roads to stockholm: heaney and yeats

7/30/2019 Roads to Stockholm: Heaney and Yeats

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Senior Seminar DeRoche Fagan 1

Introduction

William Butler Yeats

The Nobel Prize in Literature 1923

Seamus Heaney

The Nobel Prize in Literature 1995

Two giants of Irelands literary landscape were awarded the ultimate

literary accolade at the Swedish Academy in Stockholm seventy two years apart.

Both men are products of a rich tradition that has produced Wilde, OCasey,

Joyce, Beckett and many others. While Yeats and Heaney can be considered

products of a single tradition and have a lot in common, their differences also

speak to the breadth of the Irish literary tradition.

Yeats came from a family of artists while Heaney came from a family of

farmers and industrial workers. There was inevitability about Yeats becoming an

artist; his Father had eschewed a career in law to become a famous portrait

painter while his brother was the famed Jack B. Yeats another outstanding

painter. There was no such clear path for Heaney. His father was a small farmer

and cattle dealer in rural county Derry in the north of Ireland while his mother was

a mill worker. Poet was a strange career choice for one from such a background

and it is a tribute to Heaney that he has made such a success of his chosen

profession.

The Irish Literary revival in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century

sought to restore Irish culture and language to the mainstream of an Irish life that


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was becoming increasingly anglicized. Yeats was in the vanguard of this

movement and used his writing as a tool to further the movements aims. Yeats

also was instrumental in the revival of The Abbey Theatre which remains central

to the cultural life of Dublin and Ireland. Fifty years later Heaney was part what

became known as the Northern School of Irish writing and wrote from the Irish

Nationalist perspective of a divided society. Heaneys involvement in the theatre

company Field Day which focused on the cultural and political crisis in Ireland

mirrored Yeats involvement in the Abbey Theatre years before. Both men felt

obliged to contribute to the social and a political debate of their times and their

work carries the mark of these obligations.

Yeats wrote at a time of great change for Ireland, and the city of Dublin in

particular, as the country struggled for freedom after 800 years of British rule.

Many acquaintances of Yeats were involved in the Easter 1916 Rising and the

War of Independence that followed. Heaney came of age fifty years later in an

Ireland much changed but still convulsing from the events of Yeats lifetime. The

War of Independence had led to a partitioning of the country and Heaney ended

up on the wrong side of the border for an Irish Catholic. Heaneys city, Derry,

was at the forefront of the struggle for civil rights for Catholics in the Protestant

dominated province of Northern Ireland. The Civil Rights struggle culminated in

Bloody Sunday when British Soldiers shot dead 13 unarmed civil rights marchers

in Derry in 1972 setting the stage for more than two more decades of violence in

Ireland.


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Yeats and Heaney arrived at the same destination seventy-two years

apart. Their journeys intersected and diverged many times along the way but

ultimately converged at the Swedish Academy in Stockholm as they were

crowned as winners of the Nobel Prize in Literature. This paper looks at where

those paths intersected and also where they diverged in both mens journey to

Stockholm.


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Backgrounds

Ireland today is divided; there is the Republic of Ireland an autonomous

state and Northern Ireland, the six north-eastern counties of the island which

remain under the rule of the British. When Yeats was born in 1865 there was no

border, the entire island was under British rule but there was a divide as real as

the one today. Yeats came from the Anglo-Irish aristocracy, Protestant

descendants of the English ruling class. The other side of the divide was the

native Irish mostly peasant Catholics and it is from this tradition that Seamus

Heaney emerged decades later. Yeats came from a family of artists while

Heaneys family were farmers and industrial workers. Both men were products of

their immediate family backgrounds but also the wider traditions they came from.

The Yeats Room in Irelands National Gallery, where works by many of

the Yeats family adorn the walls, is testament to the artistic talent of the Yeats

family. Aine De Paor describes the room thus:

Dedicated primarily to the work of Jack B. Yeats, it also contains paintings

by his father John Butler Yeats and his niece Anne Yeats. There are also

works by Jack's sisters, Lily and Lolly (Susan and Elizabeth Yeats), and

his brother, the Nobel-prize-winning W.B.

In her essay Family Values: Gender, Sexuality, and Crisis in Yeatss Anglo-Irish

Aristocracy., Marjorie Howes talks of Yeatss poem The Table and his

comparison between the swords changelessness and the genealogical

continuity of artistic accomplishment in the culture that produced it


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Our learned men have urged

That when and where twas forged

A marvelous accomplishment,

In painting or in pottery, went

From father unto son

And through the centuries ran

And seemed unchanging like the sword.(121)

Yeats viewed his talent as a product of his family background. By necessity

Heaney took a different view of the source of his artistic talent.

For Heaney there was no genealogical continuity of artistic

accomplishment for him to be part of. We learn of Heaneys family background

from Tore Frngsmyr:

His father owned and worked a small farm of some fifty acres in County

Derry in Northern Ireland, but the father's real commitment was to cattle-

dealing The poet's mother came from a family called McCann whose

connections were more with the modern world than with the traditional

rural economy; her uncles and relations were employed in the local linen

mill and an aunt had worked "in service" to the mill owners' family.

Instead of comparing himself to his family, Heaney contrasts his path in life with

the one they have taken. He sets out his stall in his first poem Diggingin his first

published book Death of a Naturalist. Heaney sits in his bedroom writing:

Between my finger and my thumb

The squat pen rests; snug as a gun. (1-2)


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The pen is the tool of Heaneys trade; it rests comfortably in his hand. Below his

window, Heaneys father is digging in flower beds with the tool of his trade, a

spade; Heaney thinks of the past, his father digging potato drills and his

grandfather digging turf:

By God, the old man could handle a spade.

Just like his old man. (15-16)

Heaney is proud of his familys proficiency with the spade:

My grandfather cut more turf in a day

Than any other man on Toners bog. (17-18)

While Heaney is proud of his family and clearly loves the sounds and smells of

the digging, his calling is a different one. His father and grandfather used the

spade, he wont:

But Ive no spade to follow men like them

Between my finger and my thumb

The squat pen rests

Ill dig with it. (28-31)

Heaney will make his living with the pen rather than the spade. He will break the

genealogical continuity, he wont cultivate flowers and potatoes, he will cultivate

ideas. Heaney does not disrespect the labors of his forebears; he pays homage

to them. His labors will be different and he hopes to be as proficient with the pen

as they were with the spade.


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Yeats took the side of Nationalist Ireland in the struggle for independence

from Britain in the Rising of 1916 and the War of Independence that followed;

however he never lost sight of his heritage as a member of the Anglo Irish

tradition. Thomas R. Whitaker recalls Yeatss speech as a member of the

Senate in the young Irish Free State:

In 1925, concluding his senate speech on the divorce question, Yeats

said:

I think that it is tragic that within three years of this country gaining its

independence we should be discussing a measure which a minority of this

nation considers to be grossly oppressive. I am proud to consider myself

a typical man of that minority. We against whom you have done this thing,

are no petty people. We are one of the great stocks of Europe. We are

the people of Burke; we are the people of Grattan; we are the people of

Swift, the people of Parnell. We have created the most of the modern

literature of this country. We have created the best of its political

intelligence(50)

These are the words of a man clearly very proud of his heritage and the great

statesmen and writers it has produced. His invoking of the names of the great

Anglo-Irish that went before him is repeated in his poem The Tower:

They shall inherit my pride,

The pride of people that were

Bound neither to Cause nor to State,

Neither to slaves that were spat on,


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Nor to the tyrants that spat,

The people of Burke and of Grattan

That gave, though free to refuse (III.127-133)

Yeats sees himself as an artist and a product not only of his family but of the

wider Anglo-Irish culture, a culture that he is proud to be a member of.

Heaney was born in Derry, a part of Ireland that remains under British

rule. The fact that Derry was, and remains, under British rule did not diminish

Heaneys view of himself as Irish. Heaney made his feelings succinctly and

poetically known in his objection to his inclusion in an anthology of contemporary

British poetry in 1982. According to the website, Books, The Authors: Seamus

Heaney, he said:

Be advised, my passport's green

No glass of ours was ever raised

To toast the Queen.

The green passport is a reference to the Irish passport which was green and

available to all on the island of Ireland. For those from Northern Ireland, the

carrying of the Irish rather than the British passport is a statement of allegiance to

an Irish rather than a British identity. We get further insight into Heaneys identity

from an article by Adam Kirsch in Harvard Magazine:

His very name, the Irish Seamus rather than the English James, was a

marker of identity in a divided land, as he suggests in a vignette from The

Ministry of Fear:


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policemen

Swung their crimson flashlamps, crowding round

The car like black cattle, snuffing and pointing

The muzzle of a Sten gun in my eye:

Whats your name, driver?

Seamus...

Seamus?

While Yeats invoked the names of the great and good in celebration of his

heritage, Heaney looks to the anonymous heroes of Irelands long struggle for

freedom to celebrate his. In Requiem for the Croppies from his 1969 collection

Door into the Dark, Heaney memorializes the Irish rebels, croppies, who rose

against the British in 1798 and were slaughtered in their thousands by the better

equipped British Army.

The pockets of our greatcoats full of barley -

No kitchens on the run, no striking camp -

We moved quick and sudden in our own country

The priest lay behind ditches with the tramp.

A people, hardly marching - on the hike -

We found new tactics happening each day:

Wed cut through reins and rider with the pike

And stampede cattle into infantry,

Then retreat through hedges where cavalry must be thrown.


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Until, on Vinegar Hill, the fatal conclave.

Terraced thousands died, shaking scythes at cannon.

The hillside blushed, soaked in our broken wave.

They buried us without shroud or coffin

And in August the barley grew up out of the grave

In the 800 years of British rule in Ireland there had been a rebellion in every

generation. 1798 carried on that tradition and it was the same old story of

shaking scythes at cannon and the outgunned Irish being slaughtered by what

was the most powerful army of the time. Rebellions were a cyclical thing, like the

barley that in August grew up out of the grave more rebels would grow out of

the grave of the men of 1798. In this poem Heaney is not only paying tribute to

those of 1798 but to all the generations that rebelled and fought for Irish freedom,

as an Irishman living under British rule he is also aligning himself with this

struggle to maintain an Irish identity.


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Revival

The Ireland that Yeats was born into in 1865 was very firmly part of the

British Empire. More than 700 years of occupation had all but eradicated the

Irish language and there was a danger that Irish culture would be completely

subsumed by anglicization. Yeats looked to native Irish literature and tradition as

suitable sources for literary inspiration and, according to the 1916 Rising Website

at the National Library of Ireland, in 1882 was a founder member of the National

Literary Society which aimed at publicizing the literature, legends and folklore of

Ireland.

Yeats did not see anglicization as the only danger to Irish culture; he also

saw the threat of materialism. In 1913 Dublin was in the midst of the great

lockout, a labor dispute which saw union members locked out of their jobs by

their employers. At the height of the lockout the dispute involved 20,000

employees across the city along with their 80,000 dependants (Wars and

Conflict: 1916 Rising: Prelude: Dublin Lockout 1913). Yeats was disgusted by

the greed of the employers and the hardship imposed on the employees. Yeats

was also infuriated by the merchants of Dublin refusal to fund an art gallery. He

condemned their greed and lack of culture in his poem September 1913:

What need you being come to sense,

But fumble in a greasy till

And add the halfpence to the pence

And prayer to shivering prayer, until

You have dried the marrow from the bone?


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For men were born to pray and save:

Romantic Irelands dead and gone,

Its with OLeary in the grave (1-8)

In this first stanza of the poem, Yeats condemns the merchants as only being

interested in counting their money and praying, and he laments the passing of

Romantic Ireland which is dead and in the grave along with OLeary, who was a

revolutionary in the nineteenth century and was with Yeats one of the founder

members of the National Literary Society. Yeats goes on to reminisce about the

heroes of Irelands past and contrast them with the philistines of the merchant

classes of Dublin.

An important contribution of the National Literary Society was their work in

establishing a distinctively Irish national theatre. This work culminated in the

opening of the Irish Literary Theatre in 1898 and the Abbey Theatre in 1904. The

Abbey continues to be the National Theatre of Ireland. On the opening night of

The Abbey, two plays written by Yeats were performed, Cathleen ni Houlihan

and On Bailes Strand. According to the 1916 Rising Website:

Much of Yeatss work could be interpreted as promoting the ideal of an

independent republic free from the taint of Anglicization, Cathleen ni

Houlihan being his most overtly republican work.

Part of Yeatss legacy and testament to the success of the Irish Literary Revival

is the vibrant Irish culture manifested in the popularity of Irish music, literature, art

and theater throughout the world.


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In the Ireland that Seamus Heaney grew up in Irish culture was also under

threat. Heaney grew up in Derry, part of the island remaining under British rule

under the terms of the agreement that ended the Irish War of Independence.

Expressions of Irish culture were viewed with suspicion by the ruling Unionists

who were loyal to the British Crown. Discrimination against Catholics was

rampant, the civil rights movements of the 1960s spread to Northern Ireland and

when the government refused to grant those rights it led to the resurrection of the

Irish Republican Army and twenty five years of armed conflict.

The Northern School of writers that Heaney is associated is not a formal

grouping like the National Literary Society of Yeats. In Heaneys biography on

the Nobel Prize website, Tore Frngsmyr tells us:

Heaney's poems first came to public attention in the mid-1960s when he

was active as one of a group of poets who were subsequently recognized

as constituting something of a "Northern School" within Irish writing.

Although Heaney is stylistically and temperamentally different from such

writers as Michael Longley and Derek Mahon (his contemporaries), and

Paul Muldoon, Medbh McGuckian and Ciaran Carson (members of a

younger Northern Irish generation), he does share with all of them the fate

of having been born into a society deeply divided along religious and

political lines, one which was doomed moreover to suffer a quarter-century

of violence, polarization and inner distrust.


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The divisions in the society around them inevitably informed the work of those of

the Northern School. Heaney wrote from the perspective of an Irish Nationalist

and his work helped to keep alive an Irish tradition in an often hostile

environment.

In his poem From the Frontier of WritingHeaney writes of the tension of

being stopped at a British Army checkpoint:

The tightness and the nilness round that space

when the car stops in the road, the troops inspect

its make and number and, as one bends his face

towards your window, you catch sight of more

on a hill beyond, eyeing with intent

down cradled guns that hold you under cover

and everything is pure interrogation

until a rifle motions and you move

with guarded unconcerned acceleration --

a little emptier, a little spent

as always by that quiver in the self,

subjugated, yes, and obedient.

So you drive on to the frontier of writing


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where it happens again. The guns on tripods;

the sergeant with his on-off mike repeating

data about you, waiting for the squawk

of clearance; the marksman training down

out of the sun upon you like a hawk.

And suddenly you're through, arraigned yet freed,

as if you'd passed from behind a waterfall

on the black current of a tarmac road

past armor-plated vehicles, out between

the posted soldiers flowing and receding

like tree shadows into the polished windscreen.

As a member of society that has no allegiance to this British Army Heaney feels

subjugated by the encounter, like the croppies of his poem about the rebellion

of 1798, Heaney is defeated by the greater firepower of the British. Irish

literature though like Irish rebellion is cyclical and Heaney helps to keep this

tradition alive in his writing.

Like Yeats with The Abbey, Heaney also used the Theatre to advance

Irish culture. In Heaneys case it was with the Theatre group Field Dayand again

Frngsmyr tells us more:


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Heaney's involvement for a decade and a half with Field Day, a theatre

company founded in 1980 by the playwright Brian Friel and the actor

Stephen Rea. Here, he was also associated with the poets Seamus

Deane and Tom Paul , and the singer David Hammond in a project which

sought to bring the artistic and intellectual focus of its members into

productive relation with the crisis that was ongoing in Irish political life.

Through a series of plays and pamphlets (culminating in Heaney's case in

his version of Sophocles' Philoctetes which the company produced and

toured in 1990 under the title, The Cure at Troy), Field Day contributed

greatly to the vigour of the cultural debate which flourished throughout the

1980s and 1990s in Ireland.

Yeats and Heaney both recognized the importance of art in identity and culture.

Yeats helped revive Irish art to keep a uniquely Irish culture; Heaney helps to

keep this culture alive.


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Turmoil

The Ireland of today was formed in the early twentieth century. The Irish

cultural revival of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century led many to

agitate for the ultimate expression of identity, an independent Ireland free of

British rule. The 1916 Rising website gives us some insight into Yeatss role in

setting the stage for the Rising:

Yeats and the Literary Revival did indeed contribute to the formation of the

new sense of national identityYeats was but one of a number of forces

contributing to the formation of the new sense of national identity, and to

the new sense of confidence which would induce some to strive for a new

Ireland.

The striving for a new Ireland led to the Rising of 1916 and the 1916 website

gives a synopsis:

On Easter Monday, 24 April 1916, at a time when Ireland was an integral

part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, seven Irishmen

proclaimed the establishment of the Irish Republic, nominating themselves

as its provisional government. Together with 1,400 poorly armed

followers, they occupied a number of prominent buildings near the centre

of DublinThe government of Great Britain and Ireland regarded the

insurrection as treason

The response was immediate and decisive, the outcome being a foregone

conclusion: by the following Sunday close to 2,000 people mostly


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civilians had been killed or injured, the General Post Office and various

other buildings were in ruins, and the insurgents had surrendered. The

seven signatories of the Proclamation and eight others were tried by

courts-martial and executed by firing squad. A sixteenth man, Roger

Casement, was tried in open court in London and hanged in Pentonville

Prison.

The execution of the leaders of the Rising shifted public opinion in Ireland to the

side of the revolutionaries. The Rising was followed by a war of independence

that led to the partition of the island of Ireland, the formation of the Republic of

Ireland in twenty-six of the thirty two counties of Ireland and the six other

counties remaining under British rule.

Having played a part in creating the environment that led to revolution,

Yeats went on to write about it. Yeats was particularly interested in the idea of

sacrifice, particularly by the leaders of the Rising who knew they would be

militarily defeated by the overwhelming military power of the British, but had

correctly calculated that their sacrifice would re-ignite the desire in the Irish public

for freedom from British rule. In his essay, Myth and Terror, Richard Kearney

talks of Yeatss fascination with this sacrifice:

In his much quoted poem, Easter 1916, Yeats confesses astonishment at

how such (in his opinion) mediocre men as MacDonagh, Connolly and

Pearse have been totally transformed by sacrifice Now and in time to be


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/ Wherever green is worn / (they) Are changed, changed utterly / A terrible

beauty is born. (174)

Later in the same essay Kearney talks of another Yeats poem, The Rose, which

imagines a dialogue between two leaders of the Rising:

Pearse laments to Connolly that the Rose Tree of Ireland is withered. The

latter replies that it needs to be watered if the green is to come out and

the garden to blossom again. The last verse provides us with one of the

most cogent expressions of the whole mythic cult of sacrifice:

But where can we draw water,

Said Pearse to Connolly

When all the wells are parched away?

O plain as plain can be

Theres nothing but our own red blood

Can make a right Rose Tree (175)

The 1916 Rising was a seminal moment in Irish history, Yeats was instrumental

in creating the environment that it sprung from and then in creating the literature

that helped to immortalize it.

The six counties of Ireland that remained under British rule were governed

locally by the mainly Protestant Unionist Party from 1922 until the restoration of

direct rule from London in 1972 in response to the conflict then raging between

Catholic Nationalists who wanted a united Ireland, and Protestant Unionists who

were loyal to Britain. Discrimination against Catholics was rife under Unionist


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rule and the civil rights movement of the 1960s in the USA was mirrored in

Northern Ireland as Catholics railed against the discrimination that affected all

areas of their lives. As the civil rights agitators met resistance, the agitation

escalated to violence and one measure introduced by the British in response to

the violence was internment without trial. A march organized to protest against

this measure led to the events of Bloody Sunday in Heaneys city of Derry. Don

Mullan describes the days events of the day:

Bloody Sunday is named after the events that occurred on Sunday, 30

January 1972, when thirteen people were killed by British soldiers and

thirteen others were injuredThe victims were taking part in an illegal

demonstration against internment without trialThe Paras opened fire on

the demonstrators, a small number of whom had previously been engaged

in low-level rioting, such as stoning soldiers. (16)

The events of Bloody Sunday had a similar effect on public opinion in Ireland as

the execution of the leaders of 1916. Outrage led to a determination that the

status quo could not remain. Years of violence followed Bloody Sunday, a

ceasefire was called in 1994 and a political settlement is still being hashed out.

Like Yeats before him, Heaney chronicled the events going on around

him. However, Heaney did not eulogize one side or the other nor did he

celebrate the blood sacrifice, he trod more ambivalent ground. In his essay,

Facing North Again: Polyphony, Contention, Paul Scott Stanfield speaks of this

ambivalence:


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Some of Heaneys best poems succeed precisely because of the

exactness with which they re-create the tension of this ambivalence.

Casualty, for instance, both convinces us of the deep instinctive power of

community, felt by the poet at the funeral of Bloody Sundays thirteen

dead, and makes us admire the independence of the fisherman killed in

the republican bombing of a curfew-violating pub. (97)

In CasualtyHeaney mourns not only for those killed by the British, but also for

the man killed in the IRA bombing of a pub in violation of a curfew they imposed

as a mark of respect to those killed on Bloody Sunday.

He was blown to bitsOut drinking in a curfewOthers obeyed, three nights

After they shot deadThe thirteen men in Derry.PARAS THIRTEEN, the walls said,BOGSIDE NIL. That WednesdayEveryone heldHis breath and trembled.

II

It was a day of coldRaw silence, wind-blownSurplice and soutane:Rained-on, flower-ladenCoffin after coffinSeemed to float from the doorOf the packed cathedralLike blossoms on slow water.The common funeralUnrolled its swaddling band,Lapping, tighteningTill we were braced and boundLike brothers in a ring. (38-59)


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Heaney was more interested in the victims of violence than the

perpetrators. Jon Stallworthy illustrate this point in his essay The Poet as

Archaeologist: W.B. Yeats and Seamus Heaney:

His concern is not with victors in defeat, but with the victims: not with the

heroes of 1916 but with the croppies of 1798, The Tollund Man, the little

adulteress, and with his cousin, Colum McCartney, victim of a random

sectarian shooting and the subject of his elegy, The Strand at Lough Beg.

In this the poet does not, like Yeats, raise his voice that it may be heard in

time to be, but speaks quietly as man to man:

I turn because the sweeping of your feet

Has stopped behind me, to find you on your knees

With blood and roadside muck in your hair and eyes.

Then kneel in front of you in brimming grass

And gather up cold handfuls of the dew

To wash you, cousin. I dab you clean with moss

Fine as the drizzle out of a low cloud.

I lift you under the arms and lay you flat.

With rushes that shoot green again, I plait

Green scapulars to wear over your shroud. (185)

Heaney is not dealing in the mythical blood that will nourish the red rose of

Irelands freedom, but the real blood that is matted with muck in the hair and

eyes of his cousin, a victim of the violence that roiled Ireland for centuries.


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Conclusion

The paths of Yeats and Heaney converged in the Swedish Academy in

Stockholm in 1995 as Seamus Heaney gave his acceptance speech

When the poet W.B. Yeats stood on this platform more than seventy years

ago, Ireland was emerging from the throes of a traumatic civil war that had

followed fast on the heels of a war of independence fought against the

British. The struggle that ensued had been brief enough; it was over by

May, 1923, some seven months before Yeats sailed to Stockholm, but it

was bloody, savage and intimate, and for generations to come it would

dictate the terms of politics within the twenty-six independent counties of

Ireland, that part of the island known first of all as the Irish Free State and

then subsequently as the Republic of Ireland.

Yeats barely alluded to the civil war or the war of independence in his

Nobel speech. Nobody understood better than he the connection between

the construction or destruction of state institutions and the founding or

foundering of cultural life, but on this occasion he chose to talk instead

about the Irish Dramatic Movement.(Frngsmyr)

As Heaney invokes Yeatss name, he tells of the violent society that Yeats

emerged from and of Yeatss knowledge of the connection between state

institutions and cultural life. Heaney shared this knowledge and his work

continues to try to make sense of the divisions in his society and the ambiguities

of being Irish in an area ruled by Britain.


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Ultimately the paths of Yeats and Heaney had more intersections than

divergences. They had very different starting points for their journeys to

Stockholm. They were separated by time, family backgrounds and heritage but

the forces that formed them and informed their work were similar as they

engaged with a divided society enmeshed in a violent struggle about identity.

Neither were passive observers of the society they lived in. Through their work

they actively contributed to the social and political debates surrounding them and

were aware of the importance of their work to these cultural debates. By granting

these men the Nobel Prize the Swedish academy showed that the outside world

too was aware of the importance of Yeats and Heaney and their contributions to

Irish and world culture.


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Works Cited

Books, The Authors: Seamus Heaney. The Guardian Newspaper. 4 March 2007.

De Paor, Aine. Pieces of Yeats Pieces of Yeats. The Irish Times 6 March

1999,City ed.: 61.

Frngsmyr Tore. Les Prix Nobel. The Nobel Prizes 1995. Stockholm: Nobel

Foundation, 1996. 4 March 2007.

Heaney, Seamus. Opened Ground: Selected Poems 1966-1996. New York:

Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998.

Howes, Marjorie. Family Values: Gender, Sexuality, and Crisis in Yeatss Anglo-

Irish Aristocracy. Yeatss Political Identities: Selected Essays. Ed.

Jonathan Allison. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999.

107-29.

Kearney, Richard. Myth and Terror. Yeatss Political Identities: Selected

Essays. Ed. Jonathan Allison. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan

Press, 1999. 165-179

Kirsch, Adam. Seamus Heaney, Digging with the Pen: On rhymes and

responsibilities. Harvard Magazine November-December 2006: 52-58.

Mullan, Don. Eyewitness Bloody Sunday: The Truth. Dublin: Wolfhound Press

Ltd., 1997.


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Works Cited

Stallworthy, Jon. The Poet as Archaeologist: W.B. Yeats and Seamus Heaney.

Critical Essays on Seamus Heaney. Ed. Robert F. Garratt. New York: G.K.

Hall & Co., 1995. 172-186.

The 1916 Rising: Personalities and Perspectives: W.B. Yeats and The Irish

Literary Revival. National Library of Ireland. 4 Mar. 2007.

Wars and Conflict: 1916 Rising: Prelude: Dublin Lockout 1913. British

Broadcasting Corporation. 4 Mar. 2007.

Whitaker, Thomas R. Poet of Anglo-Ireland. Modern Critical Views: William

Butler Yeats. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers,

1986. 41-71.

Yeats, W.B. The Collected Poems of W.B. Yeats. Ed. Richard J. Finneran. New

York: Simon & Schuster Inc., 1996.

roads to stockholm: heaney and yeats

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