’sdeath,whileBruceisvulnerabletocaricatureasashiftingpolitician,a

pragmatistwhocompromisedanddelivered,butwholookedafterhisowninterestsaboveall.Suchacontrastbetween

WallaceandBrucemaysuittwentieth-centurytasteinnarrativeandcinema,butthereisnohistoricalbasisforit.ThetruthisthatinsidingnowwithEdwardI,nowwiththeComynsashisfamilyinterestrequired,RobertBrucewasbehavinginthe

samewayasmostofhispeersandcontemporaries.Probably,asProfessorDuncanhasneatlyexpressedit,contemporariesthoughtnonetheworseofhimforit.ThecontrastbetweenWallaceandBruceisthereforesuperficial.Conversely,Brucedidnot‘succeedwhereWallacefailed’.Rather,BrucebuiltuponWallace’sachievement:manyofthosewhofoughtatStirlingBridge

foughtalsoatBannockburn,andsharedthesameoutrageattheEnglishoccupationandhumiliationoftheircountry.Thebestmonumentsto

Robert’smemoryarethecaptivatingnarrativeofBarbour’sTheBruceandthestirringrhetoricoftheDeclarationofArbroath.Inaddition,everyoneshouldreadandenjoy,withoutbeingdupedby,themedievalpropagandistsfortheBruce

dynasty:Fordun,BowerandWyntoun,whohideRobert’sfaultsandmaskhistruegoalstogenerateacrudeandunreconstructednationalisticfervour.Roberthimselfmadenogeneralisationsonthebasisofnationality.DuringhisrebellionagainsttheEnglishkingin1306itisinterestinghowhighlyRobertvaluedhisEnglishknights–YorkshiremenChristopherSetonandhisbrothers,and,

later,theNorthumbrianSirWilliamBurradon,withwhomhefledintothemountains.Inhislettertothe‘kingsprelatesandclergyandtheinhabitantsofIreland’Robertunderstands‘ournation’asapan-Celticconglomeration,embracingIrishandScots.Hisstatedconceptofnationhoodwasalreadyarchaic,andfarremovedfromtheself-contained,homogeneous

unitsthathavebeenunderstoodasnationssincethetimeoftheFrenchRevolution.TemptingasitistoportrayRobertasachampionofsmallidentities,nations,languagesorculturesunderthreatfromthehomogenising,destructiveforcesofglobalisation,todosowouldbeunjusttotheGallovidianandManxidentitieswhichRobertrepressed.Itistempting,too,

inviewofhislettertotheIrish,torepresentRobertasachampionofGaeliccultureandofthepan-Celticideal,yetthiswasmostlikelyaposeadoptedbyRobertandEdwardBrucetoattractGaelicsupport,fortheircareersshowedonlysuperficialcommitmenttothatideal.Itis,rather,forhis

leadershipofabeleaguredpeople,hisrevivalofthe

Scottishkingship,hispreservationoftheScottishidentityinthefaceofdireexternalthreat,hispersonalqualitiesofdaring,leadershipanddetermination,thatRobertBruce’smemoryshouldbehonouredandcherished.HoweveronepicturesRobert–ontherunfromthetrackerdogsinGalloway,wadinguptohisneckintheicymoatatPerth,manfullydispatchingHenry

deBounonthedaybeforeBannockburn,orridingatfullpeltacrossthePenninesinhisefforttocaptureEdwardIIin1322–Robert’sremarkableadventureswillneverfailtoentertain,intrigueandinspire.Valiantknight,greatsea-lordoftheGaidhealtachdandtriumphantking,hislifeservestoillustratethatresoluteaction,determinationandperseverance,eveninthefaceofoverwhelmingodds,

canreversegreatinjustice.

Genealogicaltables

1.AncestryandchildrenofRobertBruce(andsomefamilyrelationships)

2.SiblingsofRobertBruce

(andtheirmarriages)

3.Thesuccessiontothe

Scottishthrone

4.TheComynsofBadenoch

5.TheComynearlsof

Buchan

6.PossibleMacDonald

familytree

7.MacDougallfamilytree

Notesonsources

Introduction:brushingoffthecobwebs

ThefirstchapterofYoung,RoberttheBruce’sRivalsdescribesthewholesalerewritingofhistorythatoccurredtosupportthecauseoftheBruceandStewart

kingsagainsttheclaimsofEdwardBalliolandEdwardIIIofEngland.TheComynswerepaintedveryblackindeedbytheBruceanpropagandists,andanaccountofWallace’scareerwasmodifedtoenablefavourablecomparisonstobemadebetweenRobertandWallace.Quotationsinthischapterarefromthepro-Brucepartisanchroniclers,FordunandBower.Theprincipal

milestonesintherevisionofRobertBruceareasfollows:Barron,TheScottishWarofIndependence,1934;Barrow,RobertBruce,whichfirstappearedin1964,andDuncan,TheActsofRobertI,whichappearedin1988.

1Amanofhistime,amanofhisplace:Scotlandinthelatethirteenthcentury

SeeGenealogicaltable1for

Robert’sancestryand2forhissiblings.TheperiodisdescribedinthefinalchaptersofDuncan,Scotland:theMakingoftheKingdomandintheopeningchaptersofNicholson,Scotland:theLaterMiddleAges,andalsointheinitialchapterofBarrow,RobertBruce.Nicholsonisespeciallystrongonmedievaleconomyandsociety.TheScottishmonarchyatthistimeis

describedbyDuncaninthefinalchapterofScotland:TheMakingoftheKingdom,andtheconceptandprocessofking-makinginTheKingshipoftheScotsbythesameauthor.GaelicScotlandinthisperiodisexploredbyMcDonaldinTheKingdomoftheIsles;andIrishaspectsandresonancesbyDuffyin‘TheAnglo-NormanErainScotland’andin‘TheBruceBrothers’.Ihaveused

Prestwich’sexamplestoillustratetherelativevaluesofcommodities:EdwardI,‘ANoteonMoney’.

2Aninheritance,agrandfather’sambitionanda‘coveytous’king(1286–96)

EarlyfamilyhistoryiscoveredbyDuncanin‘TheBrucesofAnnandale,1100–

1304’.Young,RoberttheBruce’sRivalsisavaluablestudyofthepowerfulComynfamily.TheoriginoftheBruceclaimtothethroneisdiscussedinDuncan,TheKingshipoftheScots.DuncanisdismissiveofRobertBruceV’sclaimtohavebeenacknowledgedasheirtoAlexanderII,whoin1238hadnoheirofhisbody.OpinionsonEdwardIvarymarkedly:Prestwichdefends

theEnglishkinginhisbiographyEdwardI,fromBarrow’scriticisms,setoutinRobertBruce.EventsfollowingthedeathofAlexanderIIIarediscussedinBarrow,RobertBruceandinDuncan’sreviewofthefirsteditionofthatwork,‘ThecommunityoftherealmofScotlandandRobertBruce’.Nicholson,Scotland:TheLaterMiddleAges,providesathirdperspective.Stonesis

themainauthorityontheGreatCause,anddocumentsinAnglo-ScottishRelationsconveyaflavourofit.UsefulsummariesfromtwodifferentperspectivesaregiveninPrestwich,EdwardIandBarrow,RobertBruce.Thecampaignof1296anditsaftermatharecoveredintheLanercost,andGuisboroughchronicles,andtheexcerptsofpopularsongarepreservedinPeterLangtoft’srhyming

chronicle.

3ResistanceandsurvivalinoccupiedScotland(1296–1306)

Fisher,WilliamWallace(Birlinn,Edinburgh,2002)istheleadingauthorityonWallacehimself,thoughtherebellionisdescribedinBarrow,RobertBruce.The

invasionofEnglandisanalysedbyMcNamee,‘WilliamWallace’sInvasionofNorthernEnglandin1297’.ThesubsequentEdwardianinvasionsofScotlandarediscussedinPrestwich,EdwardIandinWarPoliticsandFinancebythesameauthor.AmorerecentstudyhoweverisF.Watson,UndertheHammer:EdwardIandScotland1286–1307.Forthe

MacDougallrebellion,IhaveusedMcDonald,TheKingdomoftheIsles.GuisboroughisthesourcefortheBruce’s‘speechtotheknightsofAnnandale;andGuisboroughandLanercostarethemainchroniclesourcesfortheeventsof1297–98.Cressingham’sfascinatingletterstotheEnglishgovernmentandkingaretranslatedinthesecondvolumeofStevenson,

Documents.TheBattlefieldsTrustwebsitecontainsdetailedmapsandplansofseveralofthebattlesconnectedwithRobertBruce,including:Stirling,Falkirk,BannockburnandMyton(http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/medieval/).IhaveavailedofBarrow’s

translationsofthefollowingdocuments:theletterdescribingthefracasinthepatriotcampatPeeblesin

1299;theagreementbetweenBruceandEdwardI;andthelettertoMelroseAbbeyin1302.ThereissomeuncertaintyastothepreciseidentityoftheMacDonaldlordmurderedin1299.ThisisdiscussedinMcDonald,TheKingdomoftheIsles.Stones,Anglo–ScottishRelationsincludesatranslationofthepapalletter‘ScimusFili’.TheideathatWallace’srelationshipwith

theComynshadbeendifficultcomesfromachronicletradition,preservedinBower,thathehadsuppressedtheComynfaction.Theepisodemaybelongto1297–98.

4‘Playingatkingsandqueens’(1306):Murder,revolutionandenthronement

ForthecoupitselfandthecoronationthemainsourceisGuisborough,interpretedbyBarrow,RobertBruce.ForRobert’sescapefromMethventothewest,IusedDuncan’scommentaryin(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce.TheevaluationoftheRedComyn’scareerisbaseduponthatinYoung,RoberttheBruce’sRivals.ThecrucialletteroftheBerwickcorrespondentistranslatedin

Stones,Anglo–ScottishRelations,No.34.Duncan’sdiscussionoftheriteofking-makinginTheKingshipoftheScotsisveryrevealing.SnatchesofEnglishpopularsongarefromPeterLangtoft’schronicleandWright(ed.),ThePoliticalSongsofEngland.Strathearn’spredicamentisrecountedinNeville,‘ThePoliticalAllegianceoftheEarlsofStrathearnduringthe

WarsofIndependence’.

5‘Throughthemountainsandfromisletoisle’(1306–07):Defeatandexile(1306–07)

ThequotationinthetitleofthischapterisSirThomasGray’sdescriptionofthefugitiveking’swesternodysseyfromhis

Scalachronica.ForthischapterIhavereliedextensivelyuponBarrow,RobertBruce.ThedramaticchangesofallegianceinthewestaredescribedinMcDonald,TheKingdomoftheIsles.AsDuncanpointsoutinhiseditionofBarbour,TheBruce,themurderedRedComyn,JohnofBadenochIII,wasnotJohnofArgyll’suncle,buthiscousin.ForRobert’sescapefrom

Methventothewest,Duncan’scommentaryinhiseditionofBarbour’s,TheBruceisimportant.Duncan’sviewsonRobert’sintendeddestinationonleavingDunavertyaregivenin‘TheScots’InvasionofIreland,1315’.ThelettertoallthekingsofIrelandistranslatedinBarrow,RobertBruce;andfortheremarkable‘T’and‘A’letterseeDuffy‘TheBruceBrothersandtheIrish

SeaWorld,1306–29’.MacDowall’srewardisrecordedinCDSiv,no.6.BooksIVtoVIIIofTheBrucedescribetheking’sprecarioussurvivalinthesouth-westin1307.BarbourisalsothesourcefortheterrifiedstateofCarrickandRandolph’sobjectionstotheking’slackofchivalryinhiswarfare.Duncan’scommentaryonTheBrucehasbeenfollowedforthe

battlesofGlentroolandLoudonHill.TheimportantletteroftheForfarcorrespondentistranslatedinBarrow,RobertBruce.

6Recoveringthekingdom(1307–11)

Thischapterisbasedon:Barrow,RobertBruce;Duncan(ed.),Barbour,The

Bruce;and,fordevelopmentsinEngland,Haines,EdwardII.Higden’sfamousdescriptionofEdwardIIisfromPolychronicon.Robert’ssupposedcomparisonofEdwardIIwithhisfatherisderivedfromtheAnnalesPaulini.TheletterfromtheearlofRoss,writtenperhapsinOctoberorNovember1307,isavitalsource,translatedinBarrow,RobertBruce.Furthervaluable

informationabouteventsinlate1307tospring1308comesfromabadlydamagedletterofDuncanofFrendraughttoEdwardII,whichDuncantranslatesinhiscommentarytoBarbour,TheBruce.The‘BattleofInverurie’(orOldMeldrumtogivethebattleitspreciselocation)isrecountedatDuncan(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce,Bk.IX;andthe‘herschipofBuchan’follows.

ThespecialrelationshipbetweentheScotsandtheFlemingsisexaminedinthreearticlesbyReid:‘Trade,TradersandScottishIndependence’;‘TheScotsandtheStapleOrdinanceof1313;and‘SeaPowerandtheAnglo-ScottishWar1296–1328’.ThecampaignagainstJohnofArgyllisdiscussedinMcDonald,TheKingdomoftheIsles.Barrow,RobertBruce,translatesJohn’sletter,

butIhavefollowedDuncanindatingthelettertoaftertheBattleofBenCruachan.Theepisodeofthe‘Douglaslardner’isrecountedinDuncan(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce,BkV.ThesourcesfortheGallowaycampaignareLanercost,BowerandBarbour,TheBruce,Bk.IX.ThesourceforRobert’sacquisitionofthepapaltenthisanarticlebyEasson,‘TheScottishAbbeysandtheWar

ofIndependence:AFootnote’.TheEnglishcampaignof1310–11isdiscussedinHaines,EdwardII,andMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.ThetranslationoftheGaelicpoemisbyMeek,‘“NorsemenandNobleStewards”:TheMacSweenPoemintheBookoftheDeanofLismore’.

7TheroadtoBannockburn(1311–14)

ThechiefchroniclesourcefortheraidingofEnglandisLanercost.McNamee,WarsoftheBruces,analysestheraidsintoEngland.Barbour,TheBruceisthemainsourceforthecaptureoftheScottishcastles.Galbraith,‘ExtractsfromtheHistoriaAureaandaFrenchBrut’revealsthedevastatingeffectsofthewar

onNorthumberland.ThedevelopingwarintheIrishSeaisrecordedinManxchronicleChronicaRegumManniaeetInsularum,andintheAnglo-Irishchronicleknownasthe‘LaudAnnals’(containedintheChartulariesofStMary’sAbbey,Dublin).DuncandiscussesthetimingofthearrangementsoverStirlingCastleinhiscommentaryonBarbour,TheBruce,Bk.XI.FortheBattle

ofBannockburnIhaverelieduponBarrow,RobertBruce,andDuncan’s‘BannockburnCommentary’inhiseditionofBarbour,TheBruce.Themainprimarysourcesforthebattleare:Duncan(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce,Bks.XI,XIIandXIII;andthethreeEnglishchroniclesLanercost,VitaEdwardiSecundi,andScalachronica.TheBattlefieldsTrustwebsitecontainsdetailedmapsand

plansoftheBattle:http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/medieval/Thepolished,possiblyofficial,versionoftheking’seve-of-battlespeechsurvivesinBower.

8Triumphsanddisasters(1314–18):Famine,warandIreland(1314–18)

PartsofScotlandwillhavebeenseriouslyaffectedbythewidespreadanimaldiseasesthatoccurredinEnglandintheearly1320s,describedinKershaw,‘TheGreatFamineandAgrarianCrisisinEngland1315–1322’.FortheraidsintoEngland,seeBarrow;RobertBruceisperhapsabitthinonthisaspect.LiteratureontheIrishcampaignsisgrowing.TheyarediscussedinDuncan,‘The

Scots’InvasionofIreland,1315’;Frame,‘TheBrucesinIreland,1315–18’,and‘TheCampaignoftheScotsinMunster,1317’;andDuffy,RoberttheBruce’sIrishWars.OnthewarintheNorthSea,inadditiontotheReidarticlesmentionedabove,Stevenson,‘TheFlemishDimensionoftheAuldAlliance’throwslightonthecomplicatedrelationshipbetween

England,France,FlandersandScotland.AlltheseaspectsareexaminedinMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.BarbourshowsinterestinraidsintoEnglandonlywherechivalricfeatsofarmsareperformed;butheiswellinformedaboutIrelandanddevotesBkXIV,andpartsofXV,XVIandXVIIItoeventsinthattheatreofwar.Theonlysourcesuggestinganinvitationto

Edwardisachroniclefragment,printedinPhillips,‘DocumentsontheEarlyStagesoftheBruceInvasionsofIreland,1315–1316’.ThesiegeofCarlisleisrecountedinLanercost,andtheanarchicstateofNorthumberlandisdescribedinScammell,‘RobertIandtheNorthofEngland’,andMiller,WarintheNorth.Prestwichanalysestheintriguingepisodesoftherobberyofthecardinalsand

theMiddletonrevoltin‘GilbertdeMiddletonandtheAttackontheCardinals,1317’andargues,contrarytomyconclusion,thattherobberywasnotorchestratedbyKingRobert.Theraidof1318,describedinLanercost,isanalysedinKershaw,‘TheScotsintheWestRiding,1318–19’andMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.SourcesforthedecisiveBattleofFaughartnearDundalkare

theAnnalsofClonmacnoise,Lanercost,andBarbourTheBruce,BkXVIII.

9Thestruggleforpeacewithhonour(1318–23)

Lanercostremainstheprincipalchroniclesourceforthisnextphaseofthewartoo.TheprincipalsecondaryworksareBarrow,Robert

BruceandMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.Haines,EdwardII,coverstheimportantbackgroundofEnglishpolitics,andisalsousefulforrelationsbetweenthepapacyandthetwowarringkingdoms.BarbourshowsgreatinterestinthesiegeofBerwickandinthechivalricfeatsoftheScottishraidofOctober1322.ThesiegeofBerwickistreatedindepthinMaddicott,Thomas

ofLancasterandMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.Themainchronicleaccountsfortheraidof1319andtheBattleofMytonareVitaEdwardiSecundiandLanercost.FortheEnglishinvasionof1322,seeFrydeTheTyrannyandFallofEdwardII,pp.129–31.Robert’sletterof1320toEdwardIIistranslatedinBarrow,RobertBruce,andeditedandcommentedonbyDuncan,TheActsofRobertI.

ThedevastationofthebishopricofDurhamearlyin1322isdescribedinthechronicleofRobertofGraystanes,containedinRaine(ed.),HistoriaeDunelmensisScriptoresTresanddiscussedinScammell,RobertIandtheNorthofEngland.Apartfromthestockman’saccount,mostofthefinancialaccountskeptfaithfullybyDurhamCathedralPriorythroughout

thisperiodlapseatthispoint,acircumstancewhichmaybeconnectedwiththecomingoftheScots.Harclay’sappealforassistanceandEdwardII’sevasivereplyisfromtheVitaEdwardiSecundi.Robert’spreemptiveattackonLancashireandtheWesternMarchisdescribedindetailbyLanercost.TheEnglishinvasionofScotlandisdescribedinBarbour,TheBruce,BkXVIIIand

discussedinHaines,EdwardIIandFryde,TheTyranyandFallofEdwardII.LanercostprovidesthenarrativeofRobert’scounterattack.ThewidespreaddevastationofPickeringandtheEastRidingisrevealedinMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.TheBruce–HarclaytreatyistranslatedinStones,Anglo–ScottishRelations,no.39;andRobert’slettertoSullyinBarrow,RobertBruce.

10Robert,KingofScots:thegovernanceofScotland

ThischapterrelieschieflyuponanalysesbyNicholson,Scotland:TheLaterMiddleAgesandBarrow’schapter‘GoodKingRobert’inRobertBruce.AttemptstodeliverpapalbullstoRobertin1317–18aredetailedintheregisteroftheArchbishopofYork,WilliamMelton,andrecountedinHill‘AnEnglish

ArchbishopandtheScottishWarofIndependence’.Wedonothavethetextofthebarons’lettertothecardinals,butDuncaninfersitsexistencefromotherdocuments;andashesaysinTheActsofRobertI,itmusthaveanticipatedcloselytheDeclarationofArborath.Duncan,TheNationofScotsandtheDeclarationofArbroath(HistoricalAssociation,1970)was

consultedfortheDeclaration.OneofthemostentertainingconsiderationsofthedocumentisBrothestoneandDitchburn,‘“1320andAThat”:theDeclarationofArbroathandtheRemakingofScottishHistory’,wherethemodernrelevanceoftheletterisdiscussed.AntecedentsoftheDeclarationareconsidered.TheletteroftheEnglishbaronsisdiscussedin

Prestwich,EdwardI;theletteritselfwascopiedintoGuisborough.TheProcessuswasalegalbriefcompiledbyBaldredBisset,thechiefScottishlawyeratthepapalcourtin1301.ManyofthematerialsmakingupthebriefareinBower,vol.vi,andasummarywassenttoEdwardIbyhisownlawyersatAvignon,Stones,Anglo-ScottishRelations,no.31.TheScottishargumentsare

summarisedandtheEnglishreportgivenintranslationinBarrow,RobertBruce.TheRemonstranceoftheIrishPrincesistranslatedinBower.CowandiscussesthepossiblemeaningsoffreedomintheDeclarationin‘Identity,FreedomandtheDeclarationofArbroath’.Penman’sarticle‘Afellconiuracioun’isthefirstindepthanalysisoftheSoulesconspiracy.Theconspiracy

revealstheinsecurityoftheBruceregime.ThemainchroniclesourcesforitareBarbour,TheBruce,BkXIXandScalachronica.ThediscussionofRobert’srelationshipwithhisnoblesisabstractedfromBarrow,RobertBruce.ForRobert’sgenerositytoMoray,seeDuncan,TheActsofRobertI.TheroyaladministrationisdiscussedbrieflyinBarrow,RobertBruce,pp.294–96;

andthediscussionofRobert’sfinancialarrangementsisbaseduponNicholson,Scotland:TheLaterMiddleAges.

11EndgamewithEngland,anddeath(1323–28)

Barrow,RobertBruce,McNamee,WarsoftheBruces,andNicholson,

EdwardIIIandtheScotsformthebasisofthischapter.TwoarticlesbyNicholson,‘ASequeltoEdwardBruce’sInvasionofIreland’and‘TheLastCampaignofRobertBruce’,discusstheIrishexpeditionsof1327and1328andtheWeardalecampaignrespectively.Themainchroniclesources–LanercostandBarbour,TheBruce,BksXIXandXX–aresupplementedbya

foreigner’spointofviewinJehanLeBel’sLesVrayesChroniques.ThepartofLeBel’sworkwhichcoverstheWeardalecampaignof1327istranslatedinDuncan(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce.LeBel’schroniclewascopiedintothechroniclesofFroissart’schronicle,whichismuchmorereadilyavailablethanthePolaineditionoftheoriginal.TheAnglo-Scottishnegotiationsof1324are

describedintheVitaEdwardiSecundi,whereitisinterestingthatRobertdemandsforthefirsttimethereturnoftheStoneofSconeinexpectationofthebirthofanheir.Haines,EdwardIIandFryde,TheTyrannyandFallofEdwardIIdescribetheoverthrowofEdwardIIanditsrepercussionsforEnglishpolicytowardsScotland.Nicholson,EdwardIIIandtheScots,isthebestaccount

ofthisvolatileperiod.LeBel,Barbour,LanercostandScalachronicaallagreethatDouglasattackedtheEnglishking’scamp;DuncanprovidesalltheseaccountsinhiseditionofBarbour,TheBruce.ThepossibilityofnegotiationsbetweentheIrishgovernmentandRobertin1327isconsideredinMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.FortheTreatyofEdinburgh–Northampton,I

haveusedNicholson,EdwardIIIandtheScots,whichtakesaccountofatrioofarticlesbyProfessorStonesintheScottishHistoricalReviewin1949,1950and1951.Theformalquit-claimbywhichEdwardIIIrenouncedanyclaimonScotlandisinStones,Anglo–ScottishRelations.TheBarbourpassagedescribingtheking’sillnessisinBarbour,TheBruce,BkXX.Ontheissue

ofleprosyversussyphilis,IhaveconsultedMoller-Christensen,andInkster,‘CasesofLeprosyandSyphilisintheOsteologicalCollectionoftheDepartmentofBiomedicalSciences,UniversityofEdinburgh:WithaNoteontheSkullofRoberttheBruce’,andKaufmanandMacLennan,‘RoberttheBruceandLeprosy’.Hamilton,TheLeperKingandhisHeirs

furnishestheinterestingcomparisonwiththetwelfth-centuryleperkingofJerusalem,BaldwinIV.FinancialrecordswhichexistonlyfortheverylastyearsofthereignareprintedinStuartandBurnett(eds.),TheExchequerRollsofScotlandandcontainsomedetailsoftheroyalfuneral.Barbour’saccountofRobert’sdeath-bedspeechinTheBruce,BkXX,maybecomparedwiththe

versioninLeBel(copiedintoFroissart).Cameron,‘SirJamesDouglas,SpainandtheHolyLand’andSimpson,‘TheHeartofKingRobertI:PiousCrusadeorMarketingGambit?’discussRobert’sposthumouscrusadeandDouglas’sexploitsinSpain.TheinterpolationintoBarbour’stextwasborrowedfromtheallegoricalpoembySirRichardHolland,TheBookoftheHowlat,writtenc.

1448.

12Theimage,thelegendandthelongshadowofRobertBruce

Haine,EdwardIIandMaddicott,ThomasofLancastereachdescribethepopularcanonisationoftheirsubjects.ThepossibilitythatEdwardIIsurvivedhis

reporteddeathin1327isreconsideredbyMortimer,‘TheDeathofEdwardIIinBerkleyCastle’.PartofthereportontheexhumationofRobertIwaspublishedas‘ExtractsfromthereportmadebyHenryJardine’.Littlehasbeenwrittenabouttheexhumationsince,exceptforKaufmanandMacLennan,‘RoberttheBruceandLeprosy’.OntheInternet,however,manysites

showinterestinthepresent-daywhereaboutsofRobert’scorporealremains.ThesubsequenthistoryofScotlandthatisgivenhereisbaseduponNicholson,Scotland:TheLaterMiddleAgesandEdwardIIIandtheScots.ThereferencetoRobertintheUniondebateisfromSzechi(ed.),‘Scotland’sRuine’:LockhartofCarnforth’sMemoirsoftheUnion(Aberdeen,1995).The

analysisofnineteenth-centuryattitudestoBruceandWallaceisbaseduponthatinMorton,UnionistNationalism:GoverningUrbanScotland,1830–1860.

Genealogicaltables

KingsofScotlandareshownindarktype.‘Competitors’arethosewhoparticipatedin

theGreatCauseof1290–92.Tables1and2arebasedonthoseinBarrow,RobertBruceandtheCommunityoftheRealm,withadditionalmaterialinserted.Table3isthatgiveninDuncan,Scotland:TheMakingoftheKingdom.Tables4and5arebasedonthoseinYoung,RoberttheBruce’sRivals.IhaveassumedinTable5thatEmmaandAgnesarethesameperson.Tables6and7

arebasedonthoseinMcDonald,ThekingdomoftheIsles.

Furtherreading

AboutRobertBruceBarrow,G.W.S.,RobertBruceandtheCommunityoftheRealmofScotland(EdinburghUniversityPress,2006),thescholarlybiography.

Duncan,A.A.M.(ed.),JohnBarbour,TheBruce,

(Cannongate1997),theverseepicwhichistheprincipalnarrativesourceforhislife,intheoriginalScotswithtranslationonfacingpages.

AboutmedievalScotland

BrounD.,FinlayR.J.,andLynchM.(eds.),ImageandIdentity:TheMakingandRe-makingofScotlandThrough

theAges(JohnDonald,1998)Ditchburn,D.,ScotlandandEurope:themedievalkingdomanditscontactswithChristendom,1214–1560(TuckwellPress,2001),theEuropeancontext.

Duncan,A.M.M.,Scotland:theMakingoftheKingdom(EdinburghUniversityPress,1975)

MacDonald,R.A.,TheKingdomoftheIsles:Scotland’sWesternSeaboardinthe

CentralMiddleAges,c.1000–1336(Tuckwell,1997)

Nicholson,R.,Scotland:theLaterMiddleAges(EdinburghUniversityPress,1974)

Young,A.,RoberttheBruce’sRivals:theComyns,1212–1314(TuckwellPress,1997)

AbouttheEnglishwareffortinScotland

Haines,R.M.,EdwardII:EdwardofCaernarfon:HisLife,HisReign,andItsAftermath(1284–1330)(McGill-Queen’sUniversityPress,2003)

Nicholson,R.,EdwardIIIandtheScots(OxfordUniversityPress,1965)

Prestwich,M.,EdwardI(Methuen,1988)

Watson,F.,UndertheHammer(TuckwellPress,1998)

AbouttheDeclarationofArbroath

Duncan,A.M.M.,TheNationoftheScotsandtheDeclarationofArbroath(HistoricalAssociation,1970)

Brotherstone,T.andDitchburn,D.(eds.),FreedomandAuthority:Scotlandc.1050–c.1650:HistoricalandHistoriographicalEssaysPresentedtoGrantG.Simpson(TuckwellPress,

2000)

AboutthewidercontextofRobertI’swars

Davies,R.R.,(ed.),TheBritishIsles1100–1500:Comparisons,ContrastsandConnections(JohnDonald,1988)

Duffy,S.(ed.),RoberttheBruce’sIrishWars:the

InvasionsofIreland1306–1329(Stroud,TempusPublishing,2002),areviseditineraryandchronologyinEdwardBruce’sinvasionofIreland.

McNamee,C.,TheWarsoftheBruces:Scotland,EnglandandIreland1307–1328(TuckwellPress,1997),asurveyofthewiderimplicationsoftheconflict.

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England1315–1322’,inR.H.Hilton,(ed).Peasants,KnightsandHeretics:StudiesinMedievalEnglishSocialHistory.(Cambridge,1981)

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Moller-Christensen,V.,andInkster,R.G.,‘CasesofLeprosyandSyphilisintheOsteologicalCollectionoftheDepartmentofBiomedical

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(1962),pp.233–46OxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography

Pearson,K.,‘KingRoberttheBruce,1274–1329.Hisskullandportraiture’,Biometrika16(1924),252–72

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——‘GilbertdeMiddletonandtheAttackontheCardinals,

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Scammell,J.,‘RobertIandtheNorthofEngland’EnglishHistoricalReviewlxxiii(1958),pp.385–403

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Notesandreferences

NowpublishedwithtranslationandnotesinDuncan(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce.Seegenealogicaltables1AncestryandchildrenofRobertBruceand2Siblings

ofRobertBruceandtheirmarriages.GenealogicaltablesofthetwomainComynlineagesareprovided.SeeGenealogicaltable1:AncestorsandchildrenofRobertBruce.InnumberingthelordsofAnnandaleirrespectiveoftheirChristiannamesIhavefollowedProfessorDuncan.AlthoughthefuturekingisherereferredtoasRobert

VII,thenumeralreferstohisplaceinsuccessiontothelordshipofAnnandale.HewasinfactthesixthRobertBruceofthename.SeetheGenealogicaltable3:SuccessiontotheScottishthrone.RobertBruceVII,‘our’RobertBruce,wasnotpresent.ThemainproblemsurroundingthistreatyiswhethertheEnglish

reservationsnullifiedtheguaranteeofScottishindependenceundertheproposedunion.Seegenealogicaltables6and7.AlsopresentwasJohnComynofBadenochIII.Ittakesanefforttoremember,inthefaceofsuchbitterness,thatnationalismasweknowit,didnotexistintheMiddleAges.Thecorollaryofmodern

nationalismis‘popularsovereignty’,theassumption,bornoftheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions,thatsovereigntyresidesinthepeople.Nosuchideaexistedinthemiddleages.Loyaltytoone’scountrycertainlyexisted,butitwastemperedbyloyaltytoone’slord,andtothesupra-nationalchurch.Medievalracismandprejudicewerenonethelessvirulent.

Seegenealogicaltables6and7.Imprisonmentofaclergymanwascontrarytocanonlaw,andWishart’scasewouldbringpapaldisapprovaluponEdward.Thisassertion,byFordun,isnowconsideredtobeanerror,possiblyintendingBruce’sfatherRobertVI,theLordofAnnandale.NeitherRobertVInorRobertVIIappearontheFalkirkRollof

Arms.Errorornot,itisamostunusalstatementforaScottishsourceotherwisedesignedtoglorifythememoryofRobertBruce.TherewashowevernotreatyofpeacebetweenEnglandandFranceuntilMay1303.DeThwengwasunfortunateenoughtobecapturedafterBannockburnaswell.Thiswasexactlyhow,thirtyyearslater,EdwardIIIusedEdwardBallioltodestabilise

theBrucemonarchy.ThefactthatBrucehadnotbeenatcourtintheperiodleadinguptoComyn’smurderdisprovesthemyth,reflectedinseveralchronicles,thattheearlofGloucesterhadtippedoffBruceaboutimminentarrestandfacilitatedhisescape.Thetalepointstotwotruths,however:firstly,thattherehadbeenalong-standingsympathybetweenthehouses

ofGloucesterandBruce,andsecondlythatBrucewasworriedabouthisstandingatcourt,andmayhavefearedrevelations.BarbourgivesapenportraitofDouglas:‘Hewasloyalinallhisactionsforhedidnotdeigntohavetruckwithtreacheryorfalseness.Hisheartwassetonhighhonour,andhebehavedinsuchawaythatallwhowerenearhimlovedhim.Buthewasnotso

good-lookingthatweshouldsaymuchofhisbeauty.Hisfacewassomewhatpale,and,asIheardit,hehadblackhair,buthewaswellmadeinhislimbswithstrongbonesandbroadshoulders.’ThecoronetwaslaterdiscoveredandkeptbyGeoffreydeCoignersafterRobert’sdefeatatMethven.AftertheBrucecoupitisnolongerpossibletowriteof‘patriots’,forRoberthad

irrevocablysplitthatgroupofScottishmagnates.InshorthandreferencetoScotsco-operatingwiththeEnglishagainsttheBrucestheclumsyterm‘Anglo-Scots’iscommonlyused.Theearl’sheirwasahostage,andhisothersonswereintheserviceofEdwardI.ElsewherethestoryisthatJohnofHaliburtoncapturedRobertinthisfashion,but

then,onrecognisinghim,releasedhim.SeeGenealogicaltable4:TheComynsofBadenoch.TheseplacesaremarkedonMap6forgreaterclarity.DunavertyhadactuallybeenbuiltbytheMacDougallsandwasasymboloftheirlordshipinthearea.ButMacQuillanappearstohavebeenentrustedbyEdwardIwiththisformidablecastleduringtheyearsof

MacDougallrebellion.Priortothecoupof1306,MalcolmMacQuillangavethecastletoRobertinexchangeforanother.Thelettersurvivesasanexemplarorillustrationdesignedtoshowroyalclerkshowlettersshouldbephrased,butinsuchexamplesthelettersA,BandCaregenerallyusedtoindicatewherepropernamesshouldbeinserted.Inthisparticular

exemplar,theletters‘T’and‘A’areusedtodenotethenamesoftheplenipotentiaries.SéanDuffyarguesconvincinglythattheinitialsstandfor‘Thomas’and‘Alexander’,andthattheyare‘ourdearkinsmen’referredtointhetext.DuncanplacestheattackonTurnberryCastleinthespringof1306,andtheattackonthebilletedsoldiersinthevillageinasubsequentattackon

GallowayaroundSeptember1307.ThisactionusedtobeknownastheBattleofBranderPass;nowthenameBattleofBenCruachanispreferred.Douglashadapparentlylefttheforesttojointhekingonthisexpedition.‘DonaldofIslay’appearstobeascribalerrororshorthandfor[AngusÓgMac]Donald,LordofIslay.Morayisdescribedby

Barbourinthefollowingterms:‘Hewasofmoderatestatureandwell-formedinproportion,withabroadface,pleasantandfair,courteousanddebonairinallrespectsandofassureddemeanour.Helovedloyaltyaboveeverything,alwaysstooddiligentlyagainstfalsehood,treasonandfelony.Heexaltedhonourandgenerosityandalwayssupportedrighteousness.Hewascaring,

evenlovingincompany,andhealwayslovedgoodknights,for,totellthetruth,hewasfullofspiritandmadeofallthevirtues.’Robertmayofcoursealreadyhavehadhishandsonthismoney,requiringonlyratificationofthestatusquo.ThesepapaltenthshadbeenpromisedbypopestothekingofEngland.IntheBarbournarrativethearrangementismadealmosta

yearearlier,andRobertberatesEdwardBruceforgivingEdwardIIsolongtorelievethecastle.Barbourwasmistakenhowever.DuncanrecentlypointedoutthatthecampaignwasnotoccasionedbyathreattoStirlingCastlebutbythedecreeofOctober1313.ThefallofStirlingbecameimminentonlyinMay1314,whentheEnglisharmywasalreadyapproaching.

InSeptember1314JohnwassaidtobecoursingontheIrishSeawithtwelveships,probablyaccompaniedbyhisvassalDuncanMacGoffrey.TheLaudAnnalsstatethattheinaugurationofEdwardBruceaskingofIrelandtookplaceveryshortlyafterthefeastofSaintsPhilipandJames–1May–whichreferstothatdatein1316,ormaybeanerrorforasimilarlynamedfeastdayin1315.

BarbourhasCrabbeworkfortheScotsunderduressandthreatenedwithdeath.Thereissomethingstrangehere,forifitwereCrabbe,theprivateeringscourgeofEnglishshipping,hewouldneitherhavebeenontheEnglishside,norwouldhehavetobeforcedtoworkagainsttheEnglish.ButtheengineerdoesindeedseemtohavebeenJohnCrabbetheformerpirate.Heworkedfor

theScotsagainasengineerinNorthumberlandin1327,butchangedsidesandworkedfortheEnglishwhentheybesiegedBerwickin1333.TheDeclarationofArbroathwastimedtorespondtoa‘witheringblastofecclesiasticalcensure’,partlyinspiredbytheCardinalsinsultedin1317,partlybyEnglishdiplomacyatthecuria’.Theotherillegitimate

childrenappeartohavebeenMargaretBruce,whomarriedRobertGlen,andElizabeth,whomarriedSirWalterOliphantofGask.Intheevent,DavidIIdiedchildlessin1371andRobertStewartsucceeded,initiatingtheStewartdynasty.AnEnglishchronicleTheBrut,allegesthatScottishchurchmenwereexecutedforfailuretosupportRobert,butthereisnoreliableevidence

tosupportthis.GenealogicalTable5illustratesthecloseconnectionsbetweentheconspiratorsandtheComyninterest.Aswehaveseen,theUmfravilleearlsofAngushadbeendisinherited.ThenewearlwasJohnStewartofBunkle,notyetaknight.Thiswishislikelytohavelefthisfriendsinaquandary,forthepreviousmonthina

letterRobertreferredtoanearlierwishthathisheartbeburiedatMelroseAbbey.Hewasfortunatethatboththesewisheswerefulfilled.

Index

Kingsarelistedastitled;henceJohnBalliolislistedasJohnI,andRobertBruceasRobertI.Earlswhohadfamilynamesarelistedunderthem,ratherthanunderthenameoftheearldom.Inplace-names,referencesaretohistoric,ratherthanmodern,counties.

Aberdeen,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10

Aberdeen,bishopof,HenryleCheyne,ref1

Aberdeenshire,ref1Abernethy,Alexander,ref1Acre,ref1Ada,daughterofDavidearlofHuntingdon,ref1,ref2

Adam,guardianofFranciscanhouseatBerwick,ref1

Aeneas,theAeneid,ref1

Airedale(Yorks,W.R.),ref1,ref2,ref3

Albany,poeticnameforScotland,ref1,ref2

AlexanderII,kingofScotland(1198),ref1,ref2,ref3

AlexanderIII,kingofScotland(1249),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

AlfonsoXI,kingofCastile(1311),ref1

Allerdale(Cumb.),ref1Alnwick(Northumb.),ref1Amounderness(Lancs.),ref1

AncrumMoor(Rox.),ref1Anglesey,ref1,ref2Anglo–Norman,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7

Angus,earldomofref1,ref2,n.42ref3earlsof,seeUmfraville,Gilbertde,Robertde;andStewart,John,ofBunkle

Annan,Annandale(Dumf.),lordshipof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,

ref17,ref18Antrim,County,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

AppealoftheSevenEarls,source,ref1

Appleby(Westm.),ref1Aqua,Walterde,ref1Arbroath(Angus),abbey,ref1,ref2Declarationof,seeDeclarationofArbroathBernardof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Ardnamurchan,West

Highlands,ref1Ardscull(Kildare),ref1Argentan,Gilesd’,ref1,ref2,ref3

Argyll,County,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12John(MacDougall)of,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,n.35ref15

Arickstone(Dunbartons.),ref1Arran,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,

ref5,ref6Arrochar(Dunbartons.),ref1Arthurianliterature,ref1Artois(Fr.),ref1Arundel,earlof,seeFitzAlan,Edmund

Asnières,truceof(1302),ref1,n.15ref2

Athy,John,ref1Atholl,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3,ref4earlsofseeStrathbogie

Avignon(Fr.),ref1,ref2Awe,River,ref1

Ayr,Ayrshire,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12

Badenoch(Inverness.),lordshipof,ref1

Badlesmere,Bartholomew,ref1Baldock,Robert,ref1,ref2,ref3BaldwinIV,kingofJerusalem(1174),ref1,ref2

Balliol,aristocraticfaction,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11

Balliol,Alexander,ref1

Balliol,Edward,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4n.17ref5claimsthethroneofScotland,ref1

Balliol,Ingram,ref1Balliol,John,seeJohnIofScotland

Balliol,William,ref1Bamburgh(Northumb.),ref1,ref2

Balvenie,orMortlach(Banff.),ref1

Banff,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Bann,River,ref1Bannockburn(Stirlings.),battleof(1314),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14

Barbour,John,historianandchronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26,ref27,ref28,

ref29,ref30,ref31,ref32,ref33,ref34,ref35,ref36,ref37,ref38,ref39,ref40,ref41,ref42,ref43,ref44,ref45,ref46,ref47,ref48

Barclay,David,ref1BarnardCastle(Durham),ref1,ref2,ref3

Barron,E.M.,historian,ref1,ref2

Barrow,G.W.S.,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12

Bathgate(W.Lothian),ref1BattlefieldsTrust,ref1,ref2Beauchamp,Guyde,earlofWarwick,ref1

Beaumont,Henry,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

Beaumont,Louis,bishopofDurham,ref1,ref2

Bedrule(Rox.),ref1Bek,Antony,bishopofDurham,ref1

Bel,Jehanle,historian,chronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,

ref4,ref5BenCruachan(Argylls.),battleof(1308),ref1,ref2,n.29ref3

Berkley,Maurice,ref1,ref2BernardtheChancellor,seeArborath,Bernardof

Berwick,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26,ref27,ref28,ref29,

ref30,ref31,ref32,ref33,ref34,ref35,ref36,ref37siegeandmassacre(1296),ref1,seeplate8recapturebyWallace,ref1,ref2strategicimportanceof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6‘Berwickcorrespondent’,ref1,ref2,ref3Robert’sattemptstocapture,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5Englishsiegeof(1319),ref1,ref2,ref3

negotiationsat,ref1Beverley(Yorks.E.R.),ref1,ref2,ref3

Biggar(Lanark),ref1Biggar,Nicholas,ref1Bigod,Roger,earlofNorfolk,ref1

Birgham,treatyof(1290),ref1,ref2,ref3,n.8.ref4

Birmingham,John,ref1Bishopsthorpe,York,truceof,(1323)ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Bisset,Baldred,ref1,ref2,ref3Bisset,Hugh,ref1,ref2

Bisset,Thomas,ref1,ref2,ref3BlackDeath,ref1BlackParliament(1320),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

BlackRoodofStMargaret,ref1,ref2

‘Blackhournoor’(Yorks.N.R.),ref1

Bohun,Humphrey,earlofHereford,ref1,ref2ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

Bolton(Yorks.W.R.),priory,ref1

BonifaceVIII,pope,ref1,ref2,

ref3,ref4,ref5BonniePrinceCharlie,ref1Boroughbridge(Yorks.W.R.),ref1;battleof(1322),ref1,ref2

Bothwell(Lanark.),ref1,ref2,ref3

Botetourt,John,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Boun,Henryde,ref1Bower,Walter,historianandchronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10

Bowness(Cumb.),ref1Boyd,Robert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

BranderPass,battleof(1308),seeBenCruachan,n.29ref2

Braveheart,film(1996),ref1,ref2

Breadalbane,ref1Breccbennach,orMonymuskreliquary,ref1,seeplate14

Brechin(Angus),ref1,ref2bishopof[JohnKinninmonth],ref1

Brechin,David,ref1Bridlington(Yorks.E.R.),ref1,ref2,ref3

BritishIsles,ref1,ref2,Brittany,Johnof,earlofRichmond,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Brix(Fr.),ref1TheBruce,source,seeBarbour,John

Brodick(Arran),ref1BroughonStainmore(Westm.),ref1,ref2

Broune,Richard,ref1

BruceofAnnandale,aristocraticfaction,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25;seeTurnberryBand

Bruce,Adam,ref1Bruce,Alexander,brotherofRobertanddeanofGlasgow,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,n.27ref9;

Bruce,Christina,sisterof

Robert,ref1,ref2;Bruce,Edward,brotherofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13;earlylife,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4asRobert’slieutenant,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4subjugationofGalloway,ref1‘LordofGalloway’,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4alienatesDavidearlofAthollfromtheBrucecause,ref1raidsEngland,ref1

invasionofIreland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10kingshipofIreland,ref1,ref2,ref3,n.36ref4deathinbattle,ref1,ref2,ref3

Bruce,Isabel,sisterofRobert,queenofNorway,ref1,ref2,ref3

Bruce,Margaret,daughterofRobert,ref1

Bruce,Marjorie,daughterofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

Bruce,Mary,sisterofRobert,ref1,ref2

Bruce,Matilda,daughterofRobert,ref1

Bruce,Neil,brotherofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Bruce,RobertI,ref1Bruce,RobertII,ref1Bruce,Robert(dbefore1194),ref1

Bruce,RobertIV,ref1;Bruce,RobertV,grandfatherofRobert,lordofAnnandale,‘theNoble’or

‘theCompetitor’,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7characterof,ref1crusade,ref1claimstothethrone,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5attemptedcoupd’état,ref1negotiationswithNorwegianambassadors,ref1threateningattitude,ref1CompetitorintheGreatCause,ref1resignsclaimtothronetoRobertBruceVI,ref1

death,ref1Bruce,RobertVI,fatherofRobert,earlofCarrickinrightofhiswife,lordofAnnandale,ref1,ref2,ref3marriage,ref1,ref2personality,ref1attemptstoresignearldomtoRobert,ref1sideswithEdwardIagainstJohnI,ref1seeksvassal-kingshipofScotland,ref1,ref2standsalooffromWallace

rebellion,ref1,ref2,ref3possiblyatFalkirk,onthesideofEdwardI,ref1,ref2,n.14,ref3death,ref1

Bruce,RobertVII,earlofCarrick,lordofAnnandale,kingofScotland,seeRobertIofScotland

Bruce,RobertillegitimatesonofRobert,ref1,ref2

Bruce,Thomas,brotherofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,n.27ref8

Bruce,William,thirdlordofAnnandale,ref1

Bruges,ref1,ref2Buchan,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5;earlof,seeComyn,AlexanderandJohn‘herschipof’,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Buittle(Kirkcudb.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Bunnock,William,ref1Burdon,Geoffreyde,priorofDurham,ref1

Burgh,EgidiaorGelisde,ref1Burgh,Elisabethde,secondwifeofRobert,queenofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

Burgh,Johnde,ref1,Burgh,Richardde‘Red’earlofUlster,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13

Burgh,Williamde,‘Brown’earlofUlster,ref1,ref2

burghs,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,

ref5BurghbySands(Cumb.),ref1Burradon,William,ref1,ref2Burstwick(Yorks.E.R.),ref1BurtononTrent(Staffs.),ref1Bute,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Butler,Edmund,ref1,ref2,ref3Bylands(Yorks.N.R.),battleof(1322),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Bywell(Northumb.),ref1

Caddonlee(Selkirks.),ref1Caerlaverock(Dumf.),ref1,ref2Caernarfon,Edwardof,see

EdwardIICaithness,earldomofref1,ref2Cambridge,ref1Cambuskenneth(Perths.),abbeyof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Campbell,Gaelickingroup,ref1,ref2

Campbell,Neill,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Campbell,Arthur,ref1Campbell,Duncan,ref1Canterbury(Kent),ref1Cardross(Dunbarton.),ref1Carlatton(Cumb.),ref1,ref2,

ref3Carlisle(Cumb.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23provisioningof,ref1strategicimportanceof,ref1Robert’ssiegeandattackon,1315,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4earlof,seeHarclay,Andrew

Carnforth(Lancs.),ref1Cartmel(Lancs.),priory,ref1

Carrick,earldomof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26earlsof,Duncan,earlof,ref1,ref2Neil,earlof,ref1Marjorie,countessof,ref1,ref2,ref3andseeBruce,RobertVI,inrightof

hiswifeRobertI,kingofScotlandBruce,EdwardDavidII,kingofScotland

Carrick,Christinaof,ref1Carrickfergus(Antrim),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5Robert’scaptureof,ref1

Carron,River,ref1CastleSowerby(Cumb.),ref1,ref2

CastleSween(Knapdale),ref1CastleUrquhart(Morays.),ref1,ref2

Castleford,Thomasof,historianandchronicler,ref1

CharlesIV,kingofFrance(1322),ref1,ref2

Cherbourg(Fr.),ref1ChesterleStreet(Durham),ref1Cheyne,Reginald,ref1,ref2,ref3

Church,Scottish,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16

Cistercianorder,ref1,ref2,ref3Clairvaux,abbey,France,ref1

Clare,Elisabethde,deBurgh,ref1,ref2

Clare,Gilbertde,earlofGloucester,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

Clare,Thomasde,ref1Clergy,DeclarationofseeDeclarationoftheClergy(1309),ref1,ref2

Cleveland(Yorks.N.R.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Clifford,Robert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,

ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,Clonmacnoise,Annalsof,source,ref1,ref2

Closeburn(Dumf.),ref1Clyde,River,ref1,ref2,ref3Cobham,Ralph,ref1Cockburn(Berwicks.),ref1Cockerham(Lancs.),ref1Cockermouth(Cumb.),ref1Coigners,Geoffrey,ref1,n.20ref2

communityoftherealm,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Comynaristocraticfaction,ref1,

ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25

Comyn,Alexander,earlofBuchan(d.1289),constableofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Comyn,Alexander,brotherofJohnearlofBuchan,ref1,ref2

Comyn,Alice,wifeofHenry

Beaumont,ref1,ref2,ref3Comyn,Edmund,ofKilbride,ref1,ref2

Comyn,John,earlofBuchan(d.1308),constableofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17

Comyn,JohnofBadenochI(d.1277),ref1

Comyn,JohnofBadenochII,‘theelder’,Guardian,(d.1302)ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Comyn,JohnofBadenochIII‘theyounger’,Guardian(d.1306),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,n.10ref12careerandreputation,ref1,ref2,ref3asGuardian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6possiblymadeanagreementwithRobert,ref1murderofref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7

Comyn,JohnIV,titularlordof

Badenoch(d.1314),ref1Comyn,Marjorie,ref1Comyn,Robert,ref1,ref2Comyn,Walter,ref1Concarn(Aberdeens.),ref1Connor(Antrim),battleof(1315),ref1

Cologne,ref1Copeland(Cumb.),ref1,ref2,ref3

Corbeil,Treatyof(1326),ref1,ref2

Corbridge(Northumb.),ref1,ref2,ref3

Cornwall,earlof,seeGaveston,Piers

coronationandanointingofkings,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,seeplate10

CouparAngus,ref1Courtrai,battleof(1302),ref1,ref2,ref3

Crabbe,John,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,n.37ref7

Craigie(Ayrs.),ref1Crawford,Reginald,ref1Cree,River,ref1,ref2Crichton(Lothian),ref1

Cressingham,Hugh,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

crusades,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,seeRobertIofScotland,posthumouscrusade

Cruys,Robert,ref1Cullen(Banff.),ref1Culross(Fife),ref1Cumberland,County,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15

Cumbria,ref1

Cumnock(Ayrs.),ref1,ref2Cunningham(Ayrs.),ref1,ref2Cupar(Fife),ref1currency,ref1,seeplate12Cuthbert,spy,ref1Cyprus,ref1

DalRiata,ref1Dalry(Perths.),battleat(1306),ref1

Dalswinton(Dumf.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Darcy,John,justiciarofIreland,ref1

Darel,Edmund,ref1DavidI,kingofScotland(1124),ref1,ref2,ref3

DavidII,kingofScotland(1329),sonofRobertI,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,n.40ref7

David,earlofHuntingdon(d.1219),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

DeclarationofArbroath,(1320),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,n.3810,seeplate15

DeclarationoftheClergy

(1309),ref1,ref2Dee,River,ref1Deer(Aberdeens.),abbey,ref1,ref2

Denholme,William,ref1Denmark,ref1Denny,ref1Despencer,Hugh,theelder,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Despencer,Hughtheyounger,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Deyncourt,William,ref1Dickson,Tom,ref1Disinherited,ref1,ref2,ref3,

ref4,ref5,ref6;attackofthe,ref1

Dominicanfriars,ref1,ref2Donegal,County,ref1,ref2Douglas,Archibald,ref1Douglas,James,‘GoodSirJames’,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24Barbour’spen–portrait,n.19ref1

attacksBrodickCastle,ref1attacksDouglascastle,Lanarkshire,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4atLoudonHill,ref1atBenCruachan,ref1,n.30ref2raidsEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13andMoray,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12;

rewardedbyRobert,ref1crusadingwithRobert’sheart,ref1,ref2death,ref1,ref2

Douglas,William‘leHardi’,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Dryburgh(Berwicks.),ref1,ref2Duffy,Séan,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3,n.27ref4

Dumbarton,ref1,ref2,ref3Dumfries,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16

Dunaverty(Kintyre),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5n.26

Dunbar(E.Lothian),ref1,ref2Dunbar,battleof(1296),ref1,ref2,ref3

DunbarorMarch,earldomof,seeMarch,earldomof

Dunblane,bishopof[NicholasdeBalmyle],ref1

Dunkeld,bishopof,seeSinclair,William,BishopofDunkeld

Dublin,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4DuddonSands(Lancs.),ref1Dun,Thomas,ref1,ref2,ref3

Duncan,earlofCarrick,ref1,ref2

Duncan,A.A.M.,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,

Dundalk(Louth),ref1,ref2Dundarg(Aberdeens.),ref1Dundee,burgh,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12Robert’scaptureofref1,ref2,ref3

Dunfermline(Fife),abbey,ref1,

ref2,ref3,ref4Dunipace,ref1Dunkeld,bishopof,WilliamSinclair,ref1

Dunstaffnage(Argyll),ref1,ref2,ref3,seeplate11

Dunstanburgh(Northumb.),ref1Dunyvaig,Islay,ref1DupplinMoor(Perths.),battleof(1332),ref1

Durham,townof,ref1,ref2,ref3bishopricof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,

ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14

Durham,archiveoftheDeanandChapter,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Duror(Argylls.),ref1Durward,Alan,ref1

Eastlands,Eastlanders,seeGermans

Eden,River,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Edenhall(Cumb.),ref1Edinburgh,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,

ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14

Moray’scaptureof,ref1,ref2,ref3

Edinburgh–Northampton,Treatyof(1328),ref1,ref2

Edmund‘Crouchback’ofLancaster,ref1

EdwardI,kingofEngland(1274),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,

ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,seeplates5,6reputation,ref1,ref2character,ref1,ref2,ref3crusade,ref1ScottishcouncilandGuardiansapplyforhisaidandcounsel,ref1,ref2lackofregardforScottishsensibilities,ref1,ref2presidesovertheGreatCause,ref1claimsoverlordshipofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3

hearsappealsfromScotland,ref1confrontationwithKingJohn,ref1campaignof1296,ref1,ref2possibleerrorsinScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3dismissesBruceclaimtovassalkingship,ref1warwithFrance,ref1campaignof1298,ref1campaignof1300,ref1campaignof1301,ref1;campaignof1303,ref1

anticipationofhisdeath,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5anxietytocaptureRobertBruce,ref1,ref2deathof,ref1,ref2,ref3

EdwardII,EdwardofCaernarfon,KingofEngland(1307),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26,ref27,ref28,seeplates

5,10character,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5planforhismarriagetoMargarettheMaidofNorway,ref1assistsincampaignof1301,ref1knightedatFeastoftheSwans,ref1assistsincampaignsof1306,ref1,ref2indifferencetoplightofScottishliegemen,ref1,ref2,

ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6indifferencetoplightofnorthernEnglish,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5campaignof1307,ref1campaignof1310,ref1campaignof1314,ref1,ref2campaignof1319,ref1campaignof1322,ref1,ref2,ref3misgovernmentofEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4possibleapproachestoRobertBruce,ref1,ref2

andhisbarons,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16Robert’sattempttocapture,ref1,ref2andFrance,ref1,ref2,ref3overthrow,ref1attemptstorestorehim,ref1,ref2,ref3death,ref1‘afterlife’,ref1,ref2

EdwardIII,kingofEngland(1327),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,

ref5,ref6,ref7campaignof1327,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4interventionsinScotland,ref1,n.17ref2

EdwardofCaernarfon,seeEdwardII

Egremont(Cumb.),ref1EleanorofCastile,queenofEngland,wifeofEdwardI,ref1

Elgin(Morays.),ref1,ref2,ref3Eliogarty(Tipperary),ref1England,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,

ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16warbetweenScotlandand,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13Wallace’sinvasionof,ref1tributetakenfrom,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,see‘suffrauncesdeguerre’truceswith,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10

proposedmarriagealliancewith(1290)ref1,ref2;(1324)ref1;(1327)ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4;unionwith(1707),ref1,ref2,ref3

Englishlanguage,ref1,ref2,ref3

Erceldoune,Thomasof,ref1EricII,kingofNorway(1280),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Eskdale(Dumf.),ref1Essex,ref1,ref2,ref3Estuteville,Joand’,ref1

exchangeofprisoners,ref1,ref2,ref3

exchequer,Scottish,ref1,ref2exchequer,English,ref1

Falkirk(Stirlings.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Falkirk,battleof(1298),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

famine(1315),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10

FanadPeninsula(Donegal),ref1Faughart(Louth),battleof

(1318),ref1,ref2Ferambrace,heroinmedievalliterature,ref1

Fiennes,Guilleminde,ref1Fife,earldomof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7Duncan(d.1289),ref1,ref2,ref3Duncan(d.1353),ref1,ref2,ref3

FinnMacCool,heroinGaelicliterature,ref1

FirthofForth,seeScottishSeaFisher,Andrew,historian,ref1

FitzAlan,Edmund,earlofArundel,ref1,ref2

FitzGilbert,William,ref1FitzJohn,Thomas,earlofKildare,ref1

FitzPayne,Robert,ref1Flanders,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

FlemmingsinScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

FlemishnavalsupportforRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10

relationswithFrance,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5countof,seeRobertIII

Florent,CountofHolland,Competitor,ref1

Fowlis,ref1Fordoun(Aberdeens.),ref1Fordun,Johnof,historianandchronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

Forfar(Angus),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

‘Forfarcorrespondent’,ref1,ref2

Forth,River,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

fostering,Robert’sfoster–brother,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

FountainsAbbey(N.Yorks.),ref1

France,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12treatieswithScotland:(1295)seeTreatyofParis,(1326)seeTreatyofCorbeilrelationswithEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,

ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,n.15ref12Robert’srelationswith,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6kingsof,seePhilipIV,LouisX,PhilipV,CharlesIV

Francis,William,ref1Franciscanfriars,(FriarsMinororGreyfriars),ref1,ref2,ref3

Francisci,Manentius,ref1Fraser,Simon,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

Fraser,William,bishopofStAndrews,ref1,ref2

Frederick‘Barbarossa’,Emperor,ref1

Frenchlanguage,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Frendraught,Duncanof,ref1,ref2,ref3

Fryde,N.,historian,ref1Furness(Lancs.),abbey,ref1,ref2

Fyvie,ref1

Gaeliclanguageandsociety,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,

ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21

Gaidhealtachd,areawhereGaelicisspoken,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7

galloglasses,warriorsfromtheWesternIsles,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Galloway,lordshipof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18

Robertfailstoraiseinrevolt,ref1,ref2ThomasandAlexanderBrucecapturedin,ref1,ref2justiciarshipofref1ForestPark,ref1Bruceattackson,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7

‘Gallowaylands’(Antrim),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Gallovidians,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Galston(Ayrs.),ref1Garioch(Aberdeens.),lordship

of,ref1,ref2Garmoran,lordshipof,ref1,ref2,ref3

Garstang(Lancs.),ref1Gartmore(Perths.),forestof,ref1

Gascons,Gascony,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Gaveston,Piers,earlofCornwall,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

Genoa,ref1GermansinScotland,ref1,ref2seafarersandcommunities

supportRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

gentillese,ref1Ghent,ref1Giffard,John,ref1Gilsland(Cumb.),ref1,ref2Glasgow,bishopricof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7;seeWishart,Robert,bishopofGlenTrool(Kirkcud.),battleof(1307),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Glencarnie,Gilbertof,ref1Glencoe(Argylls.),ref1

Glendochart(Stirlings.),ref1Glendun(Antrim),ref1‘Glenheur’,ref1Glenkill,Arran,ref1Glenkinglass(Argylls.),ref1Glenluce(Wigt.),abbey,ref1Gloucester,earlsofref1,n.18ref2seeClare,Gilbertde,

Gordon,Adam,ref1Goxhill(Lincs.),ref1Graham,David,ref1,ref2,ref3Graham,Patrick,ref1Gray,Thomas,historianand

chronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

GreatCause,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

GreatGlen,ref1GreatYarmouth(Norfolk),ref1Greencastle(Down),ref1GuardiansofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16

Guisborough(Yorks.N.R.),prioryof,ref1,ref2,ref3

Guisborough,Walterof,historianandchronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

HalidonHill(Berwicks.),battleof(1333),ref1

Hainhault,Hainaulters,ref1,ref2,ref3

Hainhault,Jehande,ref1,ref2Haines,R.M.,historian,ref1,ref2

Halton,John,bishopofCarlisle,ref1

Haltwhistle(Northumb.),ref1Hamburgh,ref1Harbottle(Northumb.),ref1,ref2,ref3

Harclay,Andrew,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12;agreementwithRobert,1323,ref1,ref2,ref3

Harper,Gib,ref1Hastings,John,Competitor,ref1,ref2

HatfieldBroadoaks(Essex),ref1

Hart,Hartness(Durham),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Hartlepool(Durham),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Hay,Gilbert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Hay,Hugh,ref1Hebrides,seeWesternIslesHenryI,kingofEngland(1100),ref1

HenryII,kingofEngland(1154),ref1

HenryIII,kingofEngland(1216),ref1,ref2

Henry,earlofHuntingdon(d.1152),ref1

Hereford,earlof,seeBohun,Humphreyde

Hesilrig,William,ref1Hexham(Northumb.),ref1,ref2Highlands,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4HolmCultram(Cumb.),abbey,ref1,ref2

HolyLand,PalestineorOutremer,ref1,ref2

Holyhead,Anglesey,ref1Holyrood(Midlothian),abbey,ref1,ref2,ref3

Holystone(Northumb.),ref1homageandfealty,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21

Hornby(Lancs.),ref1Hothum,Johnde,ref1,ref2Hull,ref1Humber,River,ref1Hume,David,of,Godscroft,ref1

Hunsley(Yorks.E.R.),ref1

HunterianMuseum,Glasgow,ref1

Huntingdon,earldomof,ref1Huntly(Aberdeens.),ref1

Inch(Wigtowns.),ref1Inchaffray(Perths.),abbeyof,ref1,ref2,ref3

Inchmahome(Perths.),ref1Inchtavannach(LochLomond),abbeyof,ref1

InglewoodForest,ref1,ref2Inverkip(Renfrews.),ref1,ref2Inverlochy,ref1

Inverness,ref1,ref2,ref3Treatyof(1312),ref1,ref2

Inverurie(Aberdeens.),ref1Ireland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26,ref27Brucefamilyconnectionswith,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5troopsandsuppliesinsupport

oftheEnglish,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Scottishémigrésin,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5supportfortheBrucesfrom,ref1,ref2,ref3Robert’slettertothekings,prelates,clergyandinhabitantsof,ref1,ref2,n.27ref3Scottishinterventionof1315,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6Robert’sinterventionsof

1327and1328,ref1,ref2seealso,RemonstranceoftheIrishPrinces

IrishSea,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,n.35ref9

Irvine(Ayrs.),ref1,ref2Isabella,queenofEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

regimeofIsabellaandMortimer,ref1,ref2,ref3

Isabel,daughterofDavidearlofHuntingdon,ref1,ref2,ref3

IsabelofFife,countessof

Buchan,ref1,ref2Islay,ref1,ref2Donaldof,n.ref1,ref2

IsleoftheMonks,ref1Italy,ref1,ref2

JamesVIandI,kingofScotlandandEngland(1603),ref1

Jedburgh(Borders),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Jettour,Williamle,ref1Joan‘oftheTower’,ref1,ref2,ref3

JohnI,JohnBalliol,kingofScotland(1292),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,seeplate7claimsthroneofScotland,ref1,ref2promiseoflandtoBishopBek,ref1relationshiptoComyns,ref1,ref2CompetitorinGreatCause,ref1awardedkingship,ref1

enthronement,ref1,ref2appearancebeforeEdwardIin1293,ref1surrenderandun-kinging,ref1governmentofScotlandinhisname,ref1,ref2,ref3releasedfromEnglishcustody,ref1,ref2,ref3possibilityofrestoration,ref1,ref2,ref3relationswithFrance,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,seealsoParis,Treayof

JohnXXII,pope(1317),ref1,ref2,ref3

Jordan,John,ref1Joyce,Roland,archbishopofArmagh(1311),ref1

Jura,ref1

Kaufman,M.H.,scientist,ref1,ref2

Keith,Robert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Keith,Williamof,ofGalston,ref1

Kells(Meath),ref1

Kelso(Rox.),abbeyof,ref1Kendal(Westm.),ref1,ref2Kenmore,(Perths.)ref1Kent,River,ref1Kent,earlof,seeWoodstock,Edmundof

Kershaw,Ian,historian,ref1Kilcreggan(Dunbartons.),ref1Kildare,earlof,seeFitzJohn,Thomas

Kildrummy(Aberdeens.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Kilham(Yorks.E.R.),ref1Kilmarnock(Ayrs.),ref1

Kinghorn(Fife),ref1Kinloss(Morays.),abbeyof,ref1

Kinross,ref1Kintyre,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

Kirkandrews(Kirkcudb.),ref1Kirkham(Lancs.),ref1Kirkinner(Wigtons.),ref1Kirkintilloch(Dunbartons.),ref1

Kirkoswald(Cumb.),ref1Kirkpatrick(Dumf.),ref1Kirkpatrick,Roger,ref1

Knaresborough(N.Yorks.),ref1,ref2

Knapdale,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

knighthood,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7

Kyle,ref1

Lamberton,William,bishopofStAndrews,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14pactwithRobert,ref1

Lanark,Lanarkshire,ref1,ref2Lancaster,townof,ref1Lancaster,Thomasearlof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13

intrigueswithRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Landels,J[ohn?]de,ref1LanercostChronicle,source,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,

Lanercost(Cumb.),priory,ref1,

Langtoft,Peter,chronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Langton,Walter,bishopofLichfield,treasurerref1,ref2

Langwathby(Cumb.),ref1Larbert(Stirlings.),ref1,ref2Larne,LarneLough(Antrim),ref1,ref2

Latimer,William,ref1Lauder,Lauderdale(Berwicks.),ref1,ref2,ref3

LawoftheMarches,ref1,ref2LawsofGoodKingRobert,ref1leprosy,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,

ref5Ledhouse,Symeofref1Leith(Midlothian),ref1,ref2Lennox,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3Malcolm,earlof(d.early1290s)ref1Malcolmearlof(d.1333),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10

LesVrayesChroniques,source,seeBel,Jehanle

Lewes,battleof(1264),ref1LevenSands(Lancs.),ref1

Liddesdale,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Limerick,ref1Lincoln,earlof,HenrydeLacy(d.1311),ref1

Lindsay,aristocraticfaction,ref1

Lindsay,Alexander,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

Lindsay,James,ref1Lindsay,Robert,ref1Linlithgow(W.Lothian),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Lismore,WestHighlands,ref1

LochAwe,ref1LochBroom,ref1LochDoon,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4LochEtive,ref1LochFyne,ref1LochLinnhe,ref1,ref2LochLomond,ref1,ref2,ref3LochLong,ref1LochNess,ref1LochRyan,ref1Lochaber(Inverness.),ref1,ref2Lochmaben(Dumf.),Annandale,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,

ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,seeplate4

Lockhart,George,ofCarnforth,ref1

Logan,Robert,ref1Logan,Walter,ref1,ref2Logy,John,ref1London,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10

Lonsdale(Lancs.),ref1Loudon(Ayrs.),ref1LoudonHill,battleof(1307),ref1,ref2

Lorn(Argylls.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Lothian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

LouisIX,kingofFrance(1226),ref1

LouisX,kingofFrance(1314),ref1

Lowlands,ref1,ref2Lubaud,Piers,ref1Lübeck,ref1Lucy,Antony,ref1,ref2

MacAlpin,Kenneth,ref1

Maccabeus,Judas,Maccabees,ref1,ref2,ref3

MacCann,Gibbon,ref1MacCann,Dungal,ref1,ref2MacCulian,seeMalcolmMacQuillan

McDonald,R.A.,historian,ref1,ref2

MacDonald,lordsofIslay,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

MacDonald,Alexanderîg,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

MacDonald,Alexander,of

Islay,‘KingofArgyll’(d.1318atFaughart),ref1,ref2,ref3

MacDonald,AngusM—r,ref1,ref2

MacDonald,Angusîg(d.1314×1318),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,n.31ref10

identificationwith‘DonaldofIslay’,ref1,n.31ref2

MacDougall,lordsofArgyll,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,

ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,n.26ref15

MacDougall,Alexander,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

MacDougall,JohnBachach,seeJohnofArgyll

MacDougall,Juliana,marriesAlexanderMacDonald,ref1

MacDowall,Dungal,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

MacDuff,ayoungersonofthatMalcolmearlofFifewho

died1204,ref1MacGoffrey,Duncan,ref1,n.35ref2

MacLachlan,Gillespie,ref1McNamee,Colm,historian,ref1MacQuillan,Malcolm(alsoknownasMacCulianorlefitzEngleys),ref1,ref2,ref3,n.26ref4

MacSween,family,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

MacSween,John,ref1,ref2MacRuaridh,lordsof

Garmoran,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

MacRuaridh,Christina,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

MagnusIII,kingofMan(d.1265),ref1

MagnusBarelegs,kingofNorway(1103),ref1

MalcolmIII,kingofScotland,‘MalcolmCanmore’,ref1,ref2

MalcolmlefitzEngleys,seeMacQuillan

Malherbe,Gilbert,ref1

Malton(Yorks.N.R.),ref1Man,Isleof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11Robert’scaptureof,ref1,ref2JohnofAryllrecaptures,ref1

MorayrecoversitfortheScots,ref1,ref2,ref3

Mandeville,Henryde,ref1Manton,Ralph,ref1Mar,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3Duncan,earlof(d.1297),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Garnaitearlof(d.1302),ref1

Donaldearlof(d.1332),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7

Mar,Isabelof,firstwifeofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3

MarchorDunbar,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Patrick,earlof(d.1289),ref1,ref2,ref3Patrickearlof(d.1308)ref1Patrick,earlof(d.1369),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Margaret,daughterofDavid,earlofHuntingdon,ref1

Margaret,‘maidofNorway’,ladyofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7

Margaret,sisterofPhilipIV,marriesEdwardIofEngland,ref1

Marjorie,countessofCarrick,motherofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3

Marshall,William,ref1Mauley,Edmundde,ref1Maxwell,family,ref1Maybole(Ayrs.),ref1Melrose(Rox.),abbeyof,ref1,

ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11

Melton,William,archbishopofYork,ref1,ref2

Menteith,earldomof,ref1,ref2earlsof,seeStewart

Menteith,John(Stewart)of,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

Merlin,ref1,ref2Methven(Perths.),battleof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,notes20&22ref7

Middleton,Gilbert,ref1,ref2,

ref3militaryservice,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10;seealsoknightservice

Mitford(Northumb.),ref1Monreith(Wigtowns.),ref1Morvern(Argylls.),ref1Mowbray,Alexander,ref1Mowbray,John,ref1,ref2Mowbray,Philip,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Mowbray,Roger,ref1Montacute,Simon,ref1,ref2

Montefichet,Williamde,ref1,ref2

Montfort,Simonde,ref1Monthermer,Raoulde,ref1Morayearldomof,ref1,ref2earlof,seeRandolph,Thomasbishopof,152;seeMurray,Davidbishopofref1,ref2

Moray,Andrew,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Morcambe(Lancs.),ref1Morham,Herbert,ref1

Morpeth(Northumb.),ref1Mortham(Yorks.N.R.),ref1Mortimer,Roger,ofWigmore,earlofMarch(d.1327),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Morton,Robertde,ref1Mounth,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Mull,ref1Multon,Thomasde,ref1Murray,David,bishopofMoray,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Musselburgh(Midlothian),ref1Myton-on-Swale(Yorks.N.R.),

battleof(1319),ref1,ref2

Nairn,ref1Neil,earlofCarrick,ref1Netherlands,ref1Neville,Cynthia,historian,ref1Neville’sCross,battleof(1346),ref1,ref2

NewPark(Stirlings.),ref1,ref2,ref3

Newbattle(Midlothian),abbey,ref1

Newburn(Northumb.),ref1NewcastleuponTyne,ref1,

ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13

Newminster(Northumb.),abbey,ref1,ref2

Nicholson,Ranald,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3

Nithsdale,lordshipof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Norfolk,earlof,seeBigod,Roger

Norham(Northumb.),ref1,ref2,ref3

NorthSea,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,

ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15

Northallerton(Yorks.N.R.),ref1,ref2

Northampton,ref1,ref2,ref3Northburgh(Donegal),alsoknownasGreencastle(Donegal),ref1

Northumberland,County,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18

Northumbria,ref1Norway,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Maidof,seeMargaretRobert’srelationswith,ref1,ref2

Nottingham,ref1NunMonkton(Yorks.N.R.),ref1

Odysseus,theOdyssey,ref1Ordinances(1311),theLordsOrdainer,ref1,ref2,ref3

OldByland(Yorks.N.R.),ref1OldCambus(Berwicks.),ref1

OldMeldrum(Aberdeens.),ref1Oliphant,William,ref1,ref2,ref3,

O’Connor,Gaelickingroup,ref1

O’Briens,Gaelickingroup,ref1O’NeillofTyrone,Gaelickingroup,ref1

O’Neill,Domnall,‘kingofUlster’,ref1,ref2

Orkney,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Ormsby,William,ref1Outlaw,Roger,priorof

Kilmainham,ref1

Paisley(Renfrews.),abbeyof,ref1

pan-Celticsentiment,alliance,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

papacy,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17

papaltruceof1317,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Paris,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Paris,Treatyof,withScotland(1295),ref1,seealsoJohnIofScotland

parliament,Scottish,ref1,ref2,ref3Scone(1286),ref1Feb(1293),ref1Stirling(1293),ref1Stirling(1295),ref1Berwick(1296),ref1Rutherglen(1300),ref1StAndrews(1309),ref1,ref2Dundee(1313)Cambuskenneth(1314),ref1

Scone(1318),ref1,ref2Scone(1320),see,BlackParliamentStirling(1326),ref1Cambuskenneth(1326),ref1Edinburgh(1328),ref1,ref2Scone(1331),ref1

parliament,English,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,seeplate6

Pearson,K.,scientist,ref1peasantry,ref1Peebles,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4peels,ref1,ref2

Pelarym,ref1Pembroke,earlof,seeValence,Aymerde

Penman,Michael,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3

Penrith(Cumb.),honourof,ref1,ref2,ref3

Percy,Henry,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12

Perth,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14Treatyof(1266),ref1

Robert’scaptureof(1313),ref1,ref2,ref3

PhilipIV(‘theFair’)kingofFrance(1285),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,

PhilipV,kingofFrance(1316),ref1

Philip‘theForester’,ref1Pickering(Yorks.N.R.),Valeof,ref1

Picts,ref1,ref2Pontefract,ref1Preston(Lancs.),ref1,ref2

Prestwich,M,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4propagandaBrucean,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5seealsoDeclarationoftheClergy;DeclarationofArbroathEnglish,ref1

QuernmoreForest(Lancs.),ref1

RagmanRoll,source,ref1Ramsey(IsleofMan),ref1

Randolph,Thomas,EarlofMoray,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10Barbour’spen-portrait,ref1n.32supportsthecoupof1306,ref1;defectstoEdwardIandJohnofArgyll,ref1,ref2returnstoRobert’sallegiance,ref1beratesRobertforunchivalrouswarfare,ref1,

ref2,ref3andDouglas,seeDouglas,JamesraidsEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5asRobert’spre-eminentlieutenant,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6inIreland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4generouslyrewarded,ref1,ref2atthepapalcourt,ref1guardian1328,ref1,ref2,

ref3,ref4death,ref1

Rathlin(Antrim),ref1,ref2religion,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,seealsoChurch,Scottish;papacy;

RobertI,religionRenfrew,ref1RedComyn,seeComyn,John,ofBadenochIII

Redesdale(Northumb.),ref1,ref2

RemonstranceoftheIrish

Princes,source,ref1,ref2,ref3

ReycrossonStainmore(Westm.),ref1

RichardI,kingofEngland(1153),ref1

Richmond(Yorks.N.R.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7

Rievaulx(YorksN.R.),abbey,ref1

Ripon(Yorks.N.R.),ref1RobertI,RobertBruceVII,kingofScotland(1306),ref1,ref2,

ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20careerbirth,ref1earlylife,ref1family,ref1religion,ref1,ref2,ref3firstappearsinhistoricalrecord,ref1knighted,ref1,ref2marriagetoIsabelofMar,ref1

investedasearlofCarrick,ref1supporterofEdwardI(1296),ref1,ref2supporterofWallace(1297),ref1,ref2,ref3aspirationstokingship,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5developmentasamilitarycommander,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8possibilitythathewaspresentatFalkirk,ref1,ref2asjoint–guardian,ref1

defectstoEdwardI,ref1,ref2,ref3pursuitofWallace,ref1,ref2murderofJohnComynIII,ref1,ref2excommunications,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4decisiontoseizetheScottishthrone,ref1coupdétat,ref1,ref2,ref3destructionofcastles,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8enthronement,ref1,ref2

defeatatMethven,ref1,ref2escapetoandsojourninthewest,ref1,ref2,ref3returnfromthewest,ref1,ref2ontheruninGalloway,ref1insistenceuponrecognitionofhiskingship,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20;raidsonEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,

ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19participationinraidingexpeditions:ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5failurestocapturecities,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4pursuitofancestralpropertyrights,ref1atBannockburn,ref1andIreland,seeunderIrelandexcommunicationsof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

involvementintheambushofcardinals(1317),ref1heirs,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6illegitimatechildren,n.39ref1periodsofillness,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6finalpilgrimage,ref1deathandfuneral,ref1,ref2posthumouscrusade,ref1,ref2goodfortune,ref1,ref2,ref3characterorpersonality,ref1,

ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5exhumations,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,n.43ref6seeplates16,17,18,20,21reputation,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,seeplate19

RobertII,RobertStewart,kingofScotland(1371),ref1,ref2,ref3,n.40ref4

RobertIII,countofFlanders(1305),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Rome,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,

ref5,ref6,ref7Ros,Williamde,ref1Rose(Cumb.),ref1Roslin(Midlothian),battleof,ref1,ref2

Ross,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3,ref4sheriffdomof,ref1bishopof[ThomasofDundee],ref1William,earlof(d.1323),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9Hugh,earlofRoss(d.1333),

ref1Ross,Isabelof,ref1Ross,Johnof,ref1Ross,Walter,ref1Rothesay,onBute,ref1RotuliScotiae,source,ref1,RoulstonScar(Yorks.N.R.),ref1

Roxburgh,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11Douglas’scaptureof(1314),ref1

Roxburghshire,ref1

Rudston(Yorks.E.R.),ref1Rushen(IsleofMan),ref1Rushyford(Northumb.),ref1Rutherglen(Lanarks.),ref1,ref2

Saint-Sardos(Fr.),ref1,ref2StAndrew,ref1,ref2,ref3StAndrews(Fife),burghof,ref1,ref2,ref3

StAndrews,bishopricof,ref1;seeLamberton,William

StColumcille,ref1,ref2,seeBreccbennach,plate14

StEdwardtheConfessor,ref1,

ref2StFillan,ref1,ref2StJohn,Aymerde,ref1StJohn,Johnde,ref1StKessog,ref1StMalachy,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4StNinian,ref1,ref2;churchof,atBannockburn,ref1

StOmer,ref1,ref2StKentigern(orMungo),ref1Salisbury,treatyof(1289),ref1Salkeld(Cumb.),ref1Samlesbury(Lancs.),ref1Sanquhar(Dumf.),ref1

Scalachronica,source,seeGray,Thomas

Schelde,ref1ScottishSea(theFirthofForth),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Scone(Perths.),abbeyof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7

Stoneof,seeStoneofDestinyScimusFili,source,ref1,ref2Scotia,justiciarshipof,ref1,ref2

Scotichronicon,source,seeBower,Walter

Scotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26,ref27,ref28,ref29,ref30,ref31,ref32,ref33formationof,ref1kingshipof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16identityof,ref1,ref2,ref3,

ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,n.11ref15institutionsof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,seealsoparliamentinvasionsof,listedunderEdwardI,IIandIII,campaignsofsociety,ref1,ref2economy,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7relationswithFrance,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6see

alsoCorbeil,treatyof,andFrance,Robert’srelationswithsovereigntyof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22royalsuccession,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Scotby(Cumb.),ref1,ref2Scotlandwell(Kinross.),ref1Scotslanguage,ref1,ref2,ref3

Scott,SirWalter,ref1,ref2Scrymgeour,Alexander,ref1Segrave,John,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Seagrave,Stephen,ref1Selkirk,peelof,ref1,ref2,ref3Selkirk,Forestof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13

SelucidEmpire,ref1Seton,Alexander,royalsteward,ref1,ref2,ref3

Seton,Christopher,ref1,ref2,

ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8

ShamefulPeace,seeEdinburgh–Northampton,Treatyof

Shannon,River,ref1Shetland,ref1,ref2Sinclair,William,ref1Sinclair,William,BishopofDunkeld,ref1,ref2,ref3

Siward,Richard,ref1Skelbo(Sutherland),ref1Skerton(Lancs.),ref1SkiptoninCraven(Yorks.

W.R.),ref1Skye,ref1,ref2Slains(Aberdeens.),ref1Slioch(Aberdeens.),ref1Sluis(Fr.),ref1SolwayFirth,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7

Soules,family,ref1Soulesconspiracy,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Soules,John,Guardian(d.1310),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Soules,John,ref1,ref2Soules,William,ref1,ref2

Spain,ref1Stainmore(Westm.),ref1;seealsoBroughandReycross

Standard,battleofthe(1138),ref1

StanhopePark(Durham),ref1Stevenson,Alexander,historian,ref1

Stevenston,ref1Stewart,aristocraticfaction,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Stewart,Alan,ref1,ref2Stewart,Andrew,ref1Stewart,Jamesthe,ref1,ref2,

ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9supportsWallacerebellion,ref1,ref2,ref3forfeitshislandstoEdwardI,ref1mediatesbetweenBruceandComyn,ref1supportsRobert,ref1,ref2

Stewart,John,brotherofJamestheSteward,ref1

Stewart,John,ofBunkle,ref1,ref2,earlofAngus,ref1,n.42ref2

Stewart,John,ofJedburgh,ref1Stewart,RobertseeRobertII,kingofScotland

Stewart,Walterthe,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8defendsBerwick,ref1

Stewart,Walter,earlofMenteithinrightofhiswife(d.1293),ref1Alexander,earlofMenteith(d.1297x1306),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5Alan,earlofMenteith(d.

1306x1309),ref1,ref2Murdoch,earlofMenteith(d.1332),ref1,ref2

Stirling,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17EdwardI’ssiegeofStirling(1304),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,RobertandEdwardBruce’ssiegeof,ref1,ref2,n.34ref3Robert’scaptureof,ref1,ref2

StirlingBridge,battleof,ref1,

ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5StoneofDestiny,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,seeplate9

Stones,E.L.G.,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3

Stranraer(Wigtowns.),ref1Strathbogie,JohnearlofAtholl(d.1306),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11

Strathbogie,DavidearlofAtholl(d.1326),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Strathearn,earldomof,ref1,ref2,ref3earlsofMalise(d.1317),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,n.22ref10Malise(d.1328×30),ref1,ref2,Agnes,countessof,ref1

Strathfillan(Perths.),ref1Strathtay(Perths.),ref1,ref2‘suffrauncesdeguerre’,purchasedtruces,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,

ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20

Sully,Henryde,butlerofFrance,ref1,ref2

Sutherland,earldomofref1,ref2William,earlofSutherland(d.1330),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Swale,River,ref1Swaledale(Yorks.N.R.),ref1,ref2

Tain(Ross),ref1Talbot,Richard,ref1Tarbert(Argylls.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Tarbet(Dunbartons.),ref1Tarradale,ref1Tay,River,ref1TebasdeArdales,battleof,ref1Tees,River,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Teesdale,ref1,ref2Teviotdale,ref1Thanet,Isleof,ref1Threave,ref1Thweng,Maramadukede,ref1,

ref2,n.16ref3Tibbers,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Tickhill(Yorks.W.R.),ref1Tiree,ref1TorBurn,ref1,ref2Torrisholme(Lancs.),ref1Torwood(Stirlings.),ref1,ref2Tottenham(Middlesex),ref1Tunis,ref1Turnberry(Ayrs.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,n.28ref8

TurnberryBand,agreement

(1286),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Tweed,River,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Twynham,Walter,ref1Tyne,River,ref1,ref2Tynedale,libertyof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Typtoft,Pain,ref1,ref2

Uamh-an-Righ,nearCraigruie,(Stirlings.)ref1

Ughtred,Thomas,ref1Ulster,Annalsof,source,ref1

Ulster,earldomof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14earlsof,seeBurgh,RicharddeBurgh,Williamde

Umfraville,Gilbertde,earlofAngus(d.1307),ref1

Umfraville,Gilbertde,earlofAngus(d.1381),ref1

Umfraville,Ingram,guardian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,

ref11,ref12Umfraville,Robert,earlofAngus(d.1325),ref1,ref2

UrrWater,ref1,ref2,

Valence,Aymerde,earlofPembroke,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15

Valence,Joande,ref1Vienne,Councilof,ref1Vipont,William,ref1Virgil,ref1

VitaEdwardiSecundi,source,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

wardrobebooks,source,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4

Wake,Thomas,ref1,ref2Wales,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14

WelshsoldiersinEnglisharmies,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Brucescanvassingforsupportin,ref1,ref2,ref3EdwardII’sflightinto,ref1

Wallace,William,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13revoltof(1297),ref1,ref2invasionofEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3socialorigins,ref1,ref2execution,ref1,ref2reputation,ref1

Wallace,Malcolm,ref1,ref2

Walwayn,John,ref1Warren,Williamfitz,ref1Warenne,John,earlof(d.1304),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4John,earlof(d.1347)ref1,ref2

Warton(Lancs,nrLancaster),ref1

Warton(Lancsnr.Blackpool),ref1

WarkonTweed(Northumb.),ref1,ref2

Warwick,earlof,seeBeauchamp,Guyde

Watson,Fiona,historian,ref1Weardale(Durham)campaign,seeEdwardIII,campaign(1327)

weather,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

Wensleydale(Yorks.N.R.),ref1WestWitton(Yorks.N.R.),ref1WesternIsles,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14supplyofmanpowerforBrucearmies,ref1,ref2,ref3,

ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7Westminster,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5

Westmorland,County,ref1,ref2,ref3

Wetheral(Cumb.),priory,ref1Wharefdale(Yorks.W.R.),ref1,ref2

Whitby(N.Yorks.),ref1Whithorn(Wigtowns.),ref1Whittington(Lancs.),ref1Wigtown,Wigtownshire,ref1,ref2,ref3

William‘theLion’,kingof

Scotland,ref1,ref2,ref3Wiseman,William,ref1Wishart,Robert,bishopofGlasgow,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,n.13ref15

Writtle(Essex)ref1,ref2,ref3Woodstock,Edmundof,earlofKent,ref1

wool,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6

Wyntoun,Andrew,historianandchronicler,ref1

YGroesNaid,theCrossofNeath,ref1

Yarm(Yorks.N.R.),ref1Yealand(Lancs.),ref1Yolande,queenofScotland,ref1,ref2

York,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13

York,Valeof,ref1,ref2,ref3Yorkshire,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9

Youghal,ref1,ref2

Young,A,historian,ref1,ref2

Zwyn,ref1