rne fundamentals b11

Section 1 · Module 1 ·

All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010TMO54014 Issue 01

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All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010

Module 1Basics

TMO 18047Issue 01

Section 1Basics

RNERNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 Fundamentals

TMO54014 Issue 01




RNE · RNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 FundamentalsBasics · Basics1 · 1 · 2

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First editionHille, Helmut2010-01-0701

RemarksAuthorDateEdition

Document History



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TMO54014 Edition 1

RNE Fundamentals





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Objectives

By the end of the course, participants will be able to: - Plan a standard GSM (single band and single layer)

network in urban, suburban and rural areas fulfillingdefined coverage probability;

- Choose suitable BTS site configurations for different clutter types:- Omni sites/sectorized sites,- Number of TRX,- Antenna height and antenna type,- Feeder cable.- Plan site locations:- To achieve planned coverage probability- Inter site distanceAntenna azimuth and tilt.





Table of Contents

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1 Introduction Standardisation & Documentation 151.1.1 www.3GPP.org organizational partners 161.1.2 TSG Organisation 171.1.3 Specifications and Releases 181.1.4 Specifications out of Release 1999 19

1.2 Radio Network Architecture 201.2.1GSM Network Architecture with out GPRS 211.2.2 GSM Network Architecture with GPRS 221.2.3 OMC-R 231.2.4 GSM Network Elements 241.2.5 RF Spectrum 25

1.3 Mobile Phone Systems 261.3.1 Access Methods 271.3.2 FDMA 281.3.3 TDMA 291.3.4 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) 301.3.5 Analogue Cellular Mobile Systems 311.3.6 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) 321.3.7 AMPS - Technical objectives 331.3.8 AMPS Frequency Range 341.3.9 TACS Total Access Communications System 351.3.10 TACS - Technical objectives 361.3.11 Different TACS-Systems 371.3.12 TACS (Total Access Communications System) 381.3.13 Why digital mobile communication ? 391.3.14 GSM - Technical objectives 401.3.15 DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone) 411.3.16 DECT - Technical objectives 421.3.17 CDMA - Technical objectives 431.3.18 CDMA - Special Features 441.3.19 CDMA - Technical objectives 451.3.20 TETRA - Features 461.3.21 TETRA - Typical Users 471.3.22 TETRA - Technical objectives 481.3.23 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System 49

1.4 RNP Process Overview 501.4.1 Definition of RN Requirements 511.4.2 Preliminary Network Design 521.4.3 Project Setup and Management 531.4.4 Initial Radio Network Design 541.4.5 Site Acquisition Procedure 551.4.6 Technical Site Survey 561.4.7 Basic Parameter Definition 571.4.8 Cell Design CAE Data Exchange over COF 581.4.9 Turn On Cycle 591.4.10 Site Verification and Drive Test 601.4.11 HW / SW Problem Detection 611.4.12 Basic Network Optimization 621.4.13 Network Acceptance 631.4.14 Further Optimization 64

2 Coverage Planning 652.1 Geo databases 66

2.1.1 Geographical data needed for Radio Network Planning ? 672.1.2 Maps are flat 68





Table of Contents [cont.]


2.1.3 Mapping the earth 692.1.4 Map Projection 702.1.5 Geodetic Ellipsoid 712.1.6 Global & Regional Ellipsoids 722.1.7 Geodetic Datum 732.1.8 Different Map Projection’s 742.1.9 Geo-Coordinate System 752.1.10 WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984) 762.1.11 Transverse Mercator Projection 77

2.1 Geo databases 2.1.12 Transverse Mercator Projection (e.g. UTM ) 78

2.1.13 Universal Transverse Mercator System 792.1.14 UTM - Definitions 802.1.15 UTM Zones (e.g. Europe) 812.1.16 UTM-System 822.1.17 UTM Zone Numbers 832.1.18 UTM-System: Example "Stuttgart" 842.1.19 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 852.1.20 Geospatial data for Network Planning 862.1.21Creation of geospatial databases 872.1.22 Parameters of a Map 882.1.23 Raster- and Vectordata 892.1.24 Rasterdata / Grid data 902.1.25 Vectordata 912.1.26 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) 92

2.1 Geo databases 2.1.27 Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter (1) 93

2.1.28 Morphostructure (2) 942.1.29 Morphoclasses 952.1.30 Morphoclasses (2) 962.1.31Background data (streets, borders etc.) 972.1.32 Orthophoto 982.1.33 Scanned Maps 992.1.34 Buildings 1002.1.35 Buildings (2) 1012.1.36 Traffic density 1022.1.37 Converting one single point (1a) 1032.1.38 Converting one single point (1b) 1042.1.39 Converting one single point (2a) 1052.1.40 Converting one single point (2b) 1062.1.41 Converting a list of points (3a) 1072.1.42 Converting a list of points (3b) 1082.1.43 Converting a list of points (3c) 1092.1.44 Provider for Geospatial data 1102.1.45 Links for more detailed infos 111







2.2 Antennas and Cables 1122.2.1.1 The Antenna System 1132.2.1.2 Antenna Theory 1142.2.1.3 Antenna Data 1152.2.1.4 Antenna Pattern and HPBW 1162.2.1.5 EIRP 1172.2.1.6 Linear Antennas 1182.2.1.7 Monopole Antenna Pattern 1192.2.1.8 Panel Antenna with Dipole Array 1202.2.1.9 Dipole Arrangement 1212.2.1.10 Omni Antenna 122

2.2.2 Antenna Parameters 1232.2.2.1 X 65° T6 900MHz 2.5m 1242.2.2.2 X 65° T6 900MHz 1.9m 1252.2.2.3 X 90° T2 900MHz 2.5m 1262.2.2.4 V 65° T0 900MHz 2.0m 1272.2.2.5 V 90° T0 900MHz 2.0m 1282.2.2.4 X 65° T6 1800MHz 1.3m 1292.2.2.5 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m 1302.2.2.6 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.9m 1312.2.2.7 V 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m 1322.2.2.8 V 90° T2 1800MHz 1.9m 133

2.2.3 Cable Parameters 1342.2.3.1 7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Coaxial Cable 1352.2.3.2 1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable 1362.2.3.3 1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable 1372.2.3.4 1/2" CELLFLEX® Jumper Cable 138

2.3 Radio Propagation 1392.3.1 Propagation effects 140

2.3.1.1 Reflection 1412.3.1.2 Refraction 1422.3.1.3 Diffraction 1432.3.1.4 Fading 1442.3.1.5 Fading types 1452.3.1.6 Signal Variation due to Fading 1462.3.1.7 Lognormal Fading 147

2.4 Path Loss Prediction 1482.4.1 Free Space Loss 1492.4.2 Fresnel Ellipsoid 1502.4.3 Fresnel Ellipsoid 1512.4.4 Knife Edge Diffraction 1522.4.5 Knife Edge Diffraction Function 1532.4.6 "Final Solution" for Wave Propagation Calculations? 1542.4.7 CCIR Recommendation 1552.4.8 Mobile Radio Propagation 1562.4.9 Terrain Modeling 1572.4.10 Effect of Morphostructure on Propagation Loss 1582.4.11 Okumura-Hata for GSM 900 1592.4.12 CORRECTIONS TO THE HATA FORMULA 1602.4.13 Hata-Okumura for GSM 900 1612.4.14 COST 231 Hata-Okumura GSM 1800 1622.4.15 Alcatel Propagation Model (Standard Propagation Model) 1632.4.16 Alcatel Propagation Model 1642.4.17 Exercise ‘Path Loss’ 165

2.5 Link Budget Calculation 1662.5.1 Maximum Propagation Loss (Downlink) 1672.5.2 Maximum Propagation Loss (Uplink) 1682.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget 1692.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget 1712.5.4 GSM1800 Link Budget 1722.5.5 Additional Losses Overview 173







2.6 Coverage Probability 1742.6.1 Indoor propagation aspects 1752.6.2 Indoor propagation: empirical model 1762.6.3 Indoor Penetration 1772.6.4 Body Loss (1) 1782.6.5 Body Loss (2) 1792.6.6 Body Loss (3) 1802.6.7 Interference Margin 1812.6.8 Degradation (no FH) 1822.6.9 Diversity Gain 1832.6.10 Lognormal margin 1842.6.11 Consideration of Signal Statistics (1) 1852.6.12 Consideration of Signal Statistics (2) 186

2.7 Cell Range Calculation 1872.7.1 Calculation of Coverage Radius R 1882.7.2 Coverage Probability 1892.7.3 Coverage Ranges and Hata Correction Factors 1902.7.4 Conventional BTS Configuration 1912.7.5 Coverage Improvement by Antenna Diversity 1922.7.6 Radiation Patterns and Range 1932.7.7 Improvement by Antenna Diversity and Sectorization 1942.7.8 Improvement by Antenna Preamplifier 195

2.8 Antenna Engineering 1962.8.1 Omni Antennas 1972.8.2 Sector Antenna 1982.8.3 Typical Applications 1992.8.4 Antenna Tilt 2002.8.5 Mechanical Downtilt 2012.8.6 Electrical Downtilt 2022.8.7 Combined Downtilt 2032.8.8 Assessment of Required Tilts 2042.8.9 Inter Site Distance in Urban Area 2052.8.10 Downtilt in Urban Area 2062.8.11 Downtilt in Urban Area 2072.8.12 Downtilt in Suburban and Rural Area 2082.8.13 Antenna configurations 2092.8.14 Antenna Configurations for Omni and Sector Sites 2102.8.15 Three Sector Antenna Configuration with AD 2112.8.16 Antenna Engineering Rules 2122.8.17 Distortion of antenna pattern 2132.8.18 Tx-Rx Decoupling (1) 2142.8.19 TX-RX Decoupling (2) 2152.8.20 TX-RX Decoupling (3) 2162.8.21 Space Diversity 2172.8.22 Power Divider 2182.8.23 Power Divider 2192.8.24 Panel Configurations (1) 2202.8.25 Panel Configurations (2) 2212.8.26 Panel Configurations (3) 222







2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.27 Feeders 223

2.8.28 Feeder Installation Set and Connectors 2242.8.29 Feeder Parameters 2252.8.30 Feeder attenuation (1) 226

2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.31 Radiating Cables 227

2.8.32 Components of a radiating cable system 2282.8.33 Comparison of field strength: Radiating cable and standard antenna 2292.8.34 Example of a radiating cable in a tunnel 2302.8.35 Microwave antennas, feeders and accessories 2312.8.36 Parabolic antenna 2322.8.37 High performance antenna 2332.8.38 Horn antennas 2342.8.39 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (1) 2352.8.40 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (2) 2362.8.41 Data sheet 15 GHz 2372.8.42 Radiation pattern envelope 2382.8.43 Feeders (1) 2392.8.44 Feeders (2) 2402.8.45 Feeders (3) 2412.8.46 Feeders (4) 2422.8.47 Feeders (5) 2432.8.48 Antenna feeder systems (1) 2442.8.49 Antenna feeder systems (2) 2452.8.50 Antenna feeder systems (3) 246

2.9 Alcatel BSS 2472.9.1 Architecture of BTS - Evolium Evolution A9100 2482.9.2 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (1) 2492.9.3 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (2) 2502.9.4 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (3) 2512.9.5 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features 2522.9.7 Generic Configurations for A9100 G4/5 BTS 2582.9.8 Non multi-band configurations 2592.9.9 Multi-band configurations 2602.9.10 Extended cell configurations 2612.9.11 Standard configurations 2622.9.12 TRX Types 2632.9.12 TRX Types 2642.9.13 BTS Output Power 2652.9.14 Feature Power Balancing 2662.9.15 Cell Split Feature 2672.9.19 Cell Split Example: High Power Configuration 2682.9.22 Indoor BTS Rack Layout 2692.9.23 Outdoor MBO1 Evolution and MBO2 Evolution cabinets 2702.9.24 Micro BTS types 2712.9.25 Technical Data 2722.9.26 BSC capacities in terms of boards 2732.9.27 Capacity and dimensioning for E1 links 2742.9.28 Abis and atermux allocation on LIU boards 275







2.10 Coveradge Improvement 2762.10.1 Antenna Diversity 277

2.10.1.1 Diversity 2782.10.1.2 Selection Diversity (1) 2792.10.1.3 Selection Diversity (2) 2802.10.1.4 Selection Diversity (3) 2812.10.1.5 Equal Gain Combining (1) 2822.10.1.6 Equal Gain Combining (2) 2832.10.1.7 Maximum Ratio Combining (1) 2842.10.1.8 Maximum Ratio Combining (2) 2852.10.1.9 Comparison of combining methods 2862.10.1.10 Enhanced Diversity Combining (1) 2872.10.1.11 Enhanced Diversity Combining (2) 2882.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2892.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2902.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2912.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2922.10.1.12 Diversity systems in Mobile Radio Networks 2932.10.1.13 Space Diversity Systems 2942.10.1.14 Space Diversity - General Rules 2952.10.1.15 Achievable Diversity Gain 2962.10.1.16 Polarization Diversity 2972.10.1.17 Principle of Polarization Diversity 2982.10.1.18 Air Combining 2992.10.1.19 Air Combining with Polarization Diversity 3002.10.1.20 Air Combining with Space Diversity 3012.10.1.21 Decoupling of Signal Branches 3022.10.1.22 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (1) 3032.10.1.23 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (2) 3042.10.1.24 Conclusion on Antenna Diversity 305

2.10.2 Repeater Systems 3062.10.2.1 Repeater Application 3072.10.2.2 Repeater Block Diagram 3082.10.2.3 Repeater Applications (2) 3092.10.2.4 Repeater Types 3102.10.2.5 Repeater for Tunnel Coverage 3112.10.2.4 Repeater for Indoor coverage 3122.10.2.5 Planning Aspects 3132.10.2.6 Repeater Gain Limitation (1) 3142.10.2.7 Repeater Gain Limitation (2) 3152.10.2.8 Intermodulation Products 3162.10.2.9 Repeater Link Budget 3172.10.2.10 High Power TRXs 3182.10.2.13 3x6 TRXs High Power Configuration 3192.10.2.14 Mixed TRX Configuration 320

3 Traffic & Frequency Planning 3213.1 Traffic Caspacity 322

3.1.1 Telephone System 3233.1.2 Offered Traffic and Traffic Capacity 3243.1.3 Definition of Erlang 3253.1.4 Call Mix and Erlang Calculation 3263.1.5 ERLANG B LAW (2) 3283.1.6 Erlang´s Formula 3293.1.7 Blocking Probability (Erlang B) 3303.1.8 BTS Traffic Capacity (Full Rate) 331







3.2 Network Evolution 3323.2.1 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (1) 3333.2.2 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (2) 3343.2.3 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (3) 3353.2.4 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (4) 336

3.3 Cell Structures 3373.3.1 Cell Structures and Quality 3383.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites) (1) 3393.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites)(2) 3403.3.4 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (1) 3413.3.5 4x3 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (2) 3423.3.6 Irregular (Real) Cell Shapes 343

3.4 Frequency Reuse 3443.4.1 GSM Frequency Spectrum 3453.4.2 Impact of limited Frequency Spectrum 3463.4.3 What is frequency reuse? 3473.4.4 RCS and ARCS (1) 3483.4.5 RCS and ARCS (2) 3493.4.6 Reuse Cluster Size (1) 3503.4.7 Reuse Cluster Size (2) 3513.4.8 Reuse Distance 3523.4.9 Frequency Reuse Distance 3533.4.10 Frequency Reuse: Example 354

3.5 Cell Planning 3553.5.1 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (1) 3563.5.2 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (2) 3573.5.3 Influencing Factors on Frequency Reuse Distance 3583.5.4 Conclusion 3593.5.5 Examples for different frequency reuses 360

3.6 Interference Probability 3613.6.1 Interference Theory (1) 3623.6.2 Interference Theory (2) 3633.6.3 CPDF - Cumulative Probability Density Function 3643.6.4 Interference Probability dependent on Average Reuse 365

3.7 Carrier Types 3663.7.1 Carrier Types - BCCH carrier 3673.7.2 Carrier Types - TCH carrier 368

3.8 Multiple Reuse Pattern MRP 3693.8.1 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (1) 3703.8.2 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (2) 3713.8.3 GSM restrictions 372

3.9 Intermodulation 3733.9.1 Intermodulation problems (1) 3743.9.2 Intermodulation problems (2) 3753.9.3 Intermodulation problems (3) - Summary 3763.9.4 Treating “neighbor” cells 3773.9.5 Where can I find neighbor cells? 378

3.10 Manual Frequency Planning 3793.10.1 Frequency planning (1) 3803.10.2 Frequency planning (2) 3813.10.3 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (1) 3823.10.4 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (2) 3833.10.5 Discussion: Subdivide Frequency Band? 3843.10.6 Hint for creating a future proofed frequency plan 3853.10.7 Implementing a frequency plan 386







3.11 BSCI Planning 3873.11.1 BSCI allocation 3883.11.2 BSIC Planning Rules 3893.11.3 Spurious RACH 3903.11.4 Summary 391

3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques 3923.12.1 Capacity enhancement by planning 3933.12.2 Capacity enhancement by adding feature 3943.12.3 Capacity enhancement by adding TRX 3953.12.4 Capacity enhancement by adding cells 3963.12.5 Capacity enhancement by adding sites 397

4 Radio Interface 3984.1 GSM Air Interface 399

4.1.1 Radio Resources 4004.1.2 GSM Transmission Principles (1) 4014.1.3 GSM Transmission Principles (2) 4024.1.4 Advantages of Signal Processing 4034.1.5 Signal Processing Chain 404

4.2 Channel Coding 4054.2.1 Speech Coding 4064.2.2 Error Protection 4074.2.3 Interleaving and TDMA Frame Mapping 4084.2.4 Encryption 4094.2.5 Burst Structure 4104.2.4 Synchronisation 4114.2.5 Modulation 4124.2.6 Propagation Environment 4134.2.7 Equalizing 4144.2.8 Definition of Bit Error Rates 4154.2.9 Speech Quality 4164.2.10 Dependence of BER on Noise and Interference 4174.2.13 Frequency Hopping (1) 4184.2.14 Frequency Hopping (2) 4194.2.15 The OSI Reference Model 4204.2.16 GSM Burst Types (1) 4214.2.17 GSM Burst Types (2) 4224.2.18 Logical Channels 4234.2.19 Possible Channel Combinations 4244.2.20 Channel Mapping (1) 4254.2.21 Channel Mapping (2) 4264.2.22 TDMA Frame Structure for TCHs 427





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Standardisation & Documentation

1 Introduction





1.1 Standardisation & Documentation

1.1 www.3GPP.org organizational partners

Project supported byARIB Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (Japan)CWTS China Wireless Telecommunication Standard groupETSI European Telecommunications Standards InstitutT1 Standards Committee T1 Telecommunication (US)TTA Telecommunications Technology Association (Korea)TTC Telecommunication Technology Committee (Japan)

The Organizational Partners shall determine the general policy and strategy of 3GPP and perform the following tasks:

Approval and maintenance of the 3GPP scopeMaintenance the Partnership Project Description Taking decisions on the creation or cessation of Technical Specification Groups, and approving their scope and terms of referenceApproval of Organizational Partner funding requirementsAllocation of human and financial resources provided by the Organizational Partners to the Project Co-ordination Group

www.3GPP.org organizational partners:

Source: www.3gpp.org





TSG ORGANIZATION

Project Co-ordination Group(PCG)

TSG RANRadio Access Networks

RAN WG1Radio Layer 1 specification

RAN WG2Radio Layer2 &3 spec

RAN WG3UTRAN O&M requirements

RAN WG4Radio &Protocol Aspects

RAN WG5 (ex T1)Mobile TerminalTesting

TSG SAServices & System Aspects

SA WG1Services

SA WG2Architecture

SA WG3Security

SA WG4Codec

SA WG5Telecom Management

TSG CTCore Network & Terminals

CT WG1 (ex CN1)MM/CC/SM (lu)

CT WG3 (ex CN3)Networks Interworking

CT WG4 (ex CN4)MAP/GTP/BCH/SS

CT WG5 (ex CN5)Open Service Access

CT WG6 (ex T3)Card Application Aspects

TSG GERANGSM EDGE

Radio Access Network

GERAN WG1Radio Aspects

GERAN WG2Protocol Aspects

GERAN WG3Terminal TestingGERAN WG3Terminal Testing


1.2 TSG Organisation

Source: www.3gpp.org






1.3 Specifications and Releases

GSM/Edge Releases: http://www.3gpp.org/specs/releases.htmTR 41.103 GSM Phase 2+ Release 5

Freeze date: March - June 2002 TR 41.102 GSM Phase 2+ Release 4

Freeze date: March 2001TR 01.01 Phase 2+ Release 1999

Freeze date: March 2000

For the latest specification status information please go to the 3GPP Specifications database: http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Information/Databases/Spec_Status/The latest versions of specifications can be found on ftp://ftp.3gpp.org/specs/latest/

TS – Technical SpecificationTR – Technical Report






1.4 Specifications out of Release 1999

TR 01.04 Abbreviations and acronymsTS 03.22 Functions related to Mobile Station (MS) in idle mode and group receive modeTR 03.30 Radio Network Planning AspectsTS 04.04 Layer 1 - General RequirementsTS 04.06 Mobile Station - Base Stations System (MS - BSS) Interface Data Link (DL) Layer SpecificationTS 04.08 Mobile radio interface layer 3 specificationTS 05.05 Radio Transmission and ReceptionTS 05.08 Radio Subsystem Link ControlTS 08.06 Signalling Transport Mechanism Specification for the Base Station System - Mobile Services Switching Centre (BSS-MSC) InterfaceTS 08.08 Mobile-services Switching Centre - Base Station system (MSC-BSS) Interface Layer 3 Specification





1 Intruduction

1.2 Radio Network Architecture






1.2.1GSM Network Architecture with out GPRS

HLR GCR AuC

E

B C

D

F

G H

I

Abis

B C D E F G H I

PSTN ISDN

BTS - BSC

MSC-VLR (SM-G)MSC-HLR

HLR-VLR (SM-G)MSC-MSC (SS7 basic) +

MAP MSC-EIR VLR-VLR

HLR-AuC MSC-GCR

MSC-PSTN (SS7 basic) + TUP or ISUP MSC-ISDN

LapD (ISDN type)

GSM Circuit-switching:

(BSSAP = BSSMAP + DTAP)

A BSC - MSC (SS7 basic) + BSSAP

BTS LapDm

(GSM specific) Um MS - BTS

BSC BSC

MSC MSC

BTS

PSTN / ISDN

MS

VLR VLR EIR

AuC

AuC Authentication Center

BTS Base Transceiver Station

BSC Base Station Controller

BSS Base Station System

EIR Equipment Identity Register

HLR Home Location Register

ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network

MS Mobile Station

OMC-R Operation and Maintenance Centre – Radio

PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network

VLR Visitor Location Register

GCR Group Call Register -The general architecture of GSM is maintained. In addition, a network function is required which is used for registration of the broadcast call attributes, the Group Call Register.





Gc GGSN-HLR IP/SS7

LAPDm(GSM specific)

Gs

Gb

Um (Radio)

Gi GGSN-Data Network IP

MS

BSS - SGSN

Gr SS7SGSN-HLR

Gf SS7SGSN-EIRSGSN-MSC/VLR

GnSGSN-GGSN IP

IPSGSN-SGSN

MS - BTS

Gs

GfGr

Gn

Gn

Gc SS7

GSM Packet-switching (GPRS/EDGE):

BSSGP

BSS withPCU

BSS withPCU

HLR EIR

DataNetwork

SGSN

GGSN

SGSN MSC


1.2.2 GSM Network Architecture with GPRS

Note: according to GSM 03.60, the PCU function (Packet Control Unit) may be implemented on the BTS, the BSC or the SGSN site.

MFS Multi – BSS Fast Packet Server A935

PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network

SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node

GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node

VLR Visitor Location Register






1.2.3 OMC-R

BSS

BTS

BTS

Alcatel9135 MFS SSP

+ RCPBSC

SGSN

OMC-R

MS

A bis A ter

TC

Gb

A

GGSNGn

OMC-G

NSS

GPRS CN

GPRS Core Network (CN): Alcatel 1000 GPRS

Packet Control Unit (PCU) function for several BSS: Alcatel 9135 MFS

TC Transcoder






1.2.4 GSM Network Elements

Base Station System BSSBase Transceiver Station BTSBase Station Controller BSC

Terminal EquipmentMobile Station MS

Operation and Maintenance Center-Radio OMC-R

Network Subsystem NSS Mobile Services Switching Center MSCVisitor Location Register VLRHome Location Register HLRAuthentication Center AuCEquipment Identity Register EIR

Operation and Maintenance Center OMCMulti-BSS Fast Packet Server (GPRS) MFSServing GPRS Support Node SGSNGateway GPRS Support Node GGSN






1.2.5 RF Spectrum

System Total Bandwidth Uplink frequency band /MHz

Downlink frequency band /MHz

Carrier Spacing

GSM 450 2x7.5MHz 450.4-457.6 460.4-467.6 200 kHz

GSM 480 2x7.2MHz 478.8-486 488.8-496 200 kHz

GSM 850 2x25MHz 824-849 869-894 200 kHz

GSM 900 2x25MHz 890-915 935-960 200 kHz

E-GSM 2x35MHz 880-915 925-960 200 kHz

DCS 1800 (GSM)

2x75MHz 1710-1785 1805-1880 200 kHz

PCS 1900 (GSM)

2x60MHz 1850-1910 1930-1990 200 kHz

AMPS : UK

TACS : UK

DECT: Cordless

CDMA: System of next Generation

TETRA: Digital communication System for Commercial use

Frequency Ranges depends on country.





1 Intruduction

1.3 Mobile Phone Systems





1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods

1.3.1 Access Methods

FDMA

TDMA

CDMA

time

time

time

pow

er

pow

er

pow

er

frequency

frequency

frequency






1.3.2 FDMA

Used for standard analog cellular mobile systems(AMPS, TACS, NMT etc.) Each user is assigned a discrete slice of the RF spectrumPermits only one user per channel since it allows the user to use the channel 100% of the time.






1.3.3 TDMA

Multiple users share RF carrier on a time slot basisCarriers are sub-divided into timeslotsInformation flow is not continuous for an user, it is sent and received in "bursts"






1.3.4 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Multiple access spread spectrum techniqueEach user is assigned a sequence code during a callNo time division; all users use the entire carrier

What is CDMA ?

One of the most important concepts to any cellular telephone system is that of "multiple access", meaning that multiple,

simultaneous users can be supported. In other words, a large number of users share a common pool of radio channels and

any user can gain access to any channel (each user is not always assigned to the same channel). A channel can be thought

of as merely a portion of the limited radio resource which is temporary allocated for a specific purpose, such as

someone's phone call. A multiple access method is a definition of how the radio spectrum is divided into channels and

how channels are allocated to the many users of the system.






1.3.5 Analogue Cellular Mobile Systems

Analogue transmission of speechOne TCH/ChannelOnly FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)Different Systems

AMPS (Countries: USA)TACS (UK, I, A, E, ...)NMT (SF, S, DK, N, ...)...

NMT: Nordic Mobile Telephone System. Allianz von Nordischen Systembetreibern.

AMPS: Advanced Mobile Phone System

TACS: Total Access Communications System

UK United Kingdom

I Italy

A Austria

E Spain

SF Finnland

S Schweden

DK Denmark

N Norwegen






1.3.6 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)

Analogue cellular mobile telephone systemPredominant cellular system operating in the USOriginal system: 666 channels (624 voice and 42 control channels)EAMPS - Extended AMPS Current system: 832 channels (790 voice, 42 control); has replaced AMPS as the US standard NAMPS - Narrowband AMPS New system that has three times more voice channels than EAMPS with no loss of signal quality Backward compatible: if the infrastructure is designed properly, older phones work on the newer systems






1.3.7 AMPS - Technical objectives

Technology FDMARF frequency band 825 - 890 MHzChannel Spacing 30 kHzCarriers 666 (832)Timeslots 1Mobile Power 0.6 - 4 WTransmission Voice, (data)HO possibleRoaming possible






1.3.8 AMPS Frequency Range

991 1023 1 666 667 799

Extended AMPS

AMPSUplink

Channel number

Frequency of Channel(MHz)

824.040 825.030 844.980

845.010

845.010

Duplex distance45 MHz

Downlink

Channel number

Frequency of Channel(MHz)

991 1023 1 666 667 799

Extended AMPS

AMPS

869.040 870.030 889.980 893.980

890.010






1.3.9 TACS Total Access Communications System

Analogue cellular mobile telephone systemThe UK TACS system was based on the US AMPS system TACS - Original UK system that has either 600 or 1000 channels (558 or958 voice channels, 42 control channels)RF frequency band: 890 - 960Uplink: 890-915 Downlink: 935-960Channel spacing: 25 KHz






1.3.10 TACS - Technical objectives

Technology FDMARF frequency band 890 - 960 MHzChannel Spacing 25 kHzCarriers 1000Timeslots 1Mobile Power 0.6 - 10 WTransmission Voice , (data)HO possibleRoaming possible

Tacs disturb GSM because the same frequency- range!






1.3.11 Different TACS-Systems

ETACS - Extended TACS Current UK system that has 1320 channels (1278 voice, 42 control)and has replaced TACS as the UK standard

ITACS and IETACS - International (E)TACS Minor variation of TACS to allow operation outside of the UK by allowing flexibility in assigning the control channels

JTACS - Japanese TACS A version of TACS designed for operation in Japan

NTACS - Narrowband TACS New system that has three times as many voice channels as ETACS with no loss of signal quality






1.3.12 TACS (Total Access Communications System)

1329 2047 0 23 44 323

344

600

100011

890.0125(935.0125

)

905(950

)

915(960

)

1st Assignment in the UK (600 channels)

Organisation B

Organisation A

Original concept (1000 channels)

890935

889.9875(934.9875

)

889.9625(934.9625

)

872.0125(917.0125

)

872917

Frequency of channel

[Mhz]

Number of Channel

E-TACS - 1320 Channels

Borders of channels

[Mhz]

Mobile Station TX

(Base Station TX)






1.3.13 Why digital mobile communication ?

Easy adaptation to digital networks

Digital signaling serves for flexible adaptation to operational needs

Possibility to realize a wide spectrum of non-voice services

Digital transmission allows for high cellular implementation flexibility

Digital signal processing gain results in high interference immunity

Privacy of radio transmission ensured by digital voice coding and encryption

Cost and performance trends of modern microelectronics arein favour of a digital solution






1.3.14 GSM - Technical objectives

Technology TDMA/FDMARF frequency band 890 - 960 MHzChannel Spacing 200 kHzCarriers 124Timeslots 8Mobile Power (average/max) 2 W/ 8 WBTS Power class 10 ... 40 WMS sensitivity - 102 dBmBTS sensitivity - 104 dBmTransmission Voice, dataHO possibleRoaming possible






1.3.15 DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone)

European Standard for Cordless CommunicationUsing TDMA-SystemTraditional Applications

Domestic use ("Cordless telephone")Cordless office applications

Combination possible withISDNGSM

High flexibility for different applications






1.3.16 DECT - Technical objectives

Technology TDMA/FDMARF frequency band 1880 - 1900 MHzChannel Spacing 1.728 MHzCarriers 10Timeslots 12 (duplex)Mobile Power (average/max) 10 mW/250 mWBTS Power class 250 mWMS sensitivity -83 dBmBTS sensitivity -83 dBmTransmission Voice, dataHO possible

Frequency Range with 10 carriers, 1728 KHz channel spacing

10 carrier 24 timeslots

120 Duplex channels

cell radius 200-300 meter

no Equalizer

HO und Macro Diversity Optional






1.3.17 CDMA - Technical objectives

Spread spectrum technology(Code Division Multiple Access)Several users occupy continuously one CDMA channel(bandwidth: 1.25 MHz) The CDMA channel can be re-used in every cellEach user is addressed by

A specific code andSelected by correlation processing

Orthogonal codes provides optimumisolation between users



Vocoder:

8Kbps oder 13 Kbps.

Multiple Forms of diversity:

Frequency diversity (Spektrum 1.25 MHz)

Spatial diversity (2 different receiving Antennas)

Path diversity (Usage of Multi-path propagation)

Time diversity (Interleaving, error correction codes….)




1.3.18 CDMA - Special Features

Vocoder allows variable data ratesSoft handoverOpen and closed loop power controlMultiple forms of diversityData, fax and short message services possible






1.3.19 CDMA - Technical objectives

Technology CDMARF frequency band 869-894 / 824-849

or 1900 MHzChannel Spacing 1250 kHzChannels per 1250 kHz 64Mobile Power (average/max) 1-6.3 W / 6.3 WTransmission Voice, dataHO ("Soft handoff") possibleRoaming possible






1.3.20 TETRA - Features

Standard for a frequency efficient european digital trunked radio communication system (defined in 1990)Possibility of connections with simultaneous transmission of voice and dataEncryption at two levels:

Basic level which uses the air interface encryptionEnd-to-end encryption (specifically intended for public safety users)

Open channel operation"Direct Mode" possible

Communication between two MS without connecting via a BTSMS can be used as a repeater






1.3.21 TETRA - Typical Users

Public safety

Police (State, Custom, Military, Traffic)

Fire brigades

Ambulance service

...

Railway, transport and distribution companies

For use in:

Police, ambulance and fire ServicesSecurity ServicesMilitaryTransport ServicesClosed User Groups (CUGs)Factory site services






1.3.22 TETRA - Technical objectives

Technology TDMA/FDMARF frequency band 380 - 400 MHzChannel Spacing 25 or 12.5 KHzCarriers not yet specifiedTimeslots 4Mobile Power (3 Classes) 1, 3, 10 WBTS Power class 0.6 - 25 WMS sensitivity -103 dBmBTS sensitivity -106 dBmTransmission Voice, data, images,

short messageHO possibleRoaming possible






1.3.23 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System

Third generation mobile communication system

Combining existing mobile services (GSM, CDMA etc.) and fixed telecommunications services

More capacity and bandwidth

More services (Speech, Video, Audio, Multimedia etc.)

Worldwide roaming

"High" subscriber capacity

http://www.vtt.fi/





1 Intruduction

1.4 RNP Process Overview






1.4.1 Definition of RN Requirements

The Request for Quotation (RfQ) from the customer prescribes the requirements mainlyCoverage

Definition of coverage probabilityPercentage of measurements above level threshold

Definition of covered areaTraffic

Definition of Erlang per square kilometerDefinition of number of TRX in a cellMixture of circuit switched and packed switched traffic

QoSCall success rateRxQual, voice quality, throughput rates, ping time






1.4.2 Preliminary Network Design

The preliminary design lays the foundation to create the Bill of Quantity (BoQ)

List of needed network elements Geo data procurement

Digital Elevation Model DEM/Topographic mapClutter map

Definition of standard equipment configurations dependent on

clutter typetraffic density

Coverage PlotsExpected receiving level

Definition of roll out phasesAreas to be coveredNumber of sites to be installedDate, when the roll out takes place.

Network architecture designPlanning of BSC and MSC locations and their links

Frequency spectrum from license conditions






1.4.3 Project Setup and Management

This phase includes all tasks to be performed before the on site part of the RNP process takes place.This ramp up phase includes:

Geo data procurement if requiredSetting up ‘general rules’ of the projectDefine and agree on reporting scheme to be used

Coordination of information exchange between the different teams which are involved in the project

Each department/team has to prepare its part of the projectDefinition of required manpower and budgetSelection of project database (MatrixX)






1.4.4 Initial Radio Network Design

Area surveysAs well check of correctness of geo data

Frequency spectrum partitioning designRNP tool calibration

For the different morpho classes:Performing of drive measurementsCalibration of correction factor and standard deviation by comparison of measurements to predicted received power values of the tool

Definition of search areas (SAM – Search Area Map)A team searches for site locations in the defined areasThe search team should be able to speak the national language

Selection of number of sectors/TRX per site together with project management and customerGet ‘real’ design acceptance from customer based on coverage prediction and predefined design level thresholds






1.4.5 Site Acquisition Procedure

Delivery of site candidatesSeveral site candidates shall be the result out of the site location search

Find alternative sitesIf no site candidate or no satisfactory candidate can be found in the search areaDefinition of new SAM (Search Area Map)Possibly adaptation of radio network design

Check and correct SAR (Site Acquisition Report)

Location informationLand usageObject (roof top, pylon, grassland) informationSite plan

Site candidate acceptance and ranking

If the reported site is accepted as candidate, then it is ranked according to its quality in terms of

Radio transmissionHigh visibility on covered areaNo obstacles in the near field of the

antennasNo interference from other

systems/antennasInstallation costs

Installation possibilitiesPower supplyWind and heat

Maintenance costsAccessibilityRental rates for objectDurability of object






1.4.6 Technical Site Survey

Agree on an equipment installation solution satisfying the needs of

RNE Radio Network EngineerTransmission plannerSite engineerSite owner

The Technical Site Survey Report (TSSR) defines

Antenna type, position, bearing/orientation and tiltMast/pole or wall mounting position of antennasEMC rules are taken into account

Radio network engineer and transmission planner check electro magnetic compatibility (EMC) with other installed devices

BTS/Node B locationPower and feeder cable mountTransmission equipment installationFinal Line Of Site (LOS) confirmation for microwave link planning

E.g. red balloon of around half a meter diameter marks target location

If the site is not acceptable or the owner disagrees with all suggested solutions

The site will be rejectedSite acquisition team has to organize a new date with the next site from the ranking list






1.4.7 Basic Parameter Definition

After installation of equipment the basic parameter settings are used for

CommissioningFunctional test of BTS and VSWR check

Call testsRNEs define cell design dataOperations field service generates the

basic software using the cell design CAE data

Cell design CAE data to be defined for all cells are for example:

CI/LAC/BSICFrequenciesNeighborhood/cell handover relationshipTransmit powerCell type (macro, micro, umbrella, …)






1.4.8 Cell Design CAE Data Exchange over COF

A9156 RNO

OMC 1

COF

ACIE

ACIE

POLOBSS Software offline production

3rd Party RNP or Database

A9155 V6

RNP

A9155PRC Generator

Module

ConversionOMC 2

ACIE = PRC file

ACIE ASCII Configuration Import Export PRC Provisioning Radio Configuration

SC Supervised Configuration

COF CMA Offsite

CMA Customer Management Application

CAE Customer Application Engineering






1.4.9 Turn On Cycle

The network is launched step by step during the TOCA single step takes typically two or three weeks

Not to mix up with rollout phases, which take months or even yearsFor each step the RNE has to define ‘TOC Parameter’

Cells to go on airDetermination of frequency planCell design CAE parameter

Each step is finished with the ‘Turn On Cycle Activation’Upload PRC/ACIE files into OMC-RUnlock sites






1.4.10 Site Verification and Drive Test

RNE performs drive measurement to compare the real coverage withthe predicted coverage of the cells.If coverage holes or areas of high interference are detected

Adjust the antenna tilt and orientationVerification of cell design CAE dataTo fulfill heavy acceptance test requirements, it is absolutely essential to perform such a drive measurement.Basic site and area optimization reduces the probability to haveunforeseen mysterious network behavior afterwards.






1.4.11 HW / SW Problem Detection

Problems can be detected due to drive tests or equipment monitoringDefective equipment

will trigger replacement by operation field serviceSoftware bugsIncorrect parameter settings

are corrected by using the OMC or in the next TOCFaulty antenna installation

Wrong coverage footprints of the site will trigger antenna re-alignments

If the problem is seriousLock BTSDetailed error detectionGet rid of the faultEventually adjusting antenna tilt and orientation






1.4.12 Basic Network Optimization

Network wide drive measurementsIt is highly recommended to perform network wide drive tests before doing the commercial opening of the networkKey performance indicators (KPI) are determinedThe results out of the drive tests are used for basic optimization of the network

Basic optimizationAll optimization tasks are still site relatedAlignment of antenna systemAdding new sites in case of too large coverage holesParameter optimization

No traffic yet -> not all parameters can be optimized

Basic optimization during commercial serviceIf only a small number of new sites are going on air the basic optimization will be included in the site verification procedure






1.4.13 Network Acceptance

Acceptance drive testCalculation of KPI according to acceptance requirements in contractPresentation of KPI to the customerComparison of key performance indicators with the acceptance targets in the contractThe customer accepts

the whole networkonly parts of it step by step

Now the network is ready for commercial launch






1.4.14 Further Optimization

Network is in commercial operationNetwork optimization can be performedSignificant traffic allows to use OMC based statistics by using A9156 RNO and A9185 NPAEnd of optimization depends on contract and mutual agreement between Alcatel and customer

Usually, Alcatel is only involved during the first optimization activities directly after opening the network commercially





2 Coverage Planning





2 Coverage Planning

2.1 Geo databases





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.1 Geographical data needed for Radio Network Planning ?

Propagation models dependon geographical data

Geographical information for site acquisitionLatitude (East/West) / Longitude (North/South) Rectangular coordinates(e.g. UTM coordinates)





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.2 Maps are flat

Longitude

Latitude

x, y

Problem: Earth is 3D, the maps are 2D





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.3 Mapping the earth

The Earth is a very complex shapeTo map the geography of the earth, a reference model (-> Geodetic Datum) is neededThe model needs to be simple so that it is easy to useIt needs to include a Coordinate system which allows the positions of objects to be uniquely identifiedIt needs to be readily associated with the physical world so that its use is intuitive





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.4 Map Projection

Geodetic Datume.g. WGS84, ED50

Ellipsoide.g. WGS84,

International 1924

GeocoordinateSystem

e.g. UTM

Map Projectione.g. Transverse Mercator (UTM),

Lambert Conformal Conic





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.5 Geodetic Ellipsoid

Definition: A mathematical surface (an ellipse rotated around the earth's polar axis) which provides a convenient model of the size and shape of the earth. The ellipsoid is chosen to best meet the needs of a particular map datum system design.

Reference ellipsoids are usually defined by semi-major (equatorial radius) and flattening (the relationship between equatorial and polar radii).





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.6 Global & Regional Ellipsoids

Global ellipsoidse.g. WGS84, GRS80

Center of ellipsoid is“Center of gravity”

Worldwide consistence ofall maps around the world

Regional ellipsoidse.g. Bessel, Clarke, Hayford, Krassovsky

Best fitting ellipsoid for a part of the world(“local optimized”)

Less local deviation





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.7 Geodetic Datum

A Geodetic Datum is a Reference System which includes:

A local or global EllipsoidOne “Fixpoint”

Attention: Referencing geodetic coordinates to the wrong map datum can result in positionerrors ofhundreds of meters

Info:In most cases the shift, rotation and scale factor of a Map Datum is relative to the “satellite map datum” WGS84.





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.8 Different Map Projection’s

Cylindricale.g. UTM, Gauss-Krueger

Conicale.g.Lambert Conformal Conic

Planar/Azimuthal

Info: In 90% of the cases we will have a cylindrical projection in 10% of the cases a conical projection





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.9 Geo-Coordinate System

To simplify the use of maps aCartesian Coordinates is used To avoid negative values a

False Easting value and aFalse Northing valueis added

Also a scaling factor is used to minimize the “projection error”over the whole area

X = EastingY = Northing





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.10 WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984)

Most needed Geodetic Datumin the world today (“Satellite Datum”)It is the reference frame usedby the U.S. Department of Defenseis defined by the National Imageryand Mapping Agency (NIMA)The Global Positioning System (GPS)system is based on the World GeodeticSystem 1984 (WGS-84).Optimal adaption to the surface of the earth





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.11 Transverse Mercator Projection

Projection cylinder is rotated 90 degrees from the polar axis (“transverse”)Geometric basisfor the UTMand theGauss-KruegerMap ProjectionConformalMap projection





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.12 Transverse Mercator Projection (e.g. UTM )

Middle-Meridian





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.13 Universal Transverse Mercator System

60 zones, each 6o (60 · 6o = 360o )±3o around each center meridianBeginning at 180o longitude(measured eastward fromGreenwich)

Zone number = (center meridian + 183o ) / 6o





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.14 UTM - Definitions

False Easting: 500 000 m(Middle-meridian x = 500 000 m)

False Northing:Northern Hemisphere: 0 m Southern Hemisphere: 10 000 000 m

Scaling Factor: 0,9996(used to minimize the“projection error” over the whole area)





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.15 UTM Zones (e.g. Europe)

UTM-Zones

9° 15° 21° 27° 33° 39°3°-3°-6° Middle-Meridian





UTM-System

False origin on the central meridian of the zone has an easting of 500,000 meters.

All eastings have a positive values for the zone

Eastings range from 100,000 to 900,000 meters

The 6 Degree zone ranges from 166,667 to 833,333 m, leaving about a 0.5° overlap at each end of the zone(valid only at the equator)

This allows for overlaps and matching between zones

2.1 Geo databases

2.1.16 UTM-System





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.17 UTM Zone Numbers





UTM-Zone: 32

Middle meridian: 9o

(9o = 500 000 m“False Easting”)

2.1 Geo databases

2.1.18 UTM-System: Example "Stuttgart"

Transformation: latitude / longitude → UTM system

North 48o 45' 13.5''

East 9o 11' 7.5''

y = 5 400 099 m

x = 513 629 m





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.19 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

Maps an ellipsoid onto a cone whose central axis coincides with the polar axis

Cone touches the ellipsoid=> One standard parallel (1SP)(e.g. NTF-System in France)

Cutting edges of cone and ellipsoid=> Two standard parallels (2SP)(e.g. Lambert-Projection in Austria)





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.20 Geospatial data for Network Planning

DEM (Digital Elevation Model)/ TopographyMorphostructure / Land usage / ClutterSatellite Photos /Orthoimages Scanned MapsBackground data(streets, borders,coastlines, etc. )

BuildingsTraffic data





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.21Creation of geospatial databases

Satellite imagery Digitizing maps Aerial photography

Geospatial data





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.22 Parameters of a Map

Coordinate systemMap Projection(incl. Geodetic Datum)Location of the map (Area …)Scale:

macrocell planning1:50000 - 1:100000microcell planning1:500 -1:5000

ThematicSourceDate of Production





Raster dataDEM /TopographyMorphostructure /Land usage / ClutterTraffic density

Vector dataBackground data(streets, borders, coastlines, etc. )Buildings

2.1 Geo databases

2.1.23 Raster- and Vectordata

x

y

(x1,y1)

(xn,yn)





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.24 Rasterdata / Grid data

Pixel-oriented dataStored as row and column Each Pixel stored in one or two byteEach Pixel contents information(e.g. morphoclass,colour of a scanned map, elevation of a DEM)





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.25 Vectordata

Vector mainly used are: airport, coastline, highway, main roads, secondary roads, railway, rivers/lakesEach vector contents

Info about kind of vector(e.g. street, coastline)A series of several pointsEach point has a corresponded x / y -value(e.g. in UTM System or as Long/Lat)Info about Map projection and used Geodetic Datum

(x1,y1)

(xn,yn)





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.26 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

Raster dataset that showsterrain features such as hillsand valleysEach element (or pixel) inthe DEM image represents the terrain elevation at that locationResolution in most cases: 20 m for urban areas50-100 m for other areasDEM are typically generatedfrom topographic maps,stereo satellite images,or stereo aerial photographs





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.27 Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter (1)

Land usage classificationaccording to the impact on wave propagationIn most cases:7...14 morpho classesResolution in most cases:20 m for cities50…100m other areasfor radio networkplanning

The clutter files describe the land cover (dense urban, buildings, residential, forest, open, villages....). Ground is

represented by a grid map where each bin is characterised by a code corresponding to a main type of cover (a clutter

class). The clutter maps are 8 bits/pixel (256 classes)-raster maps, they show an image with a colour assigned to each

clutter class (by default, grey shading).

Clutter file provides clutter code per bin. Bin size is defined by pixel size (P stated in metre). Pixel size must be the same

in both directions. Abscissa and ordinate axes are respectively oriented in right and down directions. First point given in

the file corresponds to the upper-left corner of the image. This point refers to the northwest point geo-referenced by A9155





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.28 Morphostructure (2)

Besides the topo database the basic input for radio network planningEach propagation area has different obstacles like buildings, forest etc.Obstacles which have similar effects on propagation conditions are classified in morphoclassesEach morphoclass has a corresponding value for the correction gainThe resolution of the morphodatabases should be adaptedto the propagation modelMorpho correction factor for predictions:

0 dB (”skyscapers") … 30 dB (”water")

Morphodatabases (Landuse/Clutter) are a special kind of geodatabases. The morphodatabase is beside the topodatabase the basic input for radio network planning. Each morphoclass has a corresponding value of propagation loss. Together with a topographical database it is possible to predict the radio wave propagation.

Each propagation area has different obstacles like buildings, forest etc. Those obstacles, which have similar effects on propagation conditions are classified in morphoclasses.

This resolution of the morphodatabases should be adapted to the empirical propagation model for macrocellular radio network planning and the necessary planning resolution. In most cases the resolution of the rasterdatabases for morphostructure is around 50 ...100 m. With those values an optimum between calculation time and the necessary resolution of the prediction is reached in most radio network planning projects.

For microcellular radio network planning a buildingdatabase is needed with a higher resolution.

Each morphoclass is corresponding with a morpho-correction factor. The propagation loss is between 30 dB ("skyscrapers") ... and around 0 dB ("open area") The morphocorrection factors are achieved by calibration measurements





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.29 Morphoclasses

Code Morpho-

structure Description

0 not classified e.g. edge of a database

1 skyscrapers / buildings

very high buildings ( >40m), very high density of buildings, no vegetation on ground level e.g. cities like NewYork, Tokio etc.

2 dense urban 4 or more storeys, areas within urban perimeters, inner city, very little vegetation, high density of buildings, most buildings are standing close together, small pedestrian zones and streets incl.

3 medium urban / mean

urban

3 or 4 storeys, areas within urban perimeters, most buildings are standing close together, less vegetation, middle density of buildings, small pedestrian zones and streets included

4 lower urban / suburban

2 or 3 storeys, middle density of buildings, some vegetation, terraced houses with gardens

5 residential 1-2 storeys, low density of buildings with gardens e.g. farmhouses, detached houses

6 industrial zone / industrial

factory, warehouse, garage, shipyards





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.30 Morphoclasses (2)

Code Morpho-

structure Description

7 forest all kinds of forest, parks, with high tree density

8 agriculture / rural

high vegetation, plants: 1... 3 m, high density of plants, e.g. crop fields, fruit plantation

9 low tree density / parks

low vegetation, low height of plants, low density of plants, some kinds of parks, botanical garden

10 water sea, rivers, all kind of fresh- and saltwater

11 open area no buildings, no vegetation e.g. desert, beach, part of an airport, big streets etc. huge parking areas, large

12 (optional)

defined by networkplanner if necessary

13 (optional)

defined by networkplanner if necessary





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.31Background data (streets, borders etc.)

All kinds of information data like streets, borders, coastlines etc.Necessary for orientationin plots of calculation resultsThe background data arenot needed for the calculationof the fieldstrength, power etc.

These data represent either polygons (regions...), or lines (roads, coastlines...) or points (towns...).





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.32 Orthophoto

Georeferenced Satellite ImageResolution: most 10 or 20 mSatellite: e.g. SPOT, Landsat

These geographic data regroup the road maps and the satellite images ; they are only used for display and provide information about the geographic environment. A9155 supports scanned image files with TIFF (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel), BIL (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel), PlaNET© (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel), BMP (1-24-bits/pixel) andErdas Imagine (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel) formats.





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.33 Scanned Maps

Mainly used asbackground dataNot used for calculationbut for localisationHas to be geocodedto put it into a GIS (Geographic Information System) e.g. a Radio Network Planning Tool





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.34 Buildings

VectordataOutlines of

single buildingsbuilding blocks

Building heightsMaterial code

not: roof shape





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.35 Buildings (2)

Microcell radio network planningis mainly used in urban environmentThe prediction of mircowavepropagation is calculated witha ray-tracing/launching modelA lot of calculationsteps are neededOptimum building databaserequired (data reduction) tominimize the pre-calculation time





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.36 Traffic density

Advantageous in theinterference calculation,thus for frequencyassignment andin the calculationof average figures innetwork analysisRaster database of traffic densityvalues (in Erlangs) of thewhole planning areaResolution: 20...100 m





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.37 Converting one single point (1a)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 1)Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84)

Input:Longitude: 9 deg 11 min 7.5 secLatitude: 48 deg 45 min 13.5 secDatum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”; Projection: “Geodetic”

Exercise: Convert following example with the program “Geotrans”:

Output: Easting: 513629 mNorthing: 5400099 mDatum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”Projection: “Universersal Transverse Mercator (UTM)”Zone: 32 ; Hemisphere: N (North)

Preset of thisvalues necessary

Values, which willcalculated by program





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.38 Converting one single point (1b)

GEOTRANS(Geographic Translator)is an application program which allows you to convert geographic coordinates easily among a wide variety of coordinate systems, map projections, and datums.

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 1)Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84)

Source: http://164.214.2.59/GandG/geotrans/





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.39 Converting one single point (2a)

Input:Longitude: 9 deg 11 min 7.5 secLatitude: 48 deg 45 min 13.5 secDatum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”; Projection: “Geodetic”

Exercise: Convert following example with the program “Geotrans”:

Output: Easting: 513549 mNorthing: 5403685 mDatum “EUR-A: EUROPEAN 1950, Western Europe”Projection: “Universersal Transverse Mercator (UTM)”Zone: 32 ; Hemisphere: N (North)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 2)Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (ED50) (ED50 = EUR-A = European Datum 1950)


Values, which willcalculated by program





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.40 Converting one single point (2b)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 2)Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (ED50)(ED50 = EUR-A = European Datum 1950)

Attention: For flat coordinates (e.g. UTM) as well as for geographic coordinates (Long/Lat) a reference called “Geodetic Datum” is necessary.

Diff. X (Ex.2 - Ex.1): 69 mDiff. Y (Ex.2 - Ex.1): 200 mDifference because of different Geodetic Datums





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.41 Converting a list of points (3a)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3 )Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84)

Input:text-file with the values (list) of the longitudeand latitude of different points(How to create the inputfile see on page 3c)

Output:Datum: “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”Projection: “Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)”Zone: 32






2.1 Geo databases

2.1.42 Converting a list of points (3b)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3 )Long/Lat (WGS84)

=> UTM (WGS84)





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.43 Converting a list of points (3c)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3)Long/Lat (WGS84)=> UTM (WGS84)

Latitude Longitude UTM-ZoneHemisphere

Easting (x)Northing (y)

Optional: different error-infos,depending on the input-datadefault: “Unk”=“unknown”

Geotrans V2.2.3 Geotrans V2.2.3

deg min sec deg min sec





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.44 Provider for Geospatial data

Geodatasupplier InternetBKS www.bks.co.ukComputaMaps www.computamaps.comGeoimage www.geoimage.frInfoterra www.infoterra-global.comIstar www.istar.frRMSI www.rmsi.com





2.1 Geo databases

2.1.45 Links for more detailed infos

Maps Projection Overviewhttp://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/mapproj/mapproj.htmlhttp://www.ecu.edu/geog/http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projection

Coordinate Transformation (online)http://jeeep.com/details/coord/http://www.cellspark.com/UTM.html

Map Collectionhttp://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/index.html

Finding out Latitude/Longitude of cities etc. http://www.maporama.com





2 Coverage Planning

2.2 Antennas and Cables






2.2.1.1 The Antenna System

AntennasPower dividerCables (jumper)Feeder cablesConnectorsClampsLightning protectionWall glandsPlanning

Rxdiv

Tx

Rx

Feedercable

Earthingkit

Wallgland

Jumper cables

Feederinstallationclamps

Plugs7/16“

Sockets7/16“

Mountingclamp

Grounding

Lightningrod Antennas

Earthing kit

Jumpercable Jumper

cable

Mechanicalantennasupportstructure






2.2.1.2 Antenna Theory

50Ω is the impedance of the cable377Ω is the impedance of the airAntennas adapt the different impedancesThey convert guided waves, into free-space waves (Hertzian waves) and/or vice versa

Z =377ΩZ =50Ω

It happens that the coulomb field and the induction field fall off much more rapidly than the radiation field with increasing distance from the antenna. At distances greater than a few wavelengths from the antenna, in what is called the antenna's far field, the electric field is essentially pure radiation. Closer to the antenna, we have the near field, which is a mixture of the radiation, induction and coulomb fields.

The coulomb field at an instant in time around a half-wave resonant dipole A half-cycle later, the polarity, and all the arrows, will be reversed. The spacing between the field lines indicates field strength.






2.2.1.3 Antenna Data

The antenna parameters which are of interest for the radio network engineering are the following:Antenna directivity, efficiency, gainPolarization, near field and far field

Specification due to certain wave polarization (linear/elliptic, cross-polarization)Half power beam width (HPBW)

Related to polarization of electrical fieldVertical and Horizontal HPBW

Antenna pattern, side lobes, null directionsYields the spatial radiation characteristics of the antenna

Front-to-back ratioImportant for interference considerations

Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)Bandwidth

In electrodynamics, polarization (also spelled polarisation) is the property of electromagnetic waves, such as light, that describes the direction of their transverse electric field. More generally, the polarization of a transverse wave describes the direction of oscillation in the plane perpendicular to the direction of travel. Longitudinal waves such as sound waves do not exhibit polarization, because for these waves the direction of oscillation is along the direction of travel.

Linear Circular Elliptical






2.2.1.4 Antenna Pattern and HPBW

0 dB

-3 dB

-10 dB

0 dB

-3 dB

-10 dB

verticalhorizontal

sidelobe

null direction

main beam

HPB

W

The antenna radiation pattern also named antenna diagram, describes the relative strength of the radiated field in various directions from the antenna, at a constant distance. The radiation pattern is a reception pattern as well, since it also describes the receiving properties of the antenna. The radiation pattern is three-dimensional, but usually as shown in Figure 4, the measured radiation patterns are a two dimensional slice of the three-dimensional pattern, in the horizontal or vertical planes.

This pattern depends on the antenna geometry and the current distribution in its elements. It is possible to compose, with a certain degree of freedom, arbitrary antenna diagrams by arranging antenna elements, e.g. dipoles, in groups, e.g. in a grid arrangement.

As shown in Figure, each antenna pattern consists of a couple of beams or lobes. One distinguishes the main beam, pointing in the direction where the maximum power is radiated, and the side lobes, which are local maxima in the antenna diagram. The side lobes must sometimes be treated with special care, as they could radiate too much power towards unplanned directions of the cell. This may lead to unexpected interference with other cells! The antenna has directions where it isn't nearly radiating. These directions are called null directions. They may cause coverage problems.

Based on the radiation pattern, the radio mobiles antennas are categorized in the following types:

Omni-directional antennas that provides a 360 degree horizontal radiation pattern. Omni antennas are typically used when continuous coverage around the site is needed and the offered traffic is low. Directional antennas that provide a stronger radiation pattern in a specific direction by focusing the radiation energy. For instance the radiation pattern shown in Figure, belongs to a directive antenna.

The sector or panel antennas are directional antennas and they are built based on the array antennas principle. Array antennas consist of a number of dipole antennas arranged in a geometrical manner to create a directional receiving or transmission pattern.

The panel antennas are used on sectorized sites in order to focus the coverage on special area of interest.






2.2.1.5 EIRP

Pt = 45 dBm

Gain = 11dBi

Isotropic radiated Power Pt

Effective isotropicradiated power:EIRP = Pt+Gain

= 56 dBm

V1

V2 = V1

radiatedpower

Known the antenna gain and the power fed into antenna, an important link budget parameter, the Effective Isotropic Radiated (EIRP) can be calculated. The EIRP represents the total power radiated by the antenna

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power

EIRP: Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (in main beam direction) in [dBm];

Pin: power fed into the antenna, [dBm];

G: antenna gain, [dBi];

GPEIRP in +=





For the link between base station and mobile station, mostly linear antennas are used:

Monopole antennasMS antennas, car roof antennas

Dipole antennasUsed for array antennas at base stations for increasing the directivity of RX and TX antennas


2.2.1.6 Linear Antennas






2.2.1.7 Monopole Antenna Pattern

Influence of antenna length on the antenna pattern






2.2.1.8 Panel Antenna with Dipole Array

Many dipoles are arranged in a grid layoutNearly arbitrary antenna patterns may be designed

Feeding of the dipoles with weighted and phase-shifted signalsCoupling of all dipole elements






2.2.1.9 Dipole Arrangement

Dipole arrangement

Typical flat panel antenna

Dipole element

Weightedandphaseshiftedsignals






2.2.1.10 Omni Antenna

Antenna with vertical HPBW for omni sitesLarge area coverage

AdvantagesContinuous coverage around the siteSimple antenna mountingIdeal for homogeneous terrain

DrawbacksNo mechanical tilt possibleClearance of antenna required





2 Coverage Planning

2.2.2 Antenna Parameters





2.2.2 Antennas Parameters

2.2.2.1 X 65° T6 900MHz 2.5m

Rural road coverage with mechanical uptiltAntenna

RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHzAPX906516-T6 Series

Electrical specificationGain in dBi: 17.1Polarization: +/-45°HBW: 65°VBW: 6.5°Electrical downtilt: 6°

Mechanical specificationDimensions HxWxD in mm: 2475 x 306 x 120Weight in kg: 16.6

Horizontal Pattern






2.2.2.2 X 65° T6 900MHz 1.9m

Dense urban areaAntenna


Electrical specificationGain in dBi: 16.5Polarization: +/-45°HBW: 65°VBW: 9°Electrical downtilt: 6°


Vertical Pattern






2.2.2.3 X 90° T2 900MHz 2.5m

Rural area with mechanical uptiltAntenna


Electrical specificationGain in dBi: 15.9Polarization: +/-45°HPBW: 90°VBW: 7°Electrical downtilt: 6°


Vertical Pattern






2.2.2.4 V 65° T0 900MHz 2.0m

HighwayAntenna

RFS CELLite® Panel Vertical Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHzAP906516-T0 Series

Electrical specificationGain in dBi: 17.5Polarization: VerticalHBW: 65°VBW: 8.5°Electrical downtilt: 0°


Vertical Pattern






2.2.2.5 V 90° T0 900MHz 2.0m

Rural AreaAntenna




Vertical Pattern






2.2.2.4 X 65° T6 1800MHz 1.3m





Vertical Pattern






2.2.2.5 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m





Vertical Pattern






2.2.2.6 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.9m

HighwayAntenna


Electrical specificationGain in dBi: 18.3Polarization: +/-45°HBW: 65°VBW: 4.5°Electrical downtilt: 2°


Vertical Pattern






2.2.2.7 V 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m

HighwayAntenna




Horizontal Pattern






2.2.2.8 V 90° T2 1800MHz 1.9m

HighwayAntenna




Vertical Pattern





2 Coverage Planning

2.2.3 Cable Parameters






2.2.3.1 7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Coaxial Cable

Feeder Cable7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Foam-Dielectric Coaxial CableLCF78-50J StandardLCF78-50JFN Flame Retardant

Installation temperature >-25°C

Electrical specification 900MHzAttenuation: 3.87dB/100mAverage power in kW: 2.45


Mechanical specificationCable weight kg\m: 0.53Minimum bending radius

Single bend in mm: 120Repeated bends in mm: 250

Bending moment in Nm: 13.0Recommended clamp spacing: 0.8m






2.2.3.2 1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable

Feeder Cable1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Foam-Dielectric Coaxial CableLCF114-50J StandardLCF114-50JFN Flame Retardant












2.2.3.3 1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable

Feeder Cable1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Foam-Dielectric Coaxial CableLCF158-50J StandardLCF158-50JFN Flame Retardant












2.2.3.4 1/2" CELLFLEX® Jumper Cable

CELLFLEX® LCF12-50J JumpersFeeder Cable

LCF12-50J CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Foam-Dielectric Coaxial Cable

Connectors7/16” DIN male/femaleN male/femaleRight angle

Molded version available in 1m, 2m, 3m

Mechanical specificationMinimum bending radius

Repeated bends in mm: 125

Electrical specification 900MHzAttenuation: 0.068db/mTotal losses with connectors are 0.108dB, 0.176dB and 0.244dB

Electrical specification 1800MHzAttenuation: 0.099dB/mTotal losses with connectors are 0.139dB, 0.238dB and 0.337dB





2 Coverage Planning

2.3 Radio Propagation





2.3 Radio Propagation

2.3.1 Propagation effects

Free space lossFresnel ellipsoidReflection, Refraction, Scattering

in the atmosphereat a boundary to another material

Diffractionat small obstaclesover round earth

AttenuationRain attenuationGas absorption

Fading





ϕ

P0

Δh


2.3.1.1 Reflection

Pr = Rh/v ⋅ P0

Rh/v = f(ϕ, ε, σ, Δh)horizontal reflection factorvertical reflection factorangle of incidencepermittivityconductivitysurface roughness

Rh

Rv

ϕεσΔh

Pr






2.3.1.2 Refraction

k = 4/3

k = 1 k = 2/3

k =

true earth

Ray paths with different k over true

∞

Considered via an effective earth radius factor k

Radio path plotted as a straight line by changing the earth's radius

k = 4/3k = 1

k = 2/3

k =

radio path

∞

earth






2.3.1.3 Diffraction

Occurs at objects which sizes are in the order of the wavelength λRadio waves are ‘bent’ or ‘curved’ around objects

Bending angle increases if object thickness is smaller compared to λInfluence of the object causes an attenuation: diffraction loss

diffracted radio shadow

zone obstacle

radio






2.3.1.4 Fading

Caused by delay spread of original signalMulti path propagationTime-dependent variations in heterogeneity of environmentMovement of receiver

Short-term fading, fast fadingThis fading is characterised by phase summation and cancellation of signal components, which travel on multiple paths. The variation is in the order of the considered wavelength. Their statistical behaviour is described by the Rayleigh distribution (for non-LOS signals) and the Rice distribution (for LOS signals), respectively.In GSM, it is already considered by the sensitivity values, which take the error correction capability into account.






2.3.1.5 Fading types

Mid-term fading, lognormal fadingMid-term field strength variations caused by objects in the size of 10...100m (cars, trees, buildings). These variations are lognormal distributed.

Long-term fading, slow fadingLong-term variations caused by large objects like large buildings, forests, hills, earth curvature (> 100m). Like the mid-term field strength variations, these variations are lognormal distributed.






2.3.1.6 Signal Variation due to Fading

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

0.1

2.8

5.4

8.0

10.6

13.2

15.9

18.5

21.1

23.7

26.3

29.0

31.6

34.2

36.8

39.4

42.1

44.7

47.3

49.9

Distance [m]

Rec

eive

d Po

wer

[dB

m]

Lognormal fadingRaleygh fading

Fading hole

Raylaight/Rician Fading: Fast Fading. Rayleight : Statistical behaviour of Fast Fading signals for NON LOS-Signals.

Lognormal Fading






2.3.1.7 Lognormal Fading

Lognormal fading (typical 20 dB loss by entering a village)

Fading hole Lognormal fading (entering a tunnel)





2 Coverage Planning

2.4 Path Loss Prediction






2.4.1 Free Space Loss

The simplest form of wave propagation is the free-space propagationThe according path loss can be calculated with the following formulaPath Loss in Free Space Propagation

L free space lossd distance between transmitter and receiver antennaf operating frequency

L dkm

fMHzfreespace = + ⋅ + ⋅324 20 20. log log






2.4.2 Fresnel Ellipsoid

The free space loss formula can only be applied if the direct line-of-sight (LOS) between transmitter and receiver is not obstructedThis is the case, if a specific region around the LOS is cleared from any obstaclesThe region is called Fresnel ellipsoid

Transmitter

Receiver

LOS






2.4.3 Fresnel Ellipsoid

21

21

ddddr+

⋅⋅=

λThe Fresnel ellipsoid is the set of all

points around the LOS where the total length of the connecting lines to the transmitter and the receiver is longer than the LOS length by exactly half a wavelengthIt can be shown that this region is

carrying the main power flow from transmitter to receiver

Transmitter Receiver

LOS

LOS + λ/2

Fresnel zone






2.4.4 Knife Edge Diffraction

1st Fresnel zone

r

BTS

MS

d1 d2

h0

line of sight

path of diffracted wave

d1 d2

h0

replaced obstacle (knife edge)

h0 = height of obstacle over line of sight

d1, d2 = distance of obstacle from BTS and MS

Knife edge diffraction

In case of an obstruction of the LOS path, the free-space formula with an additional correction term can be used if the obstacle is small compared to the distance from transmitter to receiver. Based on the assumption that this obstacle can be replaced by an ideal conducting half-plane which extends to infinity in the direction perpendicular to the propagation path and which is of infinitesimal thickness („knife-edge“), this situation refers to a field theory problem which can be solved in a deterministic way.

In the case that this knife-edge obstacle type enters the Fresnel region, diffraction occurs (similar to the diffraction known from optics) and introduces some additional diffraction loss compared to the free-space propagation.

The diffraction loss can be described by

with h0 the height of the obstacle above the LOS. v is a parameter which represents the number of „cleared“Fresnel ellipsoids. The function F(v) is shown in . One can see that the diffraction loss is 6dB if the obstacle is just touching the LOS.

λ2where)(

21

210

0 ⋅⋅+

⋅−=−==ddddh

rhvvFLdiff






2.4.5 Knife Edge Diffraction Function

Knife-edge diffraction function

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Clearance of Fresnel ellipsoid (v)

F(v)

[dB

]

Additional diffraction loss F(v)v: clearance parameter, v=-h0/rNote: h0 = 0 ⇒ v =0 ⇒ L = 6 dB

V=0:1=0

The function F(v) is shown on the top . One can see that the diffraction loss is 6dB if the obstacle is just touching the LOS. For v>1, some oscillation is noted, which appears due to the fact that the obstacle moves over several Fresnel regions where the phase of the transmitted signal is alternating between +180° and -180° phase shift.

In reality, the conductivity of the obstacle´s material is not ideal, and the oscillations appears „smoothed“ to an average value.

h0

r

d1 d2

LOS

h0

LOS






2.4.6 "Final Solution" for Wave Propagation Calculations?

Exact field solution requires too much computer resources!Too much details required for inputExact calculation too time-consumingField strength prediction rather than calculation

Requirements for field strength prediction modelsReasonable amount of input dataFast (it is very important to see the impact of changes in the network layout immediately)Accurate (results influence the hardware cost directly)Tradeoff required (accurate results within a suitable time)Parameter tuning according to real measurements should be possible






2.4.7 CCIR Recommendation

The CCIR Recommendations provide various propagation curves

Based on Okumura (1968)Example (CCIR Report 567-3):

Median field strength in urban areaFrequency = 900 MHzhMS = 1.5 mDashed line: free space

How to use this experience in field strength prediction models?

Model which fits the curves in certain ranges → Hata's model

was modified later by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST): COST 231 Hata/Okumura






2.4.8 Mobile Radio Propagation

Free-space propagation (Fresnel zone not obstructed) → L ~ d2

Fresnel zone heavily obstructed near the mobile station → L ~ d3.7

d






2.4.9 Terrain Modeling

TopographyEffective antenna heightKnife edge diffraction

single obstaclesmultiple obstacles

Surface shape/Morpho-structureCorrection factors for Hata-Okumura formula






2.4.10 Effect of Morphostructure on Propagation Loss

Open area Open areaUrban area

Distance

Fiel

dstr

engt

h

urban area

open area





Path loss (Lu) is calculated (in dB) as follows:

Lu= A1 + A2 log(f) + A3 log(hBTS) + (B1 + B2log(hBTS)) log d

The parameters A1, A2, A3, B1 and B2 can be user-defined. Default values are proposed in the table below:


2.4.11 Okumura-Hata for GSM 900

-6.55-6.55B2

44.9044.90B1

-13.82-13.82A3

33.9026.16A2

46.3069.55A1

Cost-HataF>1500 MHz

Okumura-Hataf< 1500 MHz

Parameters

Hata formula empirically describes the path loss as a function of frequency, receiver-transmitter distance and antenna heights for an urban environment. This formula is valid for flat, urban environments and 1.5 metre mobile antenna height.






2.4.12 CORRECTIONS TO THE HATA FORMULA

As described above, the Hata formula is valid for urban environment and a receiver antenna height of 1.5m. For other environments and mobile antenna heights, corrective formulas must be applied.

Lmodel1=Lu-a(hMS) for large city and urban environments

Lmodel1=Lu-a(hMS) -2log² (f/28) -5.4 for suburban area

Lmodel1=Lu -a(hMS) - 4.78log² (f)+ 18.33 log(f) – 40.94 for rural area

a(hMS) is a correction factor to take into account a receiver antenna height different from 1.5m.

3.2log² (11.75hMS) – 4.97Large city

(1.1log(f) – 0.7)hMS – (1.56log(f) -0.8)Rural/Small city

A(hMS)Environments

Note: When receiver antenna height equals 1.5m, a(hMS) is close to 0 dB regardless of frequency.






2.4.13 Hata-Okumura for GSM 900

Formula valid for frequency range: 150…1000 MHz

Lmorpho [dB] Morpho/surface shape-Correction factor 0 dB: ‘Skyscrapers’->27 dB: ‘open area’

f [MHz] Frequency (150 - 1000 MHz)hBTS [m] Height of BTS (30 - 200 m)hMS [m] Height of Mobile (1 - 10m)d [km] Distance between BTS and MS (1 - 20 km)

Power law exponent shown colored

LossHata = 69.55 + 26.16 log (f) - 13.82 log (hBTS)- a(hMS) +(44.9 - 6.55 log (hBTS)) log (d) - Lmorpho

a (hMS) = (1.1 log (f) - 0.7) hMS - (1.56 log (f) - 0.8)

2.4 Path Loss Prediction 2.4 Path Loss Prediction






2.4.14 COST 231 Hata-Okumura GSM 1800

Formula is valid for frequency range: 1500...2000 MHzHata’s model is extended for GSM 1800

Modification of original formula to the new frequency rangeFor cells with small ranges the COST 231 Walfish-Ikegami model is more

precisely

LossHata = 46.3 + 33.9 log (f) - 13.82 log (hBTS) - a(hMS) +(44.9 - 6.55 log (hBTS)) log (d) - Lmorpho

a (hMS) = (1.1 log (f) - 0.7) hMS - (1.56 log (f) -0.8)





With:K1: constant offset (dB).K2: multiplying factor for log(d).d: distance between the receiver and the transmitter (m).K3: multiplying factor for log(HTxeff).HTxeff: effective height of the transmitter antenna (m). K4: multiplying factor for diffraction calculation. K4 has to be a positive number.Diffraction loss: loss due to diffraction over an obstructed path (dB).K5: multiplying factor for log(HTxeff)log(d).K6: multiplying factor for .: effective mobile antenna height (m).Kclutter: multiplying factor for f(clutter).f(clutter): average of weighted losses due to clutter.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )clutterfKHKHdKlossnDiffractioKHKdKKL clutterRxeffTxeffTxeffel ++×+×+++= 654321mod loglog loglog

2.4.15 Alcatel Propagation Model (Standard Propagation Model)






2.4.16 Alcatel Propagation Model

Using of effective antenna height in the Hata-Okumura formula:

ΤhRx eff = f(α, d, hBTS, hMS)






2.4.17 Exercise ‘Path Loss’

ScenarioHeight BTS = 40mHeight MS = 1.5mD (BTS to MS) = 2000m

1. Calculate free space loss for A.) f=900MHzB.) f=1800MHz

2. Calculate the path loss for f = 900MHzA.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’B.) Morpho class ‘open area’

3. Calculate the path loss for f = 1800MHzA.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’B.) Morpho class ‘open area’

Morpho correction factors:

-Skyscraper: 0dB;

-Open area: 27dB

1. Calculate free space loss for

A.) f=900MHz: 97.6dB

B.) f=1800MHz: 103.6dB

2. Calculate the path loss for f = 900MHz

A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’: 135dB

B.) Morpho class ‘open area’: 108dB

3. Calculate the path loss for f = 1800MHz

A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’: 144.8dB

B.) Morpho class ‘open area’: 117.8dB





2 Coverage Planning

2.5 Link Budget Calculation






2.5.1 Maximum Propagation Loss (Downlink)

Feeder Cable LossLcable = 3 dB

BTS Antenna GainGantBS = 16.5 dBi

Effective Isotropic Radiated PowerEIRPBTS = 59.5 dBm

MS Antenna GainGantMS = 2 dBi

Internal LossesLint = 2 dB

ALCATEL EvoliumTM

Propagation LossLprop

Minimum Received PowerPRX,min,MS = -102 dBm

Maximum allowed downlink propagation loss: LMAPL = EIRPBTS - PRX,min,MS = 161.5 dB

MS RXSensitivity-102 dBm

Output Power at antenna connector 46.0 dBm

Exercice:Calculate the MAPL for this Example:

MAPL=

Add. Losses:

Anx = 1.8 dBAnc = 5.1 dBANy = 3.5 dB

----------Give the result for different using :1. With Combiner2. Without combiner

Pathloss without ANy = 153.6 dB





Max. allowed uplink propagation loss: Lprop,max = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS = 157.5 dBWith antenna diversity gain of 3dB: Lprop,max,AD = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS + GAD = 160.5 dBWith TMA compensating cable loss: Lprop,max,AD,TMA = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS + GAD + GTMA = 163.5 dB


2.5.2 Maximum Propagation Loss (Uplink)

Feeder Cable LossLcable = 3 dB

BTS Antenna GainGantBS = 16.5 dBi

Minimum Received PowerPRX,min,BTS = -124.5 dBm

MS Antenna GainGantMS = 2 dBi

Internal LossesLint = 2 dB

ALCATEL EvoliumTM

Propagation LossLprop

EIRPMS = 33 dBm

MS TX Power33 dBm

Receiving sensitivity at ant. conn. -111 dBm

AD = Antenna Diversity ~3dB Gain

TMA = Tower Mounted Amplifier ~3-4 dB Gain

Exercice:Calculate the MAPL for these Examples:

MAPL(AD)=

MAPL(AD+TMA) =






2.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget

MAPLDL = EIRPDL - PISO_DL - MMAPLUL = EIRPUL - PISO_UL – MMaximum Allowable Path Loss

M = LSFM + LIF + LBODY + LPENM = LSFM + LIF + LBODY + LPENTotal Margins

LPENLPENPenetration Margin (indoor/in-car)

LBODYLBODYBody Loss

LIFLIFInterference Margin

LSFMLSFMSlow Fading Margin

Margins

EIRPDL = PTX_BTS - LEXT - LFEEDER - LJC - LTMA + GANT - LSLANTEIRPUL = PTX_MSEIRP

LSLANTSlant Polarization Loss

GANTAntenna Gain

LTMATMA Insertion Loss

LJCJumpers and Connectors Losses

LFEEDERFeeder Loss

LEXTExternal Device Losses

PTX_BTSPTX_MSTX Output Power

TX Parameters

PISO_DL = PRX_MSPISO_UL = PRX_BTS - GAD + LEXT + LFEEDER+LJC - GTMA- GANTIsotropic Power

GANTAntenna Gain

GTMATMA Contribution

LJCJumpers and Connectors Losses

LFEEDERFeeder Loss

LEXTExternal Device Losses

GADAntenna Diversity Gain

PRX_MSPRX_BTSRX Sensitivity

RX Parameters

DownlinkUplink

The GSM link budget components are described as follows:

UL/DL: measured in dBm, represent the BTS and the MS output power.

UL/DL: measured in dBm, express the BTS and MS receiver sensitivity.

DL only: the BTS antenna gain, measured in dBi. The MS antenna gain is normally assumed to be 0dBi.

UL only: the gain measured in dB that is caused by the diversity reception of the radio signal in uplink. Information concerning the antenna diversity gain

used for link budget calculation is given in;

UL only: the Tower Mounted Amplifier’s contribution in UL. It is expressed in dB.

DL only: the loss caused in DL path due to internal TMA filters and duplexers. It is a TMA catalog parameter and it is expressed in dB.

UL/DL: the loss due to the usage of external components such external diplexers, splitters, etc. It is measured in dB, and can be deduced from

respective data sheets.

UL/DL: the loss due to feeder cable, measured in dB.

UL/DL: the loss due to the usage of jumpers and connectors, measured in dB.

TX Output Power

RX Sensitivity

Antenna Gain

Antenna Diversity Gain

TMA Contribution

TMA Insertion Loss

External Device Loss

Feeder Loss

Jumper and Connector Loss

See also next page





DL only: the polarization mismatch loss and represents a signal loss due todifferent polarization at the transmitting and receiving end, e.g. the usageof BTS cross polarized antenna at ± 45°. It is not applicable for MS.

As a rule of thumb, 0 dB is considered for slant polarization loss in case ofcross-polar antenna usage within the urban and sub-urban areas.Contrary, 1.5 to 3 dB is recommended in case of rural and open areas.For deeper aspects please.

UL/DL: the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, measured in dBm.

UL/DL: the minimum power, measured in dB, required to maintain acertain level of service, at the receiver antenna. The calculation methodinside the link budget is described in page 169

UL/DL: Maximum allowable path loss. The weaker value is consideredwithin the network design process. Explanation on computation is shown inpage 169

UL/DL: called also log-normal margin, measured in dB, added to the pathloss calculation in order to increase the coverage probability at the cellborder to a certain value.

UL/DL: a margin measured in dB, added to the link budget in order tocompensate the signal degradation due to interference. A value of 3 dB istypical considered. More information on interference margin can be foundin GSM rec. 03.30.

UL/DL: a margin measured in dB, included to reflect the loss especiallyexperienced if handheld mobiles are used. It is occurring due to partialfield absorption in the human body. Typical values are 3 dB and 4 dB.Further details are specified in GSM rec. 03.30.

UL/DL: the penetration margin is measured in dB and is given on theservice class basis. Consequently, the penetration margin can be an in-caror an indoor margin:

► In-car margin measured in dB, added due to MS usage in a car.Typically a loss of 6 to 8 dB is assumed.

► Indoor margin measured in dB, added due to MS usage in indoorenvironment at ground floor level. Usually, indoor is referred to thefirst wall and no statement is given for deep indoor coverage. Itsrange varies from 10 to 18 dB.

► Deep indoor margin measured in dB, included due to MS usagedeep inside the buildings. Its range varies from 13 to 28 dB.

Slant Polarization Loss

EIRP

Isotropic Power

MAPL

Slow Fading Margin

Interference Margin

Body Loss Margin

Penetration Margin






2.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget

dB133,0dB133,0Max. Pathloss

dBm-87,0dBm-104,0Isotr. Rec. Power:

dB0,0Antenna Pre-Ampl.

dB0,0dB0,0Degradation (no FH)

90,9%

dB8,0dB8,0Lognormal Margin 50%→

dB3,0dB3,0Interferer Margin

dB3,0Diversity Gain

dBi2,0dBi11,0Antenna Gain

dB2,0dB3,0Cables, Connectors Loss

dB4,0Body/Indoor Loss

dBm-102,0dBm-104,0Rec. Sensitivity

DownlinkUplinkRX

dBm46,0dBm29,0EIRP

dBi11,0dBi2,0Antenna Gain

dB4,0Body/Indoor Loss

dB3,0dB2,0Cable,Connectors Loss

dBm38,0dBm33,0Output Power

dB3,0dB0,0Comb+Filter Loss, Tol.

dBm41,0dBm33,0Internal Power

DownlinkUplinkTXBS to MSMS to BS

GSM900 Link Budget(Example)






2.5.4 GSM1800 Link Budget

TX Uplink DownlinkInternal Power 33 dBm 45.4 dBmComb+Filter Loss - 0 dBm - 5.3 dBmOutput Power 33 dBm 40.1 dBmCable+Conn Loss - 2 dB - 3 dBmBody/Indoor Loss - 4 dBAntenna Gain + 2 dBi + 11 dBiEIRP 29.0 dBm 48.1 dBm

RX Uplink DownlinkRec. Sensitivity - 109 dBm - 102 dBmBody/Indoor Loss + 4 dBCables, Con. Loss + 3 dB + 2 dBAntenna Gain - 11 dBi - 2 dBiDiversity Gain - 3 dBiInterferer Margin + 3 dB + 3 dBLognormal Margin + 8 dB + 8 dB

Isotr. Rec. Power - 109 dB - 87 dBmMax. Pathloss 138 dB 135.1 dB






2.5.5 Additional Losses Overview

Loss type Reason Value

Indoor loss Electrical properties of wall material 20dB (3...30dB)

Incar loss Brass influencing radio waves 7dB (4...10dB)

Body loss Absorption of radio waves by thehuman body

3dB (0...8dB)

Interferer margin Both signal-to-noise ratio and C/I low 3 dB

Lognormal margin Receiving the minimum field strengthwith a higher probability

According toprobability





2 Coverage Planning

2.6 Coverage Probability






2.6.1 Indoor propagation aspects

Penetration Loss

Multiple Refraction

Multiple Reflection

Exact modeling of indoor environmentnot possiblePractical solution:empirical model!






2.6.2 Indoor propagation: empirical model

d

Additional Loss in [dB] relative to loss at vertical incidence

Power relative to power at d=0

ϕ

d

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90

Angle of incidence in degree

Ad

dit

ion

al

att

en

ua

tion

in

dB






2.6.3 Indoor Penetration

Incident wave

Incident wave

Lindoor = 3 ... 15 dB

Lindoor = 13 ... 25 dBLindoor = ∞ dB (deep basement)

Lindoor = 17 ... 28 dB

-2.7 dB / floor(1st ... 10th floor)

-0.3 dB / floor(11th ... 100th floor)

Lindoor = 7 ... 18 dB(ground floor)

Depending on environmentLine-of-sight to antenna?Interior unknown

general assumptions






2.6.4 Body Loss (1)

Measured attenuation versus

time for a test person walking

around in ananechoic chamber






2.6.5 Body Loss (2)

Head modeled as sphere

Calculation model

Near field of MS antenna•without head•with head






2.6.6 Body Loss (3)

Indirect measured field strength penetrated into the

head (horizontal cut)

Test equipment for indirectfield strength measurements






2.6.7 Interference Margin

In GSM, the defined minimum carrier-to-interferer ration (C/I) threshold of 9 dB is only valid if the received server signal is not too weak.In the case that e.g. the defined system threshold for the BTS of -111dBm is approached, a higher value of C/I is required in order to maintain the speech quality.According to GSM, this is done by taking into account a correction of 3 dB.






2.6.8 Degradation (no FH)

GSM uses a frame correction system, which works with checksum coding and convolutional codes.Under defined conditions, this frame correction works successfully and copes even with fast fading types as Rayleigh or Rician fading.For lower mobile speed or stationary use, the fading has a bigger influence on the bit error rate and hence the speech quality is reduced.In such a case, a degradation margin must be applied. The margindepends on the mobile speed and the usage of slow frequency hopping, which can improve the situation for slow mobiles again.






2.6.9 Diversity Gain

This designates the optional usage of a second receiver antenna.The second antenna is placed in a way, which provides some decorrelation of the received signals.In a suitable combiner, the signals are processed in order to achieve a sum signal with a smaller fading variation range.Depending on the receiver type, the signal correlation, and the antenna orientation, a diversity gain from 2…6 dB is possible.






2.6.10 Lognormal margin

Lognormal margin is also called fading marginDue to fading effects, the minimum isotropic power is only received with a certain probability

Signal statistics, lognormal distribution with median power value Fmed and standard deviation σ(sigma)

Without any margin, the probability is 50%, which is not a sufficient value in order to provide a good call success rate.A typical design goal should be a coverage probability of 90...95%. The following normalised table can be applied to find fading margins for different values of σ. The fading margin is calculated by multiplying the value of k (in the table) with the standard deviation: Lognormal/Fading Margin = kσ.

k -∞ -0.5 0 1 1.3 1.65 2 2.33 +∞

Coverage Probability

0% 30% 50% 84% 90% 95% 97.7%

99% 100%

k -∞ -0.5 0 1 1.3 1.65 2 2.33 +∞

Coverage Probability

0% 30% 50% 84% 90% 95% 97.7%

99% 100%

kk -∞-∞ -0.5-0.5 00 11 1.31.3 1.651.65 22 2.332.33 +∞+∞

Coverage Probability Coverage

Probability 0%0% 30%30% 50%50% 84%84% 90%90% 95%95% 97.7

%97.7%

99%99% 100%

100%






2.6.11 Consideration of Signal Statistics (1)

100 m

100

m

BS

x

Field strength at location xlognormally distributedarround Fmedian






2.6.12 Consideration of Signal Statistics (2)

0

0,05

0,1

0,15

0,2

0,25

0,3

received signal level F [dBm]

PDF

Local coverage probability: Pcov = P [ F > Fthreshold ]

σ

FmedianFthreshold

Area representing thecoverage probability

probability density function (pdf)

Folie large Scale (slow) Fading:The lognormal distribution, described by a mean fieldstrength Fmed and a standard deviation s, is shown in the

diagram. A coverage probability Pcov can be calculated, which defines the chance that a certain fieldstrength threshold Fthr is reached or exceeded by the calculated (or predicted) mean fieldstrength level Fmed.

The variation of the probability in dependence on Fmed is shown in the diagram. The required difference between Fmed and Fthr in order to achieve a required probability is called the fading margin.

Without any margin, the probability is 50% (Fmedian), which is not a sufficient value in order to provide a good call success rate. A typical design goal should be a coverage probability of 90...95%. This can be reached by applying a factor s (Fthreshold). (Additional System margin). -> Next Chapter





2 Coverage Planning

2.7 Cell Range Calculation





For what Radius R is the average coverage probability in the cell area 95% ?


2.7.1 Calculation of Coverage Radius R

r = distance between BTS and MS Frec = received powerσ = Standard deviation

F rec, thr

F rec

Frec,med (r)

0 r

σ

R

R

<Pcov(R)> = = 0.95∫20

π

πR²

Pcov (r) dr !

Frec,med (r) = EIRP - LossHata (r)

Loss Hata = f(hBS, hMS, f, r) + Kmor

Pcov(r)= P(Frec (r) > Frec,thr)

R = f (hBS, hMS, f, Kmor, EIRP, Frec,thr)






2.7.2 Coverage Probability

0

0,5

0,951

Pcov (r)

R r

Pcov = P ( Frec > Frec, thr )






2.7.3 Coverage Ranges and Hata Correction Factors

Area Coverage Probability

70%

75%

80%

85%

90%

95%

100%

0,0 1,5 3,0 4,5 6,0 7,5 9,0 10,5

d [km]

P cov

155

150

145

140

135

130

125

120

115

110

ReferencePathloss [dB]

Calculation conditions:

Correction = 3; Sigma = 7hBS = 30 m; hMS = 1.7m; f = 900 Mhz

Clutter type Cor [dB] σ [dB]

Skyscrapers 0 6Dense urban 2 6Medium urban 4 7Lower urban 6 7Residential 8 6Industrial zone 10 10Forest 8 8Agricultural 20 6Low tree density 15 8Water 27 5Open area 27 6

The lognormal distribution, described by a mean fieldstrength Fmed and a standard deviation s, is shown in in the left diagram. A coverage probability Pcov can be calculated, which defines the chance that a certain fieldstrength threshold Fthr is reached or exceeded by the calculated (or predicted) mean fieldstrength level Fmed. This probability is represented by the area enclosed by the graph of the probability density function and the vertical line at F=Fthr in the left diagram. The variation of the probability in dependence on Fmed is shown in the right diagram. The required difference between Fmed and Fthr in order to achieve a required probability is called the fading margin.

Without any margin, the probability is 50%, which is not a sufficient value in order to provide a good call success rate. A typical design goal should be a coverage probability of 90...95%. The following normalized table can be applied to find fading margins for different values of s. The fading margin is calculated by multiplying the value of k (in the table) with the standard deviation (Fading Margin = k s).

k -∞ -0.5 0 1 1.3 1.65 2 2.33 +∞Coverage

Probability 0% 30% 50% 84% 90% 95% 97.7% 99% 100%






2.7.4 Conventional BTS Configuration

ALCATEL EvoliumTM

TX → 45.4 dBmRX → -109dBm

TX

TX a

nd

RX

1 BTSOmnidirectional antenna for both TX and RXCoverage Range R0

Coverage Area A0

R0

A0






2.7.5 Coverage Improvement by Antenna Diversity

ALCATEL EvoliumTM

TX → 45.4 dBmRX → -109dBm

TX RX

DIV

RX a

nd T

X

1 BTSOmnidirectional antennas

one for both RX and TX one for RXDIV

Antenna diversity gain (2...6 dB)Example: 3 dB

Coverage rangeRDiv = 1.23 · R0

Coverage areaADiv = 1.5 · A0

R0RDiv

A0

ADiv






2.7.6 Radiation Patterns and Range

3 antennas at sector site,Gain: 18 dBi, HPBW: 65°

Resulting antenna footprint ("cloverleaf")compared to an 11 dBi omni antenna

omni

sector






2.7.7 Improvement by Antenna Diversity and Sectorization

TX

RX

DIV

3 BTSDirectional antennas (18 dBi)Antenna diversity (3 dB)Max. coverage rangeRsec,div = 1.95 · R0

Coverage areaAsec,div = 3 · A0

ALCATEL EvoliumTM

ALCATEL EvoliumTM

ALCATEL EvoliumTM

R0

Rsec,div

Asec,div






2.7.8 Improvement by Antenna Preamplifier

TX

RX

DIV

3 BTSDirectional antennas (18 dBi)Antenna diversity (3 dB)Antenna preamplifier (3dB)Max. coverage rangeRsec,div,pre = 2.22 · R0

Coverage areaAsec,div,pre = 3.9 · A0

General:Asec = g · A0

g: Area gain factorR0

Rsec,div,pre

Asec,div,pre

ALCATEL EvoliumTM

ALCATEL EvoliumTM

ALCATEL EvoliumTM





2 Coverage Planning

2.8 Antenna Engineering






2.8.1 Omni Antennas

ApplicationLarge area coverageUmbrella cell for micro cell layer

AdvantagesContinuous coverage around the siteSimple antenna mountingIdeal for homogeneous terrain

DrawbacksNo mechanical tilt possibleClearance of antenna requiredDensification of network difficult






2.8.2 Sector Antenna

Antenna with horizontal HPBW of e.g. 90° or 65°Advantages

Coverage can be focussed on special areasLow coverage of areas of no interest (e.g. forest)Allows high traffic loadAdditional mechanical downtilt possibleWall mounting possible

DrawbacksMore frequencies needed per site compared to omni sitesMore hardware neededLower coverage area per sector






2.8.3 Typical Applications

Wide horizontal beam width (e.g. 90°)For areas with few reflecting and scattering objects (rural area)Area coverage for 3-sector sitesSufficient cell overlap to allow successful handovers

Small horizontal beam width (e.g. 65°)For areas with high scattering (city areas)Coverage between sectors by scattering and by adjacent sites (mostly site densification in urban areas)






2.8.4 Antenna Tilt

Downtilting of the Antenna main beam related to the horizontal lineGoals:

Reduction of overshootRemoval of insular coverageLowering the interferenceCoverage improvement of the near area (indoor coverage)Adjustment of cell borders (handover zones)

Mechanical / Electrical or Combined downtilt






2.8.5 Mechanical Downtilt

AdvantagesLater adjustment of vertical tilt possibleAntenna diagram is not changed, i.e. nulls and side lobes remain in their position relative to the main beamCost effective (single antenna type may be used)Fast adjustments possible

DrawbacksSide lobes are less tiltedAccurate adjustment is difficultProblems for sites with difficult access






2.8.6 Electrical Downtilt

AdvantagesSame tilt for bothmain and side lobes

Antenna mounting is more simple → no adjustment errors

DrawbacksIntroduction of additional antenna types necessaryNew antenna installation at the site if downtilting is introducedLong antenna optimization phaseAdjustment of electrical tilt mostly not possible

τ = 0

τ = t

τ = 2 t

τ = 3 t

τ = delay time

downtilt angle






2.8.7 Combined Downtilt

Combination of both mechanical and electrical downtiltHigh electrical downtilt: Distinct range reduction in sidelobe direction (interference reduction)Less mechanical uptilt in main beam direction

Choose sector antennas with high electrical downtilt (6°...8°) and apply mechanical uptilt installation for optimum coverage range in main beam direction






2.8.8 Assessment of Required Tilts

Required tilt is estimated using Geometrical Optics

Consideration ofVertical HPBW of the antennaAntenna height above groundHeight difference antenna/location to be coveredMorpho-structure in the vicinity of the antennaTopography between transmitter and receiver location

Tilt must be applied for both TX and RX antennas!






2.8.9 Inter Site Distance in Urban Area

Using sectorized sites with antennas of 65° horizontal half power beam width

The sidelobe is approximately reduced by 10dB.This is a reduction of cell range to 50%.

The inter site distance calculation factor depends on

Type of antennaType of morpho class

Multi path propagationScatteringSigma (fading variations)

X XA B

0.5* R2R2






2.8.10 Downtilt in Urban Area

Cell range R2

Main beam

0.5* R2

Side l

obe

Tilt 2 Tilt 2Site A Site B

Inter Site Distance A-B = 1.5* R2






2.8.11 Downtilt in Urban Area

The upper limit of the vertical half power beam widthis directed towards the ground at maximum cell range

Upper –3dB point of the vertical antenna patternTo be used in areas with

Multi path propagation conditionGood scattering of the beam

AimReduction of interference

OptimizationCoverage Optimization in isolated cases using less downtiltInterference Reduction in isolated cases using more downtilt






2.8.12 Downtilt in Suburban and Rural Area

Downtilt planning forSuburbanRuralHighway Coverage

The main beam is directed towards the ground at maximum cell range

Main beamMain beam

Cell range R1 Cell range R1

Tilt 1 Tilt 1

Inter Site Distance C-D = 2* R1

Site C Site D






2.8.13 Antenna configurations

Application of DuplexerConsists of a TX/RX Filter and a combinerone antenna can be saved

Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA)Increase Uplink SensitivityTMA needs to have TX bypass => in case of duplexer usage

DiversitySpace diversityPolarization diversity

Rx/Tx

RxTx

DuplexFilter

To BTS






2.8.14 Antenna Configurations for Omni and Sector Sites

Antenna Configurations for Omni and Sector Sites

RxRxdiv

TxRx

Tx

Rxdiv

Bracons

Sectorantenna

Pole

SectorAntenna

Pole

Tower mounting for omni antennas Tower mounting for directional antennas

Pole mounting for roof-top mounting

Pole mounting for wallor parapet mounting






2.8.15 Three Sector Antenna Configuration with AD






2.8.16 Antenna Engineering Rules

Distortion of antenna pattern: No obstacles withinAntenna near field rangeHPBW Rule plus security margin of 20°First fresnel ellipsoid range (additional losses!)

TX-RX Decoupling to avoid blocking and intermodulationRequired minimum separation of TX - RX antennas dependent on antenna configuration (e.g. duplexer or not)

Diversity gainRequired antenna separation for space diversity






2.8.17 Distortion of antenna pattern

Antenna Near Field Range: Rmin = 2D²/λD = Aperture of antenna (e.g. 3m) => Rmin = 60 / 120m for GSM / DCS

HPBW Rule with securtiy margin of 20° and tilt α

Roof Top = Obstacle

ϕϕ = HPBW/2 + 20° + α

D

H

D[m] 1 5 10H[m] 0.5 2.5 5

HPBW = 8°, α = 2°






2.8.18 Tx-Rx Decoupling (1)

TX

RX

fuse

fint

f[MHz]

P [dBm]

fuse fint

-101

-13

n*200kHz

Pout

Pin

ReceiverCharacteristic

Pblock

P1dB

Out of Band Blocking Requirement (GSM Rec. 11.21)GSM 900 = +8 dBmGSM 1800 = 0 dBm

Required Decoupling (n = number of transmitters)

TX-TX = 20 dBTX-RX GSM = 30 + 10 log (n) dBTX-RX DCS = 40 + 10 log (n) dB






2.8.19 TX-RX Decoupling (2)

Horizontal separation (Approximation)

IH=22+20log(d

H/λ)-(G

T+G

R) [dB]

dH

Isolation for Horizontal Separation - omni 11dBi

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1,7 2,7 3,7 4,7 5,7 6,7 7,7 8,7 9,7 10,4

10,8

11,2

11,6 12 12

,412

,813

,213

,6 14 14,4

14,8

15,2

Separation [m]

Isol

atio

n [d

B]

GSM1800

GSM900






2.8.20 TX-RX Decoupling (3)

Vertical separation (Approximation)

IV=28+40log(d

V/λ) [dB]

dv

dm

Mast

Isolation for Vertical Separation

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

Separation [m]

Isol

atio

n [d

B]

GSM1800

GSM900





Required separation for max. diversity gain = F(λ)


2.8.21 Space Diversity

dH

RXA RXB

dV

RXA

RXB

For a sufficient low correlation coefficient ρ < 0.7:

dH = 20λ => GSM 900: 6m / GSM1800: 3m

dV = 15λ => GSM 900: 4.5m / GSM1800: 2.25m






2.8.22 Power Divider

Power dividers connect severalantennas to one feeder cable

For combination of individualantenna patterns for a requested configuration

Quasi-omni configurationBidirectional configuration(road coverage)

4-to-1 Power splitter(6 dB loss)

To BTS: Receiver input

To BTS: Duplexer output(TX plus RX diversity)

Quasi-OmniConfiguration





Power dividerAlso called "power splitter" or "junction box"Passive device (works in both (transmit and receive) direction)

3 dB

Pin

Pin

2Pin

2

Pin

3

4.5 dB

Pin

Pin

3Pin

3

6 dB

Pin

Pin

4Pin

4Pin

4Pin

4


2.8.23 Power Divider






2.8.24 Panel Configurations (1)

Radial Arrangement

of 6 Panel Antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 105 °gain = 16.5 dBi, mast radius = 0.425 m, mounting radius = 0.575 m







Example 2: Quasi Omni Arrangement

of 3 antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 105 °, gain =13.5 dBi,mounting radius = 4 m







Example 3: Skrew Arrangement

of 4 Panel Antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 65 °,gain = 12.5 dBi, mast radius = 1 m,mounting radius = 1.615 m





2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.27 Feeders

Technical summary

Inner conductor: Copper wire

Dielectric: Low density foam PE

Outer conductor: Corrugated copper tube

Jacket: Polyethylene (PE)black

Inner conductor Outer conductor

Dielectric Jacket






2.8.28 Feeder Installation Set and Connectors

1 Cable Clamps2 Antenna Cable3 Double Bearing4 Counterpart5 Anchor tape

7/16 Connector:Coaxial ConnectorRobustGood RF-Performance





Type Minimum bending radius Jacket(outer diameter)

Weight (m) Recommendedclamp spacing

Single bending Repeated bending

LCF 1/2’’ 70 mm 210 mm 16 mm 0.35 kg 0.6 m

LCF 7/8’’ 120 mm 360 mm 28 mm 0.62 kg 0.8 m

LCF 1 5/8’’ 300 mm 900 mm 49.7 mm 1.5 kg 1.2 m

These values are based on feeder types with an impedance of 50 ohms

GSM 900 GSM 1800 GSM 1900

Type Attenuation /100 m [dB]

Recommendedmax length [m]

Attenuation /100 m [dB]


Attenuation /100 m [dB]


LCF 1/2“ 6.6 45 10.3 30 10.6 28LCF 7/8“ 4.0 75 6.0 50 6.3 47LCF 1_5/8“ 2.6 115 4.0 75 4.2 71


2.8.29 Feeder Parameters






2.8.30 Feeder attenuation (1)

Main contribution is given by feeder lossFeeder Cable 4dB/100m => length 50m Loss =2.0dBJumper Cable 0.066dB/1m => 5m Loss =0.33dBInsertion Loss of connector and power splitter < 0.1dBTotal Loss 2.0dB+2x0.33dB+5x0.1dB+0.1dB =3.26dB

Cable type is trade off betweenHandling flexibilityCost Attenuation





2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.31 Radiating Cables

Provide coverage in Tunnels, buildings, along side tracks or lines

Principle: Radiate a weak but constant electromagnetic wave

Suitable for coverage over longer distances (Repeater)

Fieldstrength distribution more constant as with antennas

F

FThr

Repeater

F

FThr

Terminat-ing Load





Components are shown with black lines

BTS

Tx

Rx

Radiating cable Termination load

Earthing kitMounting clips with 50 mm wall standoff

N-connections

Jumper cabel

1-leg radiating cable system


2.8.32 Components of a radiating cable system





-40

-50

-60

-70

-80

-90

-100

-110

[dBm]

Cable attenuationbetween the antennas

Radiating cable field strength

Antenna field strength

Distance

2.8.33 Comparison of field strength: Radiating cable and standard antenna





Example of a radiating cable in a tunnel


2.8.34 Example of a radiating cable in a tunnel






2.8.35 Microwave antennas, feeders and accessories

Microwave point to point systems use highly directional antennasGain

with G = gain over isotropic, in dBiA = area of antenna aperturee = antenna efficiency

Used antenna typesparabolic antennahigh performance antennahorn lens antennahorn antenna

G A e= 10 4

2lg π

λ



Parabolic dish, illuminated by a feed horn at its focus.

Available in a wide variety of sizes [1’ (0.3 m), 2’ (0.6 m), 4’ (1.2 m), 6’ (1.8 m), 8’ (2.4 m), 10’ (3.0 m) and sometimes up to 16’ (4.8 m) in most frequency bands.

Sizes over 4’ are seldom used due to the installation restrictions on private buildings

Mostly with single plane polarised feed, which can be either vertical (V) or horizontal (H)

Dual polarized feeds (DP), with separate V and H connections possible

DP`s usually have lower gain than single polarized antennas

Front-to-back ratios of about 45 dB are not high enough to use these antennas back-to-back on the same frequency (interference calculations)

Antenna patterns are absolutely necessary for interference calculations




2.8.36 Parabolic antenna

Parabolic dish, illuminated by a feed horn at its focusAvailable sizes: 1’ (0.3 m) up to 16’(4.8 m)Sizes over 4’ seldom used due to installation restrictions Single plane polarized feed vertical (V) or horizontal (H)Also: dual polarized feeder (DP), with separate V and H connections (lower gain)Front-to-back ratios of 45 dB not high enough for back-to-back configuration on the same frequencyAntenna patterns are absolutely necessary for interference calculations



Similar to the common parabolic antenna, except for an attached cylindrical shield

Improvement of the front-to-back ratio, and wide angle radiation discrimination

Available in the same sizes as parabolic ones, either single or double polarised

Substantially bigger, heavier, and more expensive than the ordinary parabolics

Allow back-to-back transmision at the same frequency in both directions (refer to interferencecalculation)




2.8.37 High performance antenna

Similar to common parabolic antenna, except for attached cylindrical shieldImprovement of front-to-back ratio and wide angle radiation discriminationAvailable in same sizes as parabolic, single or dual polarizedSubstantially bigger, heavier, and more expensive than parabolic antennasAllow back-to-back transmission at the same frequency in both directions (refer to interference calculation)



Horn lens antenna

Only available for very high frequencies (above 25 Ghz)

Replacement for small parabolic antennas (1’)

Electrical data nearly the same, but easier to install due to their size and weight

Horn reflector antennaConsists of a very large parabola, mounted at such an angle that the energy from the feed horn is

reflected at right angle (90°)

Gain in the region of a 10’ parabolic antenna (60 dBi), but it has much higher front-to-back ratios ( 70 dB or more)

Very big, heavy and requires a complex installation procedure

Only used on high capacity microwave backbones (example: MSC-MSC interconnections).




2.8.38 Horn antennas

Horn lens antennaFor very high frequencies > 25 GHzReplacement for small parabolic antennas (1’) Same electrical data, but easier to install due to size and weightHorn reflector antennaLarge parabola, energy from the feed horn is reflected at right angle (90°)Gain like 10’ parabolic antenna (60 dBi), but higher front-to-back ratios > 70 dB

Big and heavy, requires a complex installation procedureOnly used on high capacity microwave backbones (e.g. MSC-MSC interconnections)






2.8.39 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (1)

Cross polarization discrimination (XPD)highest level of cross polarisation radiation relative to the main beam; should be > 30 dB for parabolic antennas

Inter-port isolationisolation between the two ports of dual polarised antennas; typical value: better than 35 dB

Return loss (VSWR)Quality value for the adaption of antenna impedance to the impedance of the connection cableReturn loss is the ratio of the reflected power to the power fed at the antenna input (typical> 20 dB)





Radiation pattern envelope (RPE)Tolerance specification for antenna pattern (specification of antenna pattern itself not suitable due to manufacturing problems)Usually available from manufacturer in vertical and horizontal polarisation (worst values of several measurements)

Weight

Wind load


2.8.40 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (2)






2.8.41 Data sheet 15 GHz

Parabolic antenna 15 GHz High performance antenna 15 GHz

Bandwidth (GHz) 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 Model number PA 2 - 144 PA 4 - 144 PA 6 - 144 Nominal diameter (m) 0.6 1.2 1.8

(ft) 2 4 6

Half-power beamwidth (deg) 2.3 1.2 0.8 Gain low band (dBi) 36.2 42.3 45.8 Gain mid band (dBi) 36.5 42.5 46.0 Gain high band (dBi) 36.7 42.8 46.3 Front-to-back ratio (dB) 42 48 52 Cross polar discrimination (dB) 28 30 30 Return loss (dB) 26 26 28

Weight (kg) 19 43 73 Windload Elevation adjustment (deg) +/- 5 +/- 5 +/- 5

Bandwidth (GHz) 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35Model number DA 2 - 144 DA 4 - 144 DA 6 - 144Nominal diameter (m) 0.6 1.2 1.8

(ft) 2 4 6

Half-power beamwidth (deg) 2.3 1.2 0.8Gain low band (dBi) 36.2 42.3 45.8Gain mid band (dBi) 36.5 42.5 46.0Gain high band (dBi) 36.7 42.8 46.3Front-to-back ratio (dB) 65 68 68Cross polar discrimination (dB) 28 30 30Return loss (dB) 26 26 26

Weight (kg) 28 55 130WindloadElevation adjustment (deg) +/- 12 +/- 12 +/- 12






2.8.42 Radiation pattern envelope



Depending on the frequency coaxial cables and waveguides are used for the transmission of RF energy between radio systems and antennas. The most important characteristic of feeders is their loss, but also

their impedance (return loss).




2.8.43 Feeders (1)

Coaxial cables or waveguides (according to frequency)Most important characteristic: loss and return lossCoaxial cables

Used between 10 MHz and 3 GHz Dielectric material: foam or airParameters of common coaxial cables:

type dielectric diameter(mm)

loss(dB/100m)

powerrating (kW)

bendingradius (mm)

LCF 1/2’ CU2Y foam 16.0 10,9 / 2 GHz 0.47 20013.8 / 3 GHz

LCF 7/8’ CU2Y foam 28.0 6.5 / 2 GHz 0.95 3608.5 / 3 GHz

LCF 1 5/8’ CU2Y foam 49.7 4.4 / 2 GHz 1.7 3805.6 / 3 GHz






2.8.44 Feeders (2)

WaveguidesUsed for frequency bands above 2.5 GHzThree basic types available: circular, elliptical and rectangular

Rigid circular waveguideVery low lossSupports two orthogonal polarisationsCapable to carry more than one frequency bandUsually, short components of this type are usedDisadvantages: cost, handling and moding problems






2.8.45 Feeders (3)

Elliptical semiflexible waveguidesAcceptable loss, good VSWR performanceLow cost and easy to installVarious types optimised for many frequency bands up to 23 GHzUsed for longer distances (easy and flexible installation)Can be installed as a "single run" (no intermediate flanges)

type loss /100 m FrequencyEW 34 2.0 4 GHzEW 52 4.0 6GHzEW 77 5.8 8GHzEW 90 10.0 11 GHzEW 220 28.0 23 GHz






2.8.46 Feeders (4)

Solid and flexible rectangular waveguidesSolid rectangular waveguides

Combination of low VSWR and low lossHigh cost and difficult to installUsed for realising couplers, combiners, filters

type loss /100 m FrequencyWR 229 2.8 4 GHzWR159 4.5 6GHzWR112 8.5 8GHzWR 90 11.7 11 GHzWR 75 15.0 13 GHz






2.8.47 Feeders (5)

Flexible rectangular waveguidesWorse VSWR and losses than for solid waveguidesOften used in short lengths (<1 m), where position between connection points depends on actual installation placeCommon applications: connection of microwave system to antenna (close together on rooftops or towers) for frequencies >13 Ghz

type loss / m FrequencyPDR140 0.5 15GHzPDR180 1 18 GHzPDR220 2 23 GHz






2.8.48 Antenna feeder systems (1)

Direct radiating systemMost commonly used for frequencies up to 13 GhzDepending on accepted feeder loss/length, higher frequencies may be possibleExcessive attenuation and costs in long runs of wave guideOccurence of echo distortion due to mismatch in long runs of waveguide possible







Periscope antenna systemUsed for

considerable antenna heightswaveguide installation problems

Negligible wave guide cost and easy installationSystem gain is a function of antenna and reflector size, distance and frequencyUsed above 4 GHz , because reflector size is prohibitive for lower frequencies







Combined antenna with transceiverAntenna and transceiver are combined as a single unit to cut out wave guide loss (higher frequencies)Units are mounted on top of a mast and connected to multiplex equipment via cable





2 Coverage Planning

2.9 Alcatel BSS





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.1 Architecture of BTS - Evolium Evolution A9100

3 levels

Antenna coupling level

TRX level

BCF level Station unit module

Abis interface

Abbreviations BCF Base station Control Function TRX Transceiver

Antenna network stage ANC

Air interface

Combiner stage (ANY) Combiner stage (ANY)

TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX

Antenna network stage ANC or ANB (note)

Note 1 : ANB module is limited to 2 TRX in No TX Div mode and to 1 TRX in TX Div mode.

Antenna coupling levelThe general functions performed at this level are:- Duplexing transmit and receive paths onto common antennas;- Feeding the received signals from the antenna to the receiver front end, where the signals are amplified and distributed to the different receivers (Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) and power splitter functions);- Providing filtering for the transmit and the receive paths;- Combining, if necessary, output signals of different transmitters and connecting them to the antenna(s);- Supervising antennas VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio).-Powering and supervising TMA through the feeder.

The Antenna Network Combiner (ANC) module- one duplexer allowing a single antenna to be used for the transmission and reception of both downlink and uplink channels- hence minimizing the number of antenna - a frequency selective VSWR meter to monitor antenna feeder and antenna- one LNA amplifying the receive RF signal, and giving good VSWR values, noise compression and good reliability- two splitter levels distributing the received signal to four separate outputs so that each output receives the signal from its dedicated antenna and from the second one (diversity)- one Wide Band Combiner (WBC), concentrating two transmitter outputs into one, only for configurations with more than two TRX- insertion of 12V DC current in the feeder in order to provide power to TMAs when TMAs are used; there is thus no need for separate Power Distribution Unit (PDU) nor Bias-Tee (Feeder Lightning protections, that come with the ANC in case of outdoor BTSs, are themselves of a new type, compatible with this DC power feeding) (This function is only available with the new Evolution version of this module; it can be disabled, even if TMAs are used, in case those TMAs have their own PDUs).





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.2 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (1)

The Antenna network Combiner (ANc)- no-combining mode

Antenna ATXA - RXA -RXdivB

SplitterWBC

TRX 1 TX RXn RXd

TRX 2TXRXnRXd

Splitter

Splitter

LNA

Duplexer

FilterFilter

Splitter Splitter WBC

Antenna BTXB- RXB -RXdivA

Duplexer

FilterFilter

Splitter

LNA

By-pass functionBy-pass function

No-combining mode & No TX Div mode

The No-combining mode for configuration up to 2 TRX if TX Diversity is not used, or up to one TRX if TX Diversity is used (two TRX ports must then be connected to the two Antenna Connector ports

of a same Twin TRX module); in these cases, the Wide Band Combiner is not needed, and therefore bypassed





2.9 Alcatel BSS


The Antenna network Combiner (ANc)- Combining mode & No TX Div mode

Antenna A TXA - RXA - RXdivB

Splitter WBC

TRX 1 TX RXn RXd

TRX 4TXRXnRXd

Splitter

Splitter

LNA

Duplexer Filter Filter

Splitter Splitter WBC

Antenna BTXB- RXB - RXdivA

Duplexer

FilterFilter

Splitter

LNA

TRX 2TX RXn RXd

TRX 3TXRXnRXd

The Combining mode for configuration from 3 up to 4 TRX if TX Diversity is not used, or up to 2 TRX if TX Diversity is used (two TRX ports must then be connected to the two Antenna Connector ports

of a same Twin TRX module); in these cases, the Wide Band combiner is not bypassed, as shown in the figure





2.9 Alcatel BSS


ANy: Twin Wide Band Combiner Stage

Splitter SplitterWBC SplitterSplitter WBC

TXA RXA RXAdiv

TX RX RXdiv

TRX 1

TX RX RXdiv

TRX 2

Rxdiv RX TX

TRX 4

Rxdiv RX TX

TRX 3

RXBdiv RXB TXB

The Twin Wide Band Combiner stage (ANY) combines up to four transmitters into two outputs, and distributes the two received signals up to four receivers. This module includes twice the same structure, each structure containing:

●one wide band combiner (WBC), concentrating two transmitter outputs into one ● two splitters, each one distributing the received signal to two separate outputs

providing diversity and non-diversity path





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.5 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features

Standard Features according to GSMDR (Dual Rate), EFR (Enhanced Full Rate coder), AMR (Adaptive Multi Rate) requires that the BSS software release and the other network elements also support these codecsHW supports GSM 850, E-GSM, GSM 900, GSM 1800 and GSM 1900 bandsMulti Band Capabilities (supporting of 850/1800 TRX, 850/1900TRX, and, 900 /1800 can be located in the same cabinet)All known A5 algorithms to be supported; HW provisions done

Standard Features due to new Architecture and new SW ReleasesSUS (Station Unit Sharing)Only one central control unit (SUM) for all BTS per cabinetMultiband BTS (GSM 900/1800) in one cabinetStatic (Release 4) and statistical (Release 6) submultiplexing on Abis

Better use of Abis-interface capacity: More BTS/TRX to be supported in a multidrop loopIntroduction of GPRS and HSCSD without HW changesEDGE compatible TRX

● The BTS range supports A5/1 and A5/2 ciphering algorithms;

● A5/0 = ‘no ciphering’ is always supported.

● The TRX are hardware ready for A5/3.





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.]

Features specific to Radio PerformanceTX Output Power (at TRX output)

RX Sensitivity: -111 dBm certified(GSM|ETSI| request: -104 dBm)

Synthesized Frequency Hopping as general solutionStandard RF hopping modePseudo baseband RF hopping mode

Antenna Diversity in generalTwo or four antennas (RX) per sectorTX Diversity feature is possible with Twin TRX module in coverage mode only.

Duplexer (TX and RX on one antenna) as general solutionMultiband capabilities

Thanks to the high flexibility of the EVOLIUM™ A9100 Base Station, GSM 850 and GSM 1800 TRXs or GSM 850 and GSM 1900 TRXs or GSM 900 and GSM 1800 TRXs or GSM 900 and GSM 1900 TRXs can be located in the same cabinet with a single Station Unit Module (SUM).

25 W = 44.0 dBm45 W = 46.5 dBmGSM 1900

30 W = 44.8 dBm60 W = 47.8 dBmGSM 1800 HP

30 W = 44.8 dBm35 W = 45.4 dBmGSM 1800 MP (*)

30 W = 44.8 dBm60 W = 47.8 dBmGSM 900 HP

30 W = 44.8 dBm45 W = 46.5 dBmGSM 900 MP (*)

15 W = 41.8 dBm45 W = 46.5 dBmGSM 850

TX output power, 8-PSK (EDGE)TX output power, GMSKFrequency band

(*) Note that for the Twin TRX, the TX output powers above are in capacity mode, i.e. each of the functional TRX achieves these output powers. In coverage mode, i.e. with Tx Diversity, a significant extra gain has to be considered (see "TX Diversity" chapter) thanks to on-air combining and diversity.

● The diagram below shows that 4RX Diversity requires two Antenna Network modules per sector, thereby needing either 4 vertical-polarized or 2 cross-polarized antennas.

Antenna NetworkAntenna Network

TX1 RX1

TX2RX3

RX20

RX4

TW IN

TRX

Figure : Twin TRX module in TX Div & 4 RX div





2.9 Alcatel BSS


Capacity Mode Principle1 TWIN module = 2 functional TRX1 Housing = 2 functional TRX = 16 radio timeslotsSame Radio Performances as EDGE + TRX Medium Power

Reduced Power Consumption

Tx : GSM 900 : 45 W GMSK / 30 W 8PSKGSM 1800 : 35 W GMSK / 30 W 8PSK

Rx : Sensitivity < -114 dBm(-114 to -117 dBm with 2 Rx diversity – environment dependent)

Tx : GSM 900 : 45 W GMSK / 30 W 8PSKGSM 1800 : 35 W GMSK / 30 W 8PSK

Rx : Sensitivity < -114 dBm(-114 to -117 dBm with 2 Rx diversity – environment dependent)

Saving per TRX (vs. TRX EDGE+):- 17 % in GSM 900- 35 % in GSM 1800

Saving per TRX (vs. TRX EDGE+):- 17 % in GSM 900- 35 % in GSM 1800

2 TRXs can belongto different sectors

TRX1

TRX2

TRX

TRX

TRX





Rx : Equ. sensitivity = -117.4 to - 121 dBm (*) (4RX div)(*) environment dependent)

Rx : Equ. sensitivity = -117.4 to - 121 dBm (*) (4RX div)(*) environment dependent)

Coverage Mode Principle

1 TWIN module = 1 functional TRX = 8 radio TS2 RX & 4 RX diversity possibleTX diversity used ( very high coverage)Gain in sites (less sites needed)This mode is also called TX div modeUp to 12 TRX in MBI5/MBO2 cabinets

Tx : GSM 900 : 113 to 175 W (*) GMSKGSM 1800 : 88 to 136 W (*) GMSK

Tx : GSM 900 : 113 to 175 W (*) GMSKGSM 1800 : 88 to 136 W (*) GMSK

Higher Output Power

Higher Sensitivity

2.9 Alcatel BSS






2.9 Alcatel BSS


2 RX DiversityThe TRX module supports enhanced diversity combining in all frequency bands, which is based on several algorithms:A beam-forming algorithm to improve the received signal by steering a beam in the direction of the mobile. This is one way of doing smart antennas,An algorithm to reduce interference: this mitigates the influence of interferers by steering a null beam in the direction of the main interferer (the phase difference between the two antennas for the strongest interfering signal is estimated and then this interfering signal is strongly attenuated by summing the signals with an inversed phase).

-114.5dBm3.5 dBRural (RA100)

-116dBm5 dBSub Urban (TU50)

-117dBm6 dBDense Urban (TU3)

Equivalent RX sensitivity (without TMA)Total 2RX diversity gain

EnvironmentUser

strong interferer





2.9 Alcatel BSS


4 RX Diversity4 RX diversity is supported by the Twin TRX module in coverage mode only. It uses exactly the same algorithms as for 2Rx diversity, i.e. beam-forming techniques are implemented. The table below provides the typical gains achieved thanks to 4RX enhanced Diversity and the equivalent Rx sensitivity that can be considered for link budget calculations.

4 RX diversity also provides significant benefits for GPRS/EDGE since it allows achieving higher throughputs for given radio conditions.


-119.6dBm8.6 dBSub Urban (TU50)



Environment





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.7 Generic Configurations for A9100 G4/5 BTS

The configurations for indoor (MBI) and outdoor (MBO) cabinet are presented in the next slideslarger configurations with more than one cabinet can be derived from the tablesconfigurations are valid for EDGE capable TRX (Evolution step 2)availability of multiband configurations other than GSM 900 / GSM 1800 must be checked with product management (authorization required)Notation:

BBU - Battery Backup UnitBATS - Small Battery BackupLBBU - Large Battery Backup Unit

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

ANY

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

ANY

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

ANY

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

ANY

ANC

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

ANY

ANC

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

ANY

ANC

SUM

Mounting Frame for 19" equipment (3U) A//DC conversion

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TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

ANC

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

ANY

ANY

ANC

TWIN

TRX

TWIN

TRX

ANY

ANY

ANC

ANY

ANY

SUM

Indoor MBI5 3x8

Outdoor MBO2 3x8





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.8 Non multi-band configurations

900/1800 (2)2222213Low loss TX div & 4 RX div



900/1800 (2)221222222113Standard TX div & 2 RX div



900/1800 (2)8866433Low-loss no TX div

900/1800 (2)126121010864332Low-loss no TX div

900/1800 (2)161264161616161210831Low-loss no TX div

900/1800 (2)* No BU5** MBO1 Evo. only

62**64442214Standard(3) no TX div

900/1800 (2)* No BU58421*864442213Standard(3) no TX div

900/1800 (2)8632888864412Standard(3) no TX div

900/1800 (2)8864888888811Standard(3) no TX div

Other BU5BU90other BU5

DCACDCACACACDCACAC

bandsMBO2Evolution

MBO1Evolut

ion

CBOMBI5 (Note 4)MBI3per sect.

FrequencyNotesMax TRX per sectorMin TRXSectors

Note 1: "AC other" is referring to the Indoor AC configurations without integrated battery, i.e. either with no battery, or with batteries in an external cabinet.Note 2: Frequency bands: new modules are available initially in GSM 900 and GSM 1800 frequency band; they will be available in a second step in GSM 850 and GSM 1900, on

market request.Note 3: As described in chapter "Standard configurations" above, "Standard" is referring to configurations with 1 Antenna Network per sector, and are thus limited to 8 TRXs per

sector. Configurations with more than 8 TRXs per sector need two Antenna Networks per sector; such configurations are called "Low-loss" and described in a separate section of the table.

Note 4: With MBI5, more than 18 TRX per cabinet is only possible with DC cabinets (and using TWIN modules) and more precisely with functional variant 3BK 25965 ABxx of these cabinets, that has become since end 2006 the standard delivery; MBI5 with functional variant 3BK 25965 AAxx, are limited to 18 TRX (using TWIN modules); functional variant of a cabinet can be checked either on site (on printed Barcode label, or available through Line Maintenance Terminal), or from the OMC-R where it is part of the Remote Inventory data.





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.9 Multi-band configurations

900/1800 (2)4/44/42/22/22/21/13Standard no TX div

900/1800 (2)6/62/26/64/44/44/41/12Standard no TX div

900/1800 (2)12/126/64/22/212/128/88/88/86/62/22/21/11Standard no TX div

Other BU5BU90other

BU5

DCACDCACACACDCACAC

bandsMBO2Evolution

MBO1EvolutionCBOMBI5 (Note 4)MBI3

per sect.band1/band2

(3)

FrequencyNotesMax TRX per sector (band 1/ band 2)Min TRXSectors

Note 1: "AC other" is referring to the Indoor AC configurations without integrated battery, i.e. either with no battery, or with batteries in an external cabinet.Note 2: Frequency bands: new modules are available initially in GSM 900 and GSM 1800 frequency band; they will be available in a second step in GSM 850 and

GSM 1900, on market request.Note 3: Count of sectors is made with hypothese of multiband cell, i.e. that each sector contains one cell in band1 and one cell in band2, these two cells being paired

as a single "multiband cell", counted as one sector.In multiband "without multiband cell", a same configurations would be counted as having twice the number of sectors.The table above thus describes at the same time- possible configurations for multiband "with multiband cell"- those configurations for multiband "without multiband cell" that have the same number of sectors in each band

Note 4: With MBI5, more than 18 TRX per cabinet is only possible with DC cabinets (and using Twin TRX modules) and more precisely with functional variant 3BK 25965 ABxx of these cabinets, that has become since end 2006 the standard delivery; MBI5 with functional variant 3BK 25965 AAxx, are limited to 18 TRX (using Twin TRX modules); functional variant of a cabinet can be checked either on site (on printed Barcode label, or available through Line Maintenance Terminal), or from the OMC-R where it is part of the Remote Inventory data.





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.10 Extended cell configurations

900MBI3; MBO1 Evolution4411

900MBI5; MBO2 evolution8811

OuterInnerOuterInner

Frequency band

Type of cabinetof TRXMax. numberof TRXMin. Number

Extended Cell configurations





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.11 Standard configurations

1 up to2TRX/ sector

No-combining ANC or ANB

Antenna Antenna

TRX 1 TRX 2

3 up to 4TRX/ sector

Antenna Antenna

TRX 1 TRX 4

Combining ANC

5 up to 6TRX/ sector 5 up to 8RX/sector

TRX 1TRX 2

Combining ANC

Antenna Antenna

TRX 3 TRX 6

Combiner (ANY)

TRX 1 TRX 4

Combining ANC

Antenna Antenna

TRX 5 TRX 8

Combiner (ANY) Combiner (ANY)

The interface with the antenna system is through one single Antenna network combining (ANC) module in each sector (and then through 2 feeders and two antennas or one dual-polarized antenna).

Standard configurations with Twin TRX in No TX Div

The number of sectors and TRXs depends on the cabinet type, with a maximum of 6 sectors and 24 TRXs in a Indoor MBI5 ("AB" functional variant) or an Outdoor MBO2 evolution cabinet.





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.12 TRX Types

44,830W45,435W1800TGT18

44,830W46,545W900TGT09

44,830W46,860WHP1800TADHE

44,025W47,760WHP1800TADH

47,760WHP1800TRDH

40,025W46,545WMP1900TRAP

44,830W45,435WMP1800TRADE

40,812W45,435WMP1800TRAD

41,830W47,860WHP900TAGHE

44,025W47,760WHP900TAGH

44,830W46,545WMP900TRAGE

41,815W46,545WMP900TRAG

41,815W46,545WMP850TRAL

dBmWdBmW

8PSKGMSKPOWERBANDNAME

Example of TRE boards with their frequency band and power characteristics

GMSK – Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying

8PSK – 8 phase shift keying

TGT – Twin GSM Tranceiver

Different Transceivers are used depending on the band : 900, 1800, 1900 (in America) and 850MHz (this new band has been introduced in the Release 1999 of the 3GPP Standard).

The list above is not exhaustive.

A new Tx Rx hardware module gives the possibility to have per Hardware module transmission receiption function. In this case the module is called Twin TRX

For example

In the MBI5 rack, the number of hardware module is 12 maximum, but if all are Twin TRX the maximum number of Transmitter functions will be 24. (TRE G5)

The new Twin TRX (TGT) gives also the possibility to provide TX diversity





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.12 TRX Types

The losses between TRE connector and the Antenna connector

Configuration Transmission loss (dB)

1 ANC without bridges 1.8

1 ANC 5.1

1 ANC + 1 ANY 8.6

1 ANX 1.8

1 ANX / 1 ANY 5.3

1 ANX + 2 ANY 8.8

delta ANY 3.5

Module Transmission loss (dB)

ANC 4.4

ANC no bridge 1

ANX 1

ANY 3.3

Radio cables

TRE-AN

AN-AN

AN-Antenna

0.3

0.2

0.5

Losses due to the Antenna Network (AN)





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.13 BTS Output Power

What is monitored during validation is the BTS output power at antenna connectorThe individual losses for duplexer, combiner and internal cabling are not systematically measuredfor detailed info consult the BTS product description





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.14 Feature Power Balancing

From G4 (now G5) BTS it is allowed to use TRXs of different power within the same sector, or to use of different combining path for TRX belonging to the same sector. Reason: the G4 BTS is able to detect unbalanced losses/powers within a sector and automatically compensate it for GMSK modulation.Consequence: All TRX connected to one ANc are automatically adjusted to the GMSK output power of the weakest TRX (required for BCCH recovery)





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.15 Cell Split Feature

PrincipleCell Split allows to provide one logical cell with one common BCCH over several BTS cabinets. The cabinets must be synchronized

BenefitsSame number of TRX in fewer racksNo need to touch/modify the configuration of existing BTS (cabling)Take full benefit of 24 TRX per cabinet

Drawback: more complex antenna systemApplications

Multi-band cells Configuration extension of sites by adding TRX Large configurations

Condition: BTS must be synchronized

Configuration built with several cabinets and the “cell split over two BTSs” featureIt is possible to optimize the number of cabinets needed for a site configuration (indoor or outdoor, single

band or multi-band) built with more than one cabinet, thanks to a feature called “cell split over two BTSs”.

In that case, the TRXs of one sector can be split over two A9100 BTS cabinets. Various configurations are possible, the only constraint being that following conditions are fulfilled:

Maximal number of TRX per cell is 16.

Maximal number of cabinets between which a given cell is shared is 2.

Cabinets between which a cell is shared are clock synchronised in a master / slave configuration

Note : when used in mono band configurations, cell split feature may allow to reduce the number of cabinets with regards to the solution with one cabinet per sector; but at the expense of a more complex antenna system (two ANC, hence 4 feeders per sector instead of 2 feeders, as for "low-loss" configurations); this has to be considered before selecting such a solution.





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.19 Cell Split Example: High Power Configuration

Cabinet1 (Standard 8,8,8TRX)

Cabinet2 (Standard 8,8,8TRX)

Sector3: 1x16 TRX Sector2: 1x16 TRX Sector1: 1x16 TRX

TRX 1 TRX 4

ANC

TRX 5 TRX 8

ANY ANY

TRX 1 TRX 4

ANC

TRX 5 TRX 8

ANY ANY

TRX 1 TRX 4

ANC

TRX 5 TRX 8

ANY ANY

TRX 1 TRX 4

ANC

TRX 5 TRX 8

ANY ANY

TRX 1 TRX 4

ANC

TRX 5 TRX 8

ANY ANY

TRX 1 TRX 4

ANC

TRX 5 TRX 8

ANY ANY

The following figure gives an example of standard multi-band with multi-band cell 3x8/3x8 in 2 MBI5 cabinets :

For a MBI5, in a 3 sector configuration, max. 3 HP TRX /sector are allowed (thermal reasons).

The only way´to have 3x6 in MBI5 is with the cell split feature.





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.22 Indoor BTS Rack Layout

IND mini: 4carrier, 1 Duplexer (Anx), 1 Combiner (Any), SUM (CPU, Link to BSC)

IND Medi: 12carrier, 3 Duplexer (Anx), 3 Combiner (Any), SUM (CPU, Link to BSC)





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.23 Outdoor MBO1 Evolution and MBO2 Evolution cabinets

Mounting Frame for 19" equipment (3U) A//DC conversion

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Radio subrack

Radio subrack

Radio subrack

Radio subrack

Radio subrack

Radio subrack

156 cm94 cmWidth

161 cm161 cmHeight with plinth

146 cm146 cmHeight without plintht

80 cm80 cmDepth (roof level)

74 cm74 cmDepth (floor level)

MBO2Evolution

MBO1Evolution

External Dimensions

The Multi-standard Outdoor BaseStation cabinets MBO1 Evolution and MBO2 Evolution offer operators important flexibility with:

An easy extension on-site from the Outdoor MBO1 Evolution BTS (up to 12 TRXs capacity) to the Outdoor MBO2 Evolution BTS (up to 24 TRXs capacity)



13

14



2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.24 Micro BTS types

M5M EVOLIUM A9110 Micro-BTS (M5M)

Introduced in Q3 2003

up to 12 TRX-es

site configurations can mix older A910 with newer A9110-E

support for GPRS and EDGE (release dependent)





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.25 Technical Data

A910(2 TRX)

A9110(2 TRX)

Frequency band GSM 850, E-GSM,GSM900, GSM 1800, GSM

1900

GSM 850, E-GSM,GSM900, GSM 1800, GSM

1900Tx output power(at antenna connector)

Up to 4.5 W 7 W

Rx sensitivity -107 dBm -110 dBm

Radio FH Yes yes

Temperature range (max.) 55 °C 55 °C

Max. power consumption 130 W 145 W

Size (volume) 54 litres 54 litres

Weight 39.6 kg (incl. connectionbox)

32.5





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.26 BSC capacities in terms of boards

Three BSC capacities are defined depending on the number of TRXs

200 TRX 400 TRX 600 TRX

BSC Capacity

ATCA shelf

CCP

Spare CCP

TPGSM

OMCP

SSW

LIU shelf

MUX

LIU

1 2 3

1

1

2

2

2

1

2

8 16

Equipment

The quantity of TPGSM, OMCP, SSW and MUX boards have to be considered as 1 activ + 1 stand-by for redundancy function in the shelf.

LIU Line Interface Unit – 16x 2Mbit/Board





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.27 Capacity and dimensioning for E1 links

The BSC Evolution is able to process up to 2600 erlangs

200 TRX 400 TRX 600 TRX

BSC Capacity

Max number of BTS

Max number of cells

Total number of E1

Number of Abis

Number of Atermux CS

Number of Erlangs

Traffic Ater PS (Mb/s) Max

255

Equipment

Number of Atermux PS

264

224

176

30

18

2600

36

255

264

128

96

20

12

1800

24

150

200

112

96

10

6

900

12





2.9 Alcatel BSS

2.9.28 Abis and atermux allocation on LIU boards

Abis and atermux allocation on LIU boards versus BSC capacity

200 TRXLIU 1 LIU 2 LIU 3 LIU 4 LIU 5 LIU 6 LIU 7 LIU 8 LIU 9 LIU 10 LIU 11 LIU 12 LIU 13 LIU 14 LIU 15 LIU 16

1 1 17 33 49 65 81 97 113 129 145 161 41 31 21 2 12 2 18 34 50 66 82 98 114 130 145 162 42 32 22 4 33 3 19 35 51 67 83 99 115 131 147 163 43 33 23 6 54 4 20 36 52 68 84 100 116 132 148 164 44 34 24 8 75 5 21 37 53 69 85 101 117 133 149 165 45 35 25 10 96 6 22 38 54 70 86 102 118 134 150 166 46 36 26 12 117 7 23 39 55 71 87 103 119 135 151 167 47 37 27 14 138 8 24 40 56 72 88 104 120 136 152 168 48 38 28 16 159 9 25 41 57 73 89 105 121 137 153 169 x 39 29 18 17

10 10 26 42 58 74 90 106 122 138 154 170 x 40 30 20 1911 11 27 43 59 75 91 107 123 139 155 171 x 24 18 12 1112 12 28 44 60 76 92 108 124 140 156 172 x 23 17 10 913 13 29 45 61 77 93 109 125 141 157 173 28 22 16 8 714 14 30 46 62 78 94 110 126 142 158 174 27 21 15 6 515 15 31 47 63 79 95 111 127 143 159 175 26 20 14 4 316 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 25 19 13 2 1

Abis ports (max 176)Atermux CS (max 48)Ater mux PS (max 28)

200 TRX400 TRX 400 TRX

600 TRX 600 TRX

200

400

400

200

Abis ports Ater Ports

One ater LIU boardfor 200 TRX

Maximum flexibilityon abis LIU board

LIU boards are fitted in the LIU shelf depending on the BSC configuration (Capacity + connectivity), but

only 2 HW configurations for the LIU shelf are considered: one with 8 LIU boards, one with 16 LIU boards,

Assignment to each LIU boards either to Abis or Ater,

On the Ater LIU, 10 TP are “generic” (can be assigned either to PS, full CS or a mixed of the 2), and the 6 others are dedicated to PS.

In case of 200 TRX configuration, Alcatel decided to split the traffic up to 2 LIU boards (even if one LIU board should be efficient) in order to not impact all the traffic in case of one LIU board failure.

The maximum of available LIU boards are used for Abis, to offer maximum flexibility to the clients.

The port numbered 9, 10, 11 and 12 on the LIU 12 are not used.





2 Coverage Planning

2.10 Coveradge Improvement





2.10 Coveradge Improvement

2.10.1 Antenna Diversity






2.10.1.1 Diversity

PurposeImprovement in fading probability statistics

leads to a better total signal level or better total S/N ratio

PrincipleCombining signals with same information from different signal branches

Demandscorrelation between different signal branches should be low

Combining methodsSelection DiversityMaximum Ratio CombiningEqual Gain Combining

PurposeThe purpose of using diversity is to reduce short-term fading effects, such that an acceptable level of

performance (receiver sensitivity) can be achieved, without having to increase the transmitted power or the bandwidth.

PrincipleThe principle relies on the combination of two or more signals, containing the same information, which are at

least partially de-correlated. If two signals of the same level are completely de-correlated, the probability that both signals experience the same depth of fade is very low. Therefore the signal reliability is increased.





Time [sec]

Field

stre

ng

th[d

Bm

]

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

-80

-90

-100

Antenna 1 Antenna 2


2.10.1.2 Selection Diversity (1)

Principleselection of the highest basebandsignal-to-noise ratio (S/N) or of the strongest signal (S+N)

Correlation of signal levelsa lower correlation between signal levels of different branches improves the total signal levelCorrelation of signal levels should

be low

The algorithm for the selective diversity combining technique is based on the principle of selecting the best signal among all of the signals received from different branches, at the receiving end.





Time [sec]

Field

stre

ng

th[d

Bm

]

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

-80

-90

-100

Antenna 1

Antenna 2



Difference in signal levela high difference in signal levels of two branches doesn’t improve the total signal levelDifference in signal levels should

be low







Theoretical diversity gain10dB for two-branch diversity at the 99% reliability level16dB for four branches at the 99% reliability levelThe theoretical diversity gain

doesn’t improve linear with the number of branches



In comparison with MRC, in this technique the branch weights are all set to unity but the signal from each branch are co-phased to provide equal gain combining diversity.

The possibility of producing an acceptable signal from a number of unacceptable inputs is still retained, and performance is only marginally inferior to maximal ratio combining an superior to selection diversity.




2.10.1.5 Equal Gain Combining (1)

Principlecophase signal branchessum up signalsCoherent addition of signals and

incoherent addition of noisesTheoretical diversity gain

11dB for two-branch diversity at the 99% reliability level






2.10.1.6 Equal Gain Combining (2)

Difference in signal levelAssuming equal noise in the branches, the higher the difference in signal levels is, the higher is the loss of S/N ratio of the better signal branch after summationDifference in signal levels should

be low

Correlation of signal levelsa lower correlation between signal levels of different branches improves the total S/N ratioCorrelation of signal levels should

be low






2.10.1.7 Maximum Ratio Combining (1)

Principleweight signals proportionally to their S/N ratioscophase signal branchessum up the weighted signalsCoherent addition of signals and

incoherent addition of noisesImproved S/N

In this method the signals from all the branches are weighted according to their individual S/N and then summed. Here the individual signals must be co-phased before being summed ( unlike selection diversity ) which generally requires an individual receiver and phasing circuit for each antenna .

Maximal ratio combining produces an output SNR equal to the sum of the individual SNRs. Thus, it has the advantage of producing an output with an acceptable SNR even when none of the individual signals are themselves acceptable.

This technique gives the best statistical reduction of fading of any known diversity combiner. Modern DSPs and digital receivers are now making this optimal form of diversity practical.





Correlation of signal levelsa lower correlation between signal levels of different branches improves the total S/N ratioCorrelation of signal levels should

be low


2.10.1.8 Maximum Ratio Combining (2)

Difference in signal levelAssuming equal noise in the branches, the higher the difference in signal levels is, the higher is the loss of S/N ratio of the better signal branch after summationcomparing to equal ratio combining, this combining reduces influence of worse signal branchesDifference in signal levels should be

low






2.10.1.9 Comparison of combining methods

Improvement of average SNR from a diversity combiner compared to one branch

(a) Maximum Ratio Combining(b) Equal Gain Combining(c) Selection DiversityThe maximum ratio combining,

which is used in the ALCATEL BTS, gives the best statistical reduction of any known linear diversity combiner.






2.10.1.10 Enhanced Diversity Combining (1)

Principle: 2 algorithms

Beam forming algorithm (available also for MRC)Interference reduction algorithm (new)

best efficiency when the useful signal and the interfering signals come from different directions.

Requirements to benefit from this feature:Hardware: G4 (onwards) TRE (Edge capable TRX) installed in EvoliumEvolution BTS step1 resp. step 2 (internal name: G3 resp. G4)Software release: from B6.2 onwardsFor a maximum gain: antenna engineering rules respected

Correct antenna choice for the considered environmentCorrect antenna spacings and orientations (in case of space diversity)

The TRX module supports enhanced diversity combining in all frequency bands, which is based on several algorithms:

● A beam-forming algorithm to improve the received signal by steering a beam in the direction of the mobile. This is one way of doing smart antennas,

● An algorithm to reduce interference: this mitigates the influence of interferers by steering a null beam in the direction of the main interferer (the phase difference between the two antennas for the strongest interfering signal is estimated and then this interfering signal is strongly attenuated by summing the signals with an inversed phase).

Maximum efficiency of enhanced diversity combining is achieved when the useful/desired signal and the interfering signals emanate from different directions. In interference-limited environments, beam-forming algorithms will provide a much greater diversity gain compared to traditional maximum ratio combining.

● The above mentioned algorithms are working together in a way to combat spatial interferer signals while keeping optimal sensitivity perfomance for undisturbed but week reception.






2.10.1.11 Enhanced Diversity Combining (2)


-116dBm5 dBSub Urban (TU50)



Environment

Diversity gain coming from the fact that the signals received on both antennas are de-correlated (this requires using Xpol antennas or largely spaced antennas)

Array-Gain or Beamforming gain : coming from the fact, that co-phased signals are added (stronger combined signal power) for this direction

Null Steering / Interference Reduction (with a spatial interferer) coming from a algorithm which reduces the interference (the figures below assume a standard interference margin is considered for the link budget)






2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity

GSM900: 50.5dBm (113W)GSM1800: 49.4dBm (88W)

4 dBRural (RA100)

GSM900: 51.1dBm (129W)GSM1800: 50dBm (100W)

4.6 dBSub Urban (TU50)

GSM900: 52.4dBm (175W)GSM1800: 51.3dBm (136W)

5.9 dBDense Urban (TU3)

Equivalent TX output power (GMSK)Total TX diversity gain

Environment

Basic Idea:Transmit twice the same signal from two antennasNo combining losses (on air combining)

3dB gain

Possible Issue:Coherence between signal can lead to destructive effectsThis effect depends on the environment

a short delay is introduced between two antennas (2 symbols)

BTS MS

0011000101001

0011000101001

short delay

TX Diversity works with all types of Mobile stations since it is fully transparent to the receiver; this feature takes advantage of the MS equalizer which can already handle multiple paths with different times of

arrival.

Consequently, the equivalent TX output power is very high, up to 6dB above the nominal TX output power, which improves the coverage and reduces the number of sites needed to cover a given area, provided the link budget remains balanced or downlink-limited

The table provides the typical gains achieved thanks to TX Diversity and the equivalent TX output power that can be considered for link budget calculations. Note that such gains are environment-dependent

since they are highly related to the level of de-correlation between paths.

In 8-PSK, the TX diversity gain is highly dependent on the coding scheme, the environment and the level of Carrier to Interference+Noise Ratio. No significant gains are expected.







Diversity Gain:On top of the output power increaseTxDiv artificially increases the number of multi-pathsThe higher the de-correlation between paths, the higher the gainOther features: a) high power TRX or b) Transmit Coherent Combining do not benefit from this effect

First channel

Second channel

Time

Attenuation

Fading hole

Example:2 paths (blue and red)They show independent amplitude (fast) fadingProbability to fall in a hole is reducedFading holes of a channel are often compensated by the other channel

Additional gain







Delay Trade-Off

Higher delay between antennas impliesLess destructive effect, more de-correlated paths and so higher diversity gain: Higher GainsHigher channel delay spread: More Self-interference

Alcatel found the optimal trade-off • For all environments• Based on extensive simulations and lab measurements

0011000101001

0011000101001

short delay







Summary of the Transmit Diversity effects3dB increase of the signal strengthAdditional up to 2.9dB diversity gain for un-correlated fast fading:

Diversity gains are maximum in dense urban because there are a lot of scatterersDiversity gains are reduced in rural because we have Line of Sight propagation

Self-interference due to the artificial increase of the delay spread

Environment Fading Profile

Power increase

Diversity gain

Total TxDivgain

Dense Urban TU3 3dB 2.9dB 5.9dB

Sub-Urban TU50 3dB 1.6dB 4.6dB

Rural RA100 3dB 1dB 4dB






2.10.1.12 Diversity systems in Mobile Radio Networks

Two diversity systems are used in Mobile Radio Networks :Space DiversitySpace Diversity

horizontalvertical

PolarizationPolarization DiversityDiversity

dH

RXA RXB

+45° -45°

RXA RXB

dH

TXA TXB

+45° -45°

TXA TXB

TXA

TXB

dv






2.10.1.13 Space Diversity Systems

Diversity gain depends on spatial separation of antennas

dH

RXA RXB

dV

RXA

RXB

Horizontal separation(e.g. Roof Top)

Vertical separation(e.g. Mast)

For Optimum Diversity GaindH = 20λ dV =

15λGSM900 = 6m GSM900 = 4.5mGSM1800 = 3m GSM1800 = 2.25m





The larger the separation the higher the diversity gainPrefer horizontal separation (more effective)The higher the antenna the higher the requiredseparation, rule: d > h/10

Highest diversity gain from the "broadside”Select orientation of diversity setup according to orientation of cell

/ traffic

h

d

Optimum diversity Gain


2.10.1.14 Space Diversity - General Rules






2.10.1.15 Achievable Diversity Gain

Depends on fading conditionsVaries in between 2.5 - 6dBHigher diversity gain in areas with multipath propagation (urban and suburban areas)

General rule: consider diversity gain with 3dB in the link budget





Horizontal / vertical polarization:Hor/Ver Antenna

Polarization of +/- 45°:cross polarized antennaor Slant antenna

Big Advantage: Only one panel antenna is required to profit from diversity gain using this configuration

V H +45° -45°

RXA RXB RXA RXB


2.10.1.16 Polarization Diversity

Diversity gain in using orthogonal orientated antennas





DiversityGain

multipath-propagation

reflection,diffraction

reception with

reception with

a hor / verpolarisedantenna

a X-polarisedantenna

EV

EH

EX2

EX1

G = f( ρ,Δ )

Time [sec]

Ex1 or Ev

Ex2 or Eh


2.10.1.17 Principle of Polarization Diversity

ρ correlation coeficient (0.7)

Δ difference in signal level

---> diversity gain with dual polarized antennas depends on :

ρ, Δ and the orientation of the sending and receiving antenna

To achieve low correlation and low differences in signal level, reflection and diffraction under multipath condition is necessary. ---->

In rural areas neglectible diversity gain can be expected from polarization diversity.






2.10.1.18 Air Combining

Featuresonly one TX per antennacombining signals "on air" and not in a combiner3dB combiner loss can be saved to increase coverage

Can be realized with two vertical polarized antennasone cross polarized panel antenna

TX1 TX2

TX1 TX2

The idea of air combining is to combine transmitted signals in the air and not with an internal combiner, in order to save combining losses. Thus the maximum achievable coverage range will be increased.

Air combining can be realized with• two sector or omni antennas• one cross polar antenna transmitting different carriers on +/-45°.






2.10.1.19 Air Combining with Polarization Diversity

One antenna systemcross polarized antennas recommended for urban/suburban area (less space req.)

No Air combiningBandfilter if De-coupling too low

Air combiningRecommended forEvolium BTS

V H

DUPL BF

TX RXA RXB

DUPL

TX1 RX1 TX2 RX2RX2D RX1D

DUPL

or

1 TRX 2 TRX






2.10.1.20 Air Combining with Space Diversity

Two antenna systemVertical or horizontal spacing (recommended for rural area)

RXA RXB TX

or or

RXARXB

TX






2.10.1.21 Decoupling of Signal Branches

One antenna system: TX / RX decoupling cannot be achieved by spatial separationDecoupling between both polarization branches needs to be sufficiently high to avoid

blocking problemsintermodulation problems

Required decoupling valuesG2 BTS: 30 dBEvolium A9100 BTS: 25dB (Integrated duplexer Anx)






2.10.1.22 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (1)

Receiving Applicationsame diversity gain for cross polarized and hor/ver antennasin urban and suburban area polarization diversity gainpolarization diversity gain equal to space space diversity gaindiversity gain (2.5 - 6dB)negligible polarization diversity gain polarization diversity gain in rural areas (not recommended)accordingly consider polarization diversity gainpolarization diversity gain with 3dB in the link budget






2.10.1.23 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (2)

Transmission Application: Air combining

3dB loss when transmitting horizontal/vertical polarized (use of combiner)1-2dB losses when transmitting at 45°(optimum antenna is straighten vertically)Air combining only recommended with cross polarized antenna

3dB2dB






2.10.1.24 Conclusion on Antenna Diversity

Rural Areasinstallation space not limitedapply Space Diversity (higher gain)

Urban and Suburban Areaapply space or polarization diversityuse cross polarized antennas for air combining

Diversity Gainconsider diversity gain in link budget with 3dB





2.10. Coveradge Improvement

2.10.2 Repeater Systems






2.10.2.1 Repeater Application

BTS (donor cell)repeater

original service areaarea covered by repeater






2.10.2.2 Repeater Block Diagram

Required Isolation > 70…90 dB

A repeater is a bi-directional amplifier. It receives the downlink signal from the BTS, amplifies it and transmits the signal to the mobile. In the uplink direction, the signal of the mobile is received, amplified and transmitted to the BTS.






2.10.2.3 Repeater Applications (2)

Coverage Improvement of Cells (‘Cell Enhancer’)removal of coverage holes caused by

topography (hills, ravines, ...)man made obstacles

Provision of tunnel coveragestreet, railway tunnelsunderground stations

Provision of indoor coverage at places of low additional traffic






2.10.2.4 Repeater Types

Channel selective repeatershigh selectivity of certain channelshigh traffic areas, small cell sizes

Band selective repeatersadjustment to operator’s frequency bandno (accidental) usage by competitors

Broad band repeaterslow cost solution for low traffic areas (rural environment)medium to high repeater gain

Personal repeaterslow gainbroad bandindoor coverage improvement for certain rooms





Antennato donor cell

Repeater

Radiatingcable

Tunnel


2.10.2.5 Repeater for Tunnel Coverage

Choice of repeater type due totunnel dimensionswall materials

feeding bydirectional antennasleaky feeder cables

long tunnelschains of several repeatersfiber optic backbone for repeater feeding





Personal repeater

Antennatodonor cell

Fiber opticdistribution

Remoteunits

Master unit

Radiatingcable


2.10.2.4 Repeater for Indoor coverage

For smaller buildingsCompensation for wall losses, window losses (heat insulated windows)Low cost personal repeaters installed in certain rooms

For larger buildings (shopping malls, convention centers, sport centers)

multispot transmission usingco-axial distribution networkfiber-optic distribution network






2.10.2.5 Planning Aspects

Repeater does not provide additional traffic capacityrisk of blocking if additional coverage area catches more traffic

possible carrier upgrading requiredRepeater causes additional signal delay

delay: 4..8μs ⌫ max. cell range of 35 km reduced by 1 to 2kmspecial care needed for total delay of repeater chain!delayed signal and original signal could cause outage in urban environment if total delay exceeds 16 ... 22μs






2.10.2.6 Repeater Gain Limitation (1)

Intermodulation products should be lowwhen amplifier reaches saturation point, intermodulation products go up

Signal to noise ratio should be highwhen amplifier reaches saturation point, signal to noise ratio is getting worse

Antenna isolation between transmission and receiving antenna should be high

if signal feedback from transmission antenna to receiving antenna is too high, amplifier goes into saturation






2.10.2.7 Repeater Gain Limitation (2)

Pin Poutgain78 dB

isolation90 dB

Pback =Pin - 12 dB

Repeater gain limited by antenna isolation:

GRepeater < IDonor, Repeater - M M (Margin) ~ 12 dB

Measure isolation after installation

inMAmplifierGI argδ+=






2.10.2.8 Intermodulation Products

A Non-linear systemproduces higher-order intermodulation products as soon as output power reaches the saturation point

Parameter1 dB compression point3rd order intercept point (ICP3)Intermodulation reduction (IMR)Amplifier back-off

GSM900/GSM1800 requirementsIM products ≤ -36 dBm or IM distance > 70 dBc whichever is higher

Each amplifier has a limited linear operation range.

In the linear range the input power is amplified by the amplification factor v. But this is only valid until a certain maximum input power. As soon as you feed the amplifier with too high input power the input signal will less and less amplified. The point were the degradation from the specified amplification is 1dB is called the one dB compression point.

Lower amplification is one effect when you operate an amplifier in the non linear region, another effect which can cause even worse problems is the intermodulation. Especially the 3rd order intermodulationproduct (2f1+-f2) is very significant. The amplifier produces interfering signals based on available frequencies (f1 and f2).

dbc = is the power of one signal referenced to a carrier signal





Uplink Loss = Downlink Loss ⇒ Uplink Gain = Downlink Gain!


2.10.2.9 Repeater Link Budget

Different gains may be needed in Up- and Downlink if the sensitivity of the repeater is worse than the sensitivity of the BTS

!

Downlink Path Unit ValueReceived power at repeater dBm -65Link antenna gain dBi +19Cable loss dB -2Repeater input power dBm -48Repeater gain dB +78Repeater output power dBm 30Cable loss dB -2Repeater antenna gain dBi +18EIRP dBm 46






2.10.2.10 High Power TRXs

High Power TRXs: solution for coverage improvementHP must be used together with TMA: due to unbalanced Link BudgetA9100 BTS supports

High Power TRXMedium Power TRX type is chosen by:

environment conditions required data throughput (GPRS/EDGE)

TX power of EVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX :Frequency band TX output power, GMSK TX output power, 8-PSK (EDGE)GSM 900 HP 60 W = 47.8 dBm 25 W = 44.0 dBmGSM 1800 HP 60 W = 47.8 dBm 25 W = 44.0 dBm






2.10.2.13 3x6 TRXs High Power Configuration

Configuration made with EVOLIUM™ A9100 Base StationObs:

All TRX are HPThe configuration is using cell split feature

Cabinet1(High power 3x3TRX)

Sector3: 1x6 TRXSector2: 1x6 TRXSector1: 1x6 TRX

Cabinet2(High power 3x3TRX)

No-com-bining

ANc

HPTRX1 HPTRX 2

Combi-ning

MPTRX 3

No-com-bining

ANc

HPTRX1 HPTRX 2

Combi-ning

MPTRX 3

No-com-bining

ANc

HPTRX1 HPTRX 2

Combi-ning

MPTRX 3

No-com-bining

ANc

HPTRX1 HPTRX 2

Combi-ning

MPTRX 3

No-com-bining

ANc

HPTRX1 HPTRX 2

Combi-ning

MPTRX 3

No-com-bining

ANc

HPTRX1 HPTRX 2

Combi-ning

MPTRX 3






2.10.2.14 Mixed TRX Configuration

BTS EVOLIUM™ supports a mix of:EVOLIUM™ TRX (TRE) - supports GSM/GPRS and EDGEEVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX (TRA) with Medium PowerEVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX (TRA) with High Power

TRE

TRE

TRA

MP

TRA

HP

Hardware configuration

Logical cell

TRX1 (BCCH)

TRX2 (1 SDCCH)

TRX3

TRX4

Packet VoiceAllocation





3 Traffic & Frequency Planning





3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning

3.1 Traffic Caspacity





3.1 Traffic Capacity

3.1.1 Telephone System

subscriber

1

2

3

4

line to PSTN

sub 1

sub 2

sub 3

sub 4

timeobservation period, e.g.main busy hour (MBH)

blocked callattempts

Parameters:

λ: arrival rate [1/h]μ: release rate [1/h]1/μ: mean holding time [sec]

"offered" traffic = # of calls arriving in MBH × mean holding time ρ = λ × 1/μ [Erlang]

automaticswitch






3.1.2 Offered Traffic and Traffic Capacity

Handled Traffic, Traffic Capacity: TBlocking Probability, Grade of Service (GoS): pblock = R / ρSystem load: τ = T / n, i.e. T < n

Loss System(n slots)

HandledTraffic (T)

OfferedTraffic (ρ)

Rejected Traffic (R)

T = ρ - R






3.1.3 Definition of Erlang

ERLANG : Unit used to quantify traffic

T = (resource usage duration)/(total observation duration) [ERLANG]






3.1.4 Call Mix and Erlang Calculation

CALL MIX EXAMPLE350 call/hour3 LU/callTCH duration : 85 secSDCCH duration : 4,5 sec

ERLANG COMPUTATIONTCH = (350 * 85)/3600 = 8,26 ERLANGSDCCH = [ (350 + 350*3) * 4,5 ] / 3600 = 1.75 ERLANG






3.1.5 ERLANG B LAW

ERLANG B LAW

Relationship between

Offered trafficNumber of resourcesBlocking rate






3.1.5 ERLANG B LAW (2)

call request arrival rate (and leaving) is not stablenumber of resources = average number of requests mean duration is sometime not sufficent => probability of blocking

=> Erlang B law Pblock : blocking probabilityN : number of resourcesE : offered traffic [Erlang]

Calculated with Excel - Makro or Table






3.1.6 Erlang´s Formula

How to calculate the traffic capacity T?Basics: Markov Chain (queue statistics)

Calculation of the blocking probability using Erlang´s formula (Erlang B statistics):

Varation of ρ until pblock reached: ρ → Tp

n iblock

n i

i

n= ∑

=

ρ ρ! !0

p0 p1

2μμ

λ

pi

λ

pnnμ

p2

3μ

no callestablishe

d

i channels occupied

all channels occupied






3.1.7 Blocking Probability (Erlang B)

Nr. of Blocking Probability Erlang Bchannels 0.1% 0.2% 0.5% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 10% 15% 20% 50%

1 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.031 0.042 0.053 0.111 0.176 0.250 1.0002 0.046 0.065 0.105 0.153 0.223 0.282 0.333 0.381 0.595 0.796 1.000 2.7323 0.194 0.249 0.349 0.455 0.602 0.715 0.812 0.899 1.271 1.602 1.930 4.5914 0.439 0.535 0.701 0.869 1.092 1.259 1.399 1.525 2.045 2.501 2.945 6.5015 0.762 0.900 1.132 1.361 1.657 1.875 2.057 2.218 2.881 3.454 4.010 8.4376 1.146 1.325 1.622 1.909 2.276 2.543 2.765 2.960 3.758 4.445 5.109 10.3897 1.579 1.798 2.157 2.501 2.935 3.250 3.509 3.738 4.666 5.461 6.230 12.3518 2.051 2.311 2.730 3.128 3.627 3.987 4.283 4.543 5.597 6.498 7.369 14.3209 2.557 2.855 3.333 3.783 4.345 4.748 5.080 5.370 6.546 7.551 8.522 16.294

10 3.092 3.427 3.961 4.461 5.084 5.529 5.895 6.216 7.511 8.616 9.685 18.27311 3.651 4.022 4.610 5.160 5.842 6.328 6.727 7.076 8.487 9.691 10.857 20.25412 4.231 4.637 5.279 5.876 6.615 7.141 7.573 7.950 9.474 10.776 12.036 22.23813 4.831 5.270 5.964 6.607 7.402 7.967 8.430 8.835 10.470 11.867 13.222 24.22414 5.446 5.919 6.663 7.352 8.200 8.803 9.298 9.730 11.473 12.965 14.413 26.21215 6.077 6.582 7.376 8.108 9.010 9.650 10.174 10.633 12.484 14.068 15.608 28.20116 6.721 7.258 8.099 8.875 9.828 10.505 11.059 11.544 13.500 15.176 16.807 30.19117 7.378 7.946 8.834 9.652 10.656 11.368 11.952 12.461 14.522 16.289 18.010 32.18218 8.046 8.644 9.578 10.437 11.491 12.238 12.850 13.385 15.548 17.405 19.216 34.17319 8.724 9.351 10.331 11.230 12.333 13.115 13.755 14.315 16.579 18.525 20.424 36.16620 9.411 10.068 11.092 12.031 13.182 13.997 14.665 15.249 17.613 19.647 21.635 38.15921 10.108 10.793 11.860 12.838 14.036 14.885 15.581 16.189 18.651 20.773 22.848 40.15322 10.812 11.525 12.635 13.651 14.896 15.778 16.500 17.132 19.692 21.901 24.064 42.14723 11.524 12.265 13.416 14.470 15.761 16.675 17.425 18.080 20.737 23.031 25.281 44.14224 12.243 13.011 14.204 15.295 16.631 17.577 18.353 19.031 21.784 24.164 26.499 46.13725 12.969 13.763 14.997 16.125 17.505 18.483 19.284 19.985 22.833 25.298 27.720 48.13230 16.684 17.606 19.034 20.337 21.932 23.062 23.990 24.802 28.113 30.995 33.840 58.11335 20.517 21.559 23.169 24.638 26.435 27.711 28.758 29.677 33.434 36.723 39.985 68.09940 24.444 25.599 27.382 29.007 30.997 32.412 33.575 34.596 38.787 42.475 46.147 78.08845 28.447 29.708 31.656 33.432 35.607 37.155 38.430 39.550 44.165 48.245 52.322 88.07950 32.512 33.876 35.982 37.901 40.255 41.933 43.316 44.533 49.562 54.029 58.508 98.072






3.1.8 BTS Traffic Capacity (Full Rate)

Number of Speech Traffic (Erlang B) Signalling Traffic (Erlang B)TRX SDCCH TCH 1% 2% 5% 0.1% 0.2% 0.5%1 4 7 2.501 2.935 3.738 0.439 0.535 0.7012 8 14 7.352 8.2 9.73 2.051 2.311 2.733 8 22 13.651 14.896 17.132 2.051 2.311 2.734 16 29 19.487 21.039 23.833 6.721 7.258 8.0995 16 37 26.379 28.254 31.64 6.721 7.258 8.0996 24 44 32.543 34.682 38.557 12.243 13.011 14.2047 24 52 39.7 42.124 46.533 12.243 13.011 14.2048 32 59 46.039 48.7 53.559 18.205 19.176 20.678






3.2 Network Evolution






3.2.1 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (1)

The roll out of a network is dedicated to provide coverage

Network design changes rapidly

Planning method must be flexible and fast (group method)

Manual frequency planning possible







With the growing amount of subscribers, the need for more installed capacity is rising

Possible Solutions:

Installing more TRXs on the existing BTS

Implementing additional sites

Discussion!

Also new services like GPRS are demanding more capacity







Installing more TRXs - AdvantagesNo site search/acquisition processNo additional sites to rent (saves cost)Trunking efficiency Higher capacity per cell

Installing more TRXs - DisadvantagesMore antennas on roof top (Air combining)Additional losses if WBC has to be used

Less (indoor) coverageMore frequencies per site neededTighter reuse necessary decreasing quality

Trunking efficiency

1TRX 2.7 Erl. +2.7 Erl

2TRX 8.2 Erl +5.3 Erl (+1 Signalling TS)

3TRX 14.9 Erl +6.7 Erl





….







Implementing additional sites - AdvantagesReuse can remain the same (smaller cell sizes)Needs less frequency spectrum

higher spectrum efficiency

Implementing additional sites - DisadvantagesAdditional site cost (rent)Re-design of old cells necessary (often not done)






3.3 Cell Structures





3.3 Cell Structures

3.3.1 Cell Structures and Quality

Frequency re-use in cellular radio networksallow efficient usage of the frequency spectrumbut causes interference

Interdependence ofCell sizeCluster sizeRe-use distanceInterference levelNetwork Quality

interfererregion





3.3 Cell Structures

3.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites) (1)

1

2 3

47

6 5 1

2 3

47

6 5RD





3.3 Cell Structures

3.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites)(2)

5 64

1 2 3

7 8 9

10 11 12

D





3.3 Cell Structures

3.3.4 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (1)





3.3 Cell Structures

3.3.5 4x3 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (2)





3.3 Cell Structures

3.3.6 Irregular (Real) Cell Shapes

12 3

4

56

5

7Network Border

CoverageHole Island






3.4 Frequency Reuse





3.4 Frequency Reuse

3.4.1 GSM Frequency Spectrum

GSM 900DL: 935-960 MHz UL: 890-915 MHz200 kHz channel spacing 124 channelsARFCN 1 - 124

E-GSMDL: 925-935 MHz UL: 880-890 MHz200 kHz channel spacing Additional 50 channelsARFCN 0, 975 - 1023200 kHz channel spacing 124 channels

GSM 850DL: 869-894 MHz UL: 824-849 MHzARFCN: 128 - 251

GSM 1800DL: 1805-1880 MHz UL: 1710-1785 MHz200 kHz channel spacing 374 channelsARFCN 512 - 885





3.4 Frequency Reuse

3.4.2 Impact of limited Frequency Spectrum

Bandwidth is an expensive resource

Best usage necessary

Efficient planning necessary to contain good QoS when the traffic in

the network is increasingsmaller reuse Multiple reuse pattern (MRP) usageimplementation of concentric cells / microcells/dual bandimplementation of Frequency Hopping

BasebandSynthezised





3.4 Frequency Reuse

3.4.3 What is frequency reuse?

As the GSM spectrum is limited, frequencies have to be reused toprovide enough capacity

The more often a frequency is reused within a certain amount of cells, the smaller the frequency reuse

Aim:Minimizing the frequency reuse for providing more capacity

REUSE CLUSTER:Area including cells which do not reuse the same frequency (or frequency group)





3.4 Frequency Reuse

3.4.4 RCS and ARCS (1)

Reuse Cluster Size - RCSIf all cells within the reuse cluster have the same amount of TRXs, the reuse per TRX layer can be calculated:

cellTRXBRCS

/#=

cellTRXBARCS

/#=

Average Reuse Cluster Size - ARCSIf the cells are different equiped, the average number of TRXs has to be used for calculating the average reuse cluster size:





3.4 Frequency Reuse

3.4.5 RCS and ARCS (2)

The ARCS is giving the average reuse of the network when using the whole bandwidth and all TRXs per cellE.g: if we want to have the reuse of all non hopping TCH TRXs, we have to use the dedicated bandwidth and the average number of non hopping TCH TRXs per cell to get the ARCS of this layer type.Each cell has only one BCCH. Therefore the BCCH reuse is an RCS and not an ARCS!





3.4 Frequency Reuse

3.4.6 Reuse Cluster Size (1)

Sectorized sites4 sites per reuse cluster3 cells per site

REUSE Cluster Size:4X3 =12

1 2

3

4 5

6

7 8

9

10 11

12

1 2

3

4 5

6

7 8

9

10 11

12





3.4 Frequency Reuse

3.4.7 Reuse Cluster Size (2)

Sectorized sites3 sites per reuse cluster3 cells per site

REUSE Cluster Size3X3 = 9

1 2

3

4 5

6

7 8

9

1 2

3

4 5

6

7 8

9





3.4 Frequency Reuse

3.4.8 Reuse Distance

RCSRfD ⋅⋅⋅= 3

⎪⎩

⎪⎨⎧

= cells sectorized-three32

cells ionalomnidirect1f

re-use distancecell A

cell B

interfererregion

In theory reuse distance and reuse shouldn’t be dependent.

In reality, when the cells are not well designed: bigger cell overlapp =>higher frequency reuse, smaller reuse distance





3.4 Frequency Reuse

3.4.9 Frequency Reuse Distance

site A site B

distance DR

D = distance between cell sites with the same frequenciesR = service radius of a cellB = number of frequencies in total bandwidthRCS = reuse cluster size, i.e. one cell uses B/RCS frequencies

In hexagonal cell geometry: D/R = f · 3 RCS

omni cells: f=1; sector cells: f=2/3

Examples (omni):RCS = 7: D/R = 4.6RCS = 9: D/R = 5.2RCS =12: D/R = 6.0

Received Power

Frec

σC/I

Frec, A Frec, B

0





3.4 Frequency Reuse

3.4.10 Frequency Reuse: Example

No sectorization7 cells per cluster

BCCH RCS = 7TCH Reuse: Depending on BW and Number of installed TRXs per cellExample:

B= 264TRXs per cell

interfererregion

63

1726=

−−=

GuardBCCHRCSTCH

RCSTCH

RCSBCCH

BCCH reuse is always RCS, because we don’t need to use an average (always one BCCH per cell).

Omni cells

To calculate the TCH reuse in the example, the BCCH RCS is subtracted from the bandwidth B and the average number of TCH TRX per cell is4 minus 1 BCCH = 3






3.5 Cell Planning





3.5 Cell Planning

3.5.1 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (1)

Can frequency planning be seen independently from cell planning?

Discussion





3.5 Cell Planning

3.5.2 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (2)

Bad cell planningIsland coverage disturbing the reuse patternBig overlap areas bigger reuse necessary

Good cell planningSharp cell borders good containment of frequencySmall overlap areas tighter reuse possible





3.5 Cell Planning

3.5.3 Influencing Factors on Frequency Reuse Distance

Topography

Hilly terrain Usage of natural obstacles to define sharp cell borders tighter frequency reuse possible

Flat terrain Achieveable reuse much more dependent on the accurate cell design

Morphology

Water low attenuation high reuse distance

City high attenuation low reuse distance





3.5 Cell Planning

3.5.4 Conclusion

In cellular mobile networks, the frequency reuse pattern has a direct influence on the interference and hence the network qualityRegular hexagonal patterns allow the deduction of engineering formulasIn real networks, cell sizes and shapes are irregular due to

Variation in traffic densityTopographyLand usage

Engineering formulas allow the assessment of the network quality and worst-case considerations, but the real situation must be proved!





3.5 Cell Planning

3.5.5 Examples for different frequency reuses

Big city in the south of Africa:BCCH reuse 26

Irregular cell designMixed morphologyLots of waterFlat terrain plus some high sites

Big city in eastern EuropeBCCH reuse 12

Regular cell designFlat areaOnly urban environment






3.6 Interference Probability






3.6.1 Interference Theory (1)

C/I restrictions9dB for co-channel interference-9 dB for adjacent channel interference

distance DR

Received PowerP rec

σC/ I

Prec, A Prec, B

0

C/I is the difference between the two received power lines

when shifting the two transmitters towards each other, the area where the C/I is > 9dB shrinks

At a certain distance of the two transmitters, the C/I can never fulfil the GSM criteria -> minimum site distance.

It has to be kept in mind, that of course other cells will be inbetween two cells transmitting at the same frequency!






3.6.2 Interference Theory (2)

Probability density function [%]

0,0%

1,0%

2,0%

3,0%

4,0%

5,0%

C/I [dB] →C/ImedC/Ithr

Margin

Interferer probability [%]

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

C/I - C/Ithr[dB]

Interference probabilityC/Imed is the calculated carrier tointerference ratio at a certain location (pixel)

ARCS Pint[%]6.5..9.0 107.0..9.5 7.58.5..11.0 5.012.0..16.0 2.5


The marked area left of C/Ithr is the area of interference. Although the received level is above the threshold, there is a certain probability to get interference because of the standard deviation of the received signal.






3.6.3 CPDF - Cumulative Probability Density Function

Pint = P ( C/I < C/I thr)

00,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,91

P int

Distance from serving cellDR

CPDF - Cumulative Probability Density Function






3.6.4 Interference Probability dependent on Average Reuse

ARCS =# of frequencies in used bandwidth

average # of carriers per cellPint [%]

ARCS0

3

6

9

12

5 10 15 20 25

Examples:Pint[%] ARCS10 6.5...97.5 7...9.55 8.5...112.5

12...16






3.7 Carrier Types





3.7 Carrier Types

3.7.1 Carrier Types - BCCH carrier

BCCH frequency is on air all the time

If there is no traffic/signaling on TS 1 to 7dummy bursts are transmitted

PC (Power Control) and DTX (Discontinuous Transmission) are not allowed

Important for measurements of the mobile

The BCCH frequency must be transmitted with full power all the time!

Otherwise the measurements of the neighborcell levels would be useless.





3.7 Carrier Types

3.7.2 Carrier Types - TCH carrier

PC allowed and recommended for UL and DLReduction of transmit power according to the actual path lossCareful parameter tuning for DL necessary

DTX allowed and recommended for UL and DLDiscontinuous TransmissionIf there is no speech, nothing is transmittedGeneration of comfort noise at receiving mobile

TCH not in use no signal is transmitted

Special case: Concentric cellsDifferent re-uses for inner and outer zone are possible

PC and DTX are reducing the overall interference in the network.

As a TCH is not transmitting anything when not in use, the interference level is strongly related to the traffic on the interfereing cells.






3.8 Multiple Reuse Pattern MRP





3.8 Multiple reuse pattern

3.8.1 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (1)

For different types of carriers, different interference potential is expected

As the BCCH carrier has the highest interferer potential because of being on air all the time and the BCCH channel itself is accepting only low interference, the REUSE on the BCCH layer is higher then on other layers

TCH layers can be planned with a smaller REUSE

Inner zones of concentric cells are able to deal with the smallest reuse in non hopping networks






3.8.2 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (2)

REUSE clusters forINNER ZONE layer

TCH layer

BCCH layer

When applying different reuses in the different cell layers, of course separated bands are necessary!






3.8.3 GSM restrictions

Intra site minimum channel spacing 2Intra cell minimum channel spacing 2 (ETSI recommends 3, but with Alcatel EVOLIUM capabilities this value can be set to 2)

constrains:Uplink power control enabledIntra cell interference handover enabled

f A1,

f A2,

f A3,

...

fB1 ,fB2 ,fB3 ,...f C1

,f C2,f C3

,...

Frequencies fAx,fBx,fCx,… must have at least 2 channels spacing

Frequencies fx1,fx2,fx3,… must have at least 3 channels spacing

The Intra cell minimum channel spacing of 3 is given by the combiner in the BTS, to avaoid IM problems

Important remark: the whole training is compliant to the co-cell constraint of 3 channels ; this is more restrictive than the BTS capability of filtering the channels on frequency n*200 kHz

Acc to A.Krause: for Evolium BTS standard equipped with WBC the co-cell constraint can be only 2 channels.

(A channel spacing of 2 was tested @Vodacom in 1999 but the result was not better than with channel spacingof 3.)






3.9 Intermodulation





3.9 Intermodulation

3.9.1 Intermodulation problems (1)

IM Products GSM900In a GSM 900 system intermodulation products of 3rd and 5th order can cause interference

2 * f1,t – f2,t = f2,r / 2 * f2,t – f1,t = f1,r

3 * f1,t – 2 * f2,t = f2,r / 3 * f2,t – 2 * f1,t = f1,r

Frequency planning must avoid fulfilling these equations

Both frequencies must be on the same duplexer

To avoid intra band IM inside GSM900 the following frequency separations shall be avoided:

75/112/113 channels

IM5 IM3

Info from techn. dept: If a WBC has to be used because of the number of TRXs, the output power is not high enough to cause problems. -> No intermodulation problems .





3.9 Intermodulation

3.9.2 Intermodulation problems (2)

IM Products GSM1800In a GSM 1800 system, only intermodulation products of 3rd order can cause measurable interference2 * f1,t – f2,t = f2,r / 2 * f2,t – f1,t = f1,r

Frequency separations to be avoided

237/238 channels

IM Products Dual Band (GSM900/GSM1800)

f1800,t – f900,t = f900,r

Decoupling between the GSM 1800 TX path and the GSM 900 RX path is less than 30 dB (e.g. same antenna used!)





3.9 Intermodulation

3.9.3 Intermodulation problems (3) - Summary

carrier/antenna restrictionG3 900 1 noG3 900 2 ore more 112/113 (IM3) and 75 (IM5)G3 1800 1 noG3 1800 2 or more 237/238 (IM3) no IM5 quality degradation measurable

carrier/antennaG2 900 w/o dupl 1 no

2 or more noG2 900 with dupl 1 no

2 or more 112/113 (IM3) and 75 (IM5)G2 1800 w/o dupl 1 no

2 or more noG2 1800 with dupl 1 no

22

G3 900 G2/G3 1800 f(1800,t) - f(900,t) = f(900,r)

G2 900 w/o dupl G2/G3 1800 no

G2 900 with dupl G2/G3 1800 f(1800,t) - f(900,t) = f(900,r)

Colocated BTSs

dud2(high Power) -> nodupd -> 237/238

OUTSIDE Problem: Dual Band

INSIDE Problem: IM3 / IM5

Problem only for non hopping and BCCH carriers

Problem can be solved by hopping over more than 10 frequencies

Caution: SFH doesn’t bring additional benefits when hopping over more than 4 frequencies





3.9 Intermodulation

3.9.4 Treating “neighbor” cells

Cells, which are not declared as neighbor cells but are located in the neighborhood may use adjacent frequencies if it is not avoidable, but no co channel frequencies

Cells which are declared as neighbors, thus have HO relationships, must not use co or adjacent frequencies

If an adjacent frequency is used, the HO will be risky and at least audible by the user





3.9 Intermodulation

3.9.5 Where can I find neighbor cells?

At the OMC-R for each cell a list of neighbor cells is defined

Maximum number of neighbors: 32

The list of neighbors and their frequencies is transmitted to the mobile to be able to perform measurements on these frequencies

In case of a HO cause, the HO will be performed towards the bestneighbor






3.10 Manual frequency planning





3.10 Manual Frequency Planning

3.10.1 Frequency planning (1)

No fixed method

Free frequency assignment possible, but very time consuming for larger networks

For easy and fast frequency planning: use group assignment

Example:18 channels, 2TRX per cell ARCS 9






3.10.2 Frequency planning (2)

GSM restrictions are automatically fulfilled, if on one site only groups A* or only B* are used

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

A1B1A2B2A3B3A4B4A5






3.10.3 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (1)

A1

A2 A3

A2

A4 A5

B4

B1

B2 B3

B1

B2

A1

A2 A3A2A4

A5

B4

B1B2

A1

A2 A3






3.10.4 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (2)

A1

A2A3

A2

A4 A5

B4

B1

B2 B3

B1

B2

A1

A2A3A2A4

A5

B2

B4B1

A3

A2A1






3.10.5 Discussion: Subdivide frequency band?

Any subdivision of the frequency band is reducing the spectrum efficiency!

Separations should be avoided if possible!

As the BCCH has to be very clean, it is nevertheless recommended to use a separated band and select a bigger reuse

The focus in the discussion is not the fx band splitting by fx management authorities.






3.10.6 Hint for creating a future proofed frequency plan

If a frequency plan is implemented, using all available frequencies in the most efficient way, it is very difficult to implement new sites in the future!

New sites would make a complete re-planning of the surrounding area or the whole frequency plan necessary

To avoid replanning every time when introducing new sites, it is recommended to keep some Joker frequencies free

These Joker frequencies can be used for new sites (especially BCCH TRXs) unless it is impossible to implement new sites without changing a big part of the frequency plan

New frequency plan necessary!






3.10.7 Implementing a frequency plan

If only a few frequencies have to be changed, the changes can bedone at the OMC-R

Disadvantage: Every cell has to be modified separatelyDowntime of the cell approx. 5 minutes

If lots of changes have to be done, it is of advantage to use external tools

Since B6.2 the complete frequency plan can be uploaded from the OMCthe uploaded file can be modified by the tool (A9155 PRC Generator)the the new plan is downloaded into the network and activated at once






3.11 BSCI planning





3.11 BSIC Planning

3.11.1 BSCI allocation

Together with the frequencies the Base Transceiver Station Identity Code (BSIC) has to be planned

The BSIC is to distinguish between cells using the same BCCH frequency

BSIC = NCC (3bits) + BCC (3bits)NCC Network (PLMN) Colour Code BCC - Base Transceiver Station (BTS) Colour Code

BSIC planning is supported by the A9155 (Alcatel Radio Network Planning Tool)





3.11 BSIC Planning

3.11.2 BSIC planning rules

The same combination BCCH/BSIC must not be used on cell influencing on each other (having a mutual interference <>0)BSIC allocation rules:

Avoid using same BCCH/BSIC combination of:neighbor cellssecond order neighbor cells (the neighbors of neighbor cell (OMC limitation))

neighbor Cell

BCCH:24

BSIC:36

neighbor Cell

BCCH:24

BSIC: must NOT be 36

Serving Cell

BCCH:10

BSIC: any

A

B C





3.11 BSIC Planning

3.11.3 Spurious RACH

Bad BSIC planning can cause SDCCH congestion cause by the spurious RACH problem, also known as “Ghost RACH”

This problem occurs, when a mobile sends an HO access burst to aTRX of cell A using the same frequency as a nearby cell B uses on the BCCH

Both cells using the same BSIC and Training Sequence Code TSQC, the HO access burst is understood by the cell B as a RACH for call setup

Therefore on cell B SDCCHs are allocated everytime a HO access burst is sent from the mobile to the cell A

If in cell B the BCCH and TRX 2 exchange their frequencies (BCCH gets the fx of TRX2 and TRX2 gets the fx of BCCH): no problem with spurious RACH

Cell BF1 F2

BSIC=1

Cell AF5F1

BSIC=1

Cell C





3.11 BSIC Planning

3.11.4 Summary

For optimal usage of your frequency spectrum a good cell design is essentialUse larger reuse for BCCH frequenciesUse spectrum splitting only when necessary






3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques






3.12.1 Capacity enhancement by planning

Interference reduction of cellsCheck of antenna type, direction and down tilt

This is a check of cell size, border and orientationCheck of proper cabling

Is TX and RX path on the same sector antenna?Check of the frequency plan

Introduction of a better frequency plan






3.12.2 Capacity enhancement by adding feature

Frequency hoppingBase band hoppingSynthesized frequency hopping

Concentric cellsHalf rate






3.12.3 Capacity enhancement by adding TRX

Adding TRX to existing cellsMulti band cellsConcentric cells






3.12.4 Capacity enhancement by adding cells

Adding of cells at existing site locationsAdding new cell = adding new BCCHDual band

Adding cells using another frequency bandCell splitting

Reduction of cell sizeChange of one omni cell into several cells/sector cells






3.12.5 Capacity enhancement by adding sites

Dual band/multi band networkAdding of new sites in new frequency band

Multi layer networkAdding of new sites in another layer

E.g. adding micro cells for outdoor coverage

Indoor coverageAdding micro cells indoor coverageAdding macro cells indoor coverage





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4.1 GSM Air Interface

4 Radio Interface






4.1.1 Radio Resources

Radio Spectrum Allocation

Frequency(FDMA)

Time(TDMA)

Timeslot0<TN<7

TDMA Frames0<FN<FN_MAX

Carrier Frequencies (ARFCN)

Cell Allocation(CA)

Mobile Allocation(MA)

FDMA Frequency division multiple accessTDMA Time division multiple accessARFCN Absolute radio frequency channel numberTN Timeslot numberFN Frame number





FDMA and TDMA with 8 time slots per carrierRF frequency band

(E)GSM: (880) 890 ... 915 MHz Uplink (MS → BS)(925) 935 ... 960 MHz Downlink (BS → MS)

GSM1800: 1710 ... 1785 MHz Uplink1805 ... 1880 MHz Downlink

200 kHz bandwidthNumber of carriers: 124 (GSM); 374 (DCS); 49 (E-GSM)


4.1.2 GSM Transmission Principles (1)

GSM: Flower (n) = 890 + 0.2 · n MHz with 1 ≤ n ≤ 124E-GSM: Flower (n) = 890 + 0.2 · n MHz with 0 ≤ n ≤ 124

Flower (n) = 890 + 0.2 · (n -1024) MHz with 975 ≤ n ≤ 1023DCS : Flower (n) = 1710.2 + 0.2 · (n - 512) MHz with 512 ≤ n ≤ 885

(E)GSM: Fupper (n) = Flower (n) + 45 MHzDCS: Fupper (n) = Flower (n) + 95 MHz






4.1.3 GSM Transmission Principles (2)

Channel typesTraffic Channels (TCH)

Full rateHalf rate

Control Channels (CCH)Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)Common Control Channel (CCCH)Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)

TDMA frame cycles26 cycle for traffic channels51 cycle for control channels






4.1.4 Advantages of Signal Processing

Spectrum limitationsBad propagation

conditions

P

t

Good spectrum efficiency Good transmission quality

Operator






4.1.5 Signal Processing Chain

stealing bit and FACCH

speechcoding

errorprotection

interleaving encryption modulation

radiochannel

stealing bit and FACCH

speechinput

speechdecoding

errorcorrection

de-interleaving decryption demodulation

speechoutput

LossNoise

InterferenceFading





4 Radio Interface

4.2 Channel Coding





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.1 Speech Coding

260 bits speech block

182 class 1 bits

20 ms of coded speech

78 class 2 bits

sensitive to bit errorsmust be protected

robust to bit errors

Coding algorithm: RPE-LTPPre-computationRPE = Regular Pulse Excitation

Model of human voice generationLTP = Long Term Prediction

Reduction of bit rate

Bit rate: 13 kBit/s

Coding at fixed network: PCM A-lawBit rate: 64 kBit/s





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.2 Error Protection

Messages (signalling data)

Fire Code

184 bits

184 40

4

Convolutional Coder = 1/2, K = 5

456 = 24 x 19

456 bits in 20 ms = 22.6kbit/s

Convolutional Coder = 1/2, K = 5

Tail bits

Parity check

Cycliccode

Speech (full rate)

Tail bits

Class 1a50 bits

Class 1b132 bits

Class 278 bits

= 456= 8 x 5737

878

50

3 132 4

260 bits





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.3 Interleaving and TDMA Frame Mapping

1 2 3 4 5 6 70 1 2 3 4 5 6 70

Mappingonto bursts

....

.

....

.

Addition of stealing flags

....

.

Interleaving

....

.

....

.

....

.

2 x 57 bits

Block n-1 (456 bits)

57 bits Block n (456 bits) Block n+1 (456 bits)

1 2 3 4 5 6 70

1 time slot

114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits

116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits

burst n-3 burst n-2 burst n-1 burst n burst n+1 burst n+2 burst n+3 burst n+4





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.4 Encryption

AlgorithmA3

Randomnumber

generator

AlgorithmA8

IMSIKi

Ki RAND (128 bit)

+

Authentication

yes/noAlgorithm

A3

AlgorithmA8

RAND

SRES (32 bit)

SIMCard

Ki

AlgorithmA5

AlgorithmA5

+

Kc (64 bit)

+

RAND

Kc

originaldata

originaldata

encrypted

data

encrypted

data

Network Mobile station

AuC





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.5 Burst Structure

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

TDMA frame = 4.615 ms

Data TrainingSequence Data

57 bits3 26 bits1 31 57 bits

tail bits tail bitsstealing flags

156.25 bit periods = 0.577 ms

GP GP

A burst contains one data "portion" of one timeslotTDMA frame: time between two bursts with same timeslot numberThe burst also consists of:

Guard period (GP): allows for transition and settling timesTail bits: allow for small shifts in time delay (synchronisation)Stealing flags: to indicate FACCH (control channel) dataTraining sequence: for equalization purposes

Normal Burst

0





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.4 Synchronisation

received at MS(downlink)

transmitted from MS(uplink)

transmitted from BTS(downlink)

received at BTS(uplink)

Transmitted bursts need a travelling time (TT) to the receiverFor network access, the MS sends a (non-synchronized) shortened RACH burstThe BSS measures the TT and generates a timing advance value TA which is transmitted to the MS

0 1 2 3

1 2

0 1 2

1 2

TT TT

non-synchronized

3 TSdelay

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1

TT

TT

synchronized

RACH

MS delay line setting

1

4

2

3





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.5 Modulation

Gaussian minimum shift keyingBased on phase shift keyingReduction of required bandwidth

Maximum phase change during one bit durationBaseband filtering to achieve continuous phase changes

∫

cos

sin

+

x

x

≈90°

to RF modulatorDataϕ





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.6 Propagation Environment

Radio propagation is characterised by dispersive multi-path caused by reflection and scattering

Moving MS causes Doppler spectrum→ Definition of propagation models in the time

domain to allow channel simulationsTUxx (Typical Urban)RAxx (Rural Area)HTxx (Hilly Terrain)xx = speed in km/h

see also GSM 05.05, 11.20, 11.21





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.7 Equalizing

Purpose: equalize distortions in transmission spectrumAdaptive filtering required

Filter parameters determined out of the training sequenceFilter parameters change from burst to burst

Equalizer takes advantage from multipath propagation (path diversity)

0.001

0.01

0.1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Delay of second path [chips]B

ER

noneAlcatelMLSE

Equalizer





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.8 Definition of Bit Error Rates

FER = Frame Erasure RateRatio of corrupted frames, indicated by a wrong CRC (cyclic redundancy checksum) and BFI (bad frame indicator)

RBER = Residual Bit Error Rateconsidering corrupted frames not recognized as bad frames

BER = total bit error rateConsideration of class 1 or 2 bits → e.g. RBER1b, RBER2

see also GSM 05.05, 11.20, 11.21





BER Quality

>0.01 no communication<0.005 “bad”<0.0025 “marginal”<0.0003 “good”<0.0001 “excellent”

Thresholds:

C/I: 9 dBEc/No: 8 dBBTS (GSM900): -104 dBmHH (GSM900): -102 dBmBTS (GSM1800): -104 dBmHH (GSM1800): -100 dBm

4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.9 Speech Quality

HH - handheld

RXQUAL_0 BER <0,2%

RXQUAL_1 0,2%<BER<0,4%





RXQUAL_6 6,4%<BER<12,8%

RXQUAL_7 12,8%<BER





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.10 Dependence of BER on Noise and Interference

Variation of BER1 over C/IParameter: Ec/N0

How to find a quality figure?BER1 for marginal speech quality: 0.25%required C/I ≈ 9 dB for TU50 environmentbut: signal must not be close to noise floor!

C/I [dB] →

TU50BER1

→





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.13 Frequency Hopping (1)

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

0.1

2.8

5.4

8.0

10.6

13.2

15.9

18.5

21.1

23.7

26.3

29.0

31.6

34.2

36.8

39.4

42.1

44.7

47.3

49.9

Distance [m]

Rec

eive

d Po

wer

[dB

m]

Lognormal fadingRaleygh fading

Problem: specific fading pattern for each used frequencyFast MS cope with the situation (due to signal processing)Slow MS suffer from fading holesSolution: change the fading pattern by frequency hopping

Fading holes





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.14 Frequency Hopping (2)

Variation of BER1 over Ec/N0TU environment, flat fading, v = 0 km/h (worst case)Parameter: number of hopping frequencies

Compensation with 4 hopping frequencies possible

Ec/N0 [dB] →

BER

→





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.15 The OSI Reference Model

Definition in GSM recommendations: layers 1 to 3Notion of "Physical" channels and "Logical" channels

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Application layer

Presentation layer

Session layer

Transport layer

Network layer

Data link layer

Physical layer

End system End systemTransportation system

04.0408.54

04.05/0608.56

04.07/0808.58/4.0

8





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.16 GSM Burst Types (1)

Normal BurstFor regular transmission

Frequency Correction BurstContains 142 zeros (0) → pure sine waveAllows synchronisation of the mobile's local oscillator

Synchronisation BurstConsists of an enlarged unique training sequence code (TSC)Contains the actual FN → time synchronisation

Access BurstShortened burst (unique TSC and enlarged guard period)Timeslot overlapping avoided at BTS when MS accesses network

Dummy Burst"Filler" for unused BCCH timeslots → BCCH permanently on airSimilar to normal burst (defined mixed bits for data, no stealing flag)





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.17 GSM Burst Types (2)

TB3

57 data bits 126 bit training

sequence1 57 data bits

TB3

Normal burstGP

8.25

TB3

142 fixed bits (pure sine wave) TB3

Frequency correction burstGP

8.25

TB3

39 data bits 64 bit trainingsequence

39 data bits TB3

Synchronisation burstGP

8.25

TB8

36 data bits41 bit synchronisationsequence

Access burstenlarged GP

68.25 bitTB3





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.18 Logical Channels

Trafficchannel

Controlchannel

Speech Data

TCH/FS

TCH/HS

TCH/F9.6

TCH/F4.8

TCH/F2.4

TCH/H4.8

TCH/H2.4

CCCHBroadcastchannel

Associatedchannel

Dedicatedchannel

FCCH

SCH

BCCH

RACH

PCH

AGCH

FACCH

SACCH

SDCCH

CBCH





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.19 Possible Channel Combinations

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

TCH/F+FACCH/F+SACCH/TF

TCH/H(0.1)+FACCH/H(0.1)+SACCH/TH(0.1)

TCH/H(0.0)+FACCH/H(0.1)+SACCH/TH(0.1)+TCH/H(1.1)

FCCH+SCH+BCCH+CCCH

FCCH+SCH+BCCH+CCCH+SDCCH/4(0..3)+SACCH/C4(0..3)

BCCH+CCCH

SDCCH/8(0..7)+SACCH/C8(0..7)

CCCH = PCH+RACH+AGCHCombination 4 and 5 is only possible on TS0 of the first (BCCH) carrierCombination 6 is possible on TS2, TS4, or TS6 of the BCCH carrier





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.20 Channel Mapping (1)

time

..............

.......

0 0 0 01 1 112 2 223 3 334 4 445 556 6 67 7 7

one TDMA frame = 4.616 ms

Information packages are always related to the same timeslot number!Bursts are transmitted and received every TDMA frame duration (4.616 ms)Presentation of consecutive

TDMA frames on the vertical axis





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.21 Channel Mapping (2)

SCH

FCCH RACH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

SCH

FCCH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

RACH

BCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

BCCH BCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

CCCH

SDCCH0

SDCCH1

SDCCH2

SDCCH3

SDCCH0

SDCCH1

SDCCH2

SDCCH3

SDCCH0

SDCCH1

SDCCH0

SDCCH1

SDCCH2

SDCCH3

SDCCH2

SDCCH3

SACCH0

SACCH1

SACCH2

SACCH3

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

SACCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

SACCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

TCH

SDCCH0

SDCCH1

SDCCH2

SDCCH3

SDCCH4

SDCCH5

SDCCH6

SDCCH7

SACCH0

SACCH1

SACCH2

SACCH3

SACCH0

SACCH1

SACCH2

SACCH3

SDCCH0

SDCCH1

SDCCH2

SDCCH3

SDCCH4

SDCCH5

SDCCH6

SDCCH7

SACCH4

SACCH5

SACCH6

SACCH7

SDCCH0

SDCCH1

SDCCH2

SDCCH3

SDCCH4

SDCCH5

SDCCH6

SDCCH7

SACCH0

SDCCH0

SDCCH1

SDCCH2

SDCCH3

SDCCH4

SDCCH5

SDCCH6

SDCCH7

SACCH1

SACCH2

SACCH3

SACCH4

SACCH5

SACCH6

SACCH7

0

10

20

30

40

50

0

10

20

30

40

50

0

12

25

0

12

25

not combined BCCHdownlink uplink downlink uplink downlink uplink

combined BCCH TCH SDCCHup/downlink

Control channelsFollows a 51-cycleDuration: 235.4 msecConsists mostly of four consecutive blocksSynchronisation with FCCH and SCH

Traffic channelsFollows a 26-cycleDuration: 120 msec





4.2 Channel Coding

4.2.22 TDMA Frame Structure for TCHs

TB3

57 data bits 126 bit trainingsequence

1 57 data bits TB3

GP8.25

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Time slot

Frame

Multiframe

Superframe

Hyperframe

51 multiframes of 120 ms duration

2048 superframes of 6.12 s duration

0.577 ms

4.615 ms

120 ms

6.12 s

3 h 28 m 53 s





Abbreviations and Acronyms

AMR Advanced Multi Rate (TC)AMSS Aeronautical Mobile Satellite ServicesAN Antenna Network (BTS)ARCS Average Reuse Cluster SizeARFCN Absolute Radio Frequency ChannelAS Access Switch (BSC)AS Alarm Surveillance (O&M)ASMA A-ter Submultiplexer AASMB A-ter Submultiplexer BAuC Authentication CenterBC BroadcastBCU Broadcast UnitBCLA BSC Clock ABCR Broadcast RegisterBCU Broadcast UnitBCCH Broadcast Common Control Channel

(GSM TS)BCF Base station Control Function (BTS)BG Border Gate (GPRS)

BIE Base Station Interface EquipmentBIEC Base Station Interface Equipment (BSC)BIUA Base Station Interface Unit ABPA Back Panel AssemblyBSC Base Station ControllerBSIC Base Transceiver Station Identity CodeBSS Base Station (sub)SystemBSSGP Base Station System GPRS Protocol

(GPRS)BTS Base Transceiver StationCAE Customer Application EngineeringCAL Current Alarm List (O&M)CBC Cell Broadcast CenterCBCH Cell Broadcast Channel (GSM TS)CBE Cell Broadcast EntityCCCH Common Control Channel (GSM TS)CCU Channel Coding Unit





Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]

CDMA Code Division Multiple AccessCE Control Element (BSC)CEK Control Element KernelC/I Carrier to Interferer ratioCLK ClockCLSI Custom Large Scale Integrated circuitCMA Configuration Management Application (O&M)CMDA Common Memory Disk ACMFA Common Memory Flash ACPR Common Processor (Type: CPRA, CPRC)CRC Cyclic Redundancy CheckCS Circuit Switching (Telecom)CS Coding Scheme (GPRS):

CS-1, CS-2, CS-3, CS-4CU Carrier Unit (BTS)DCE Data Circuit Terminating EquipmentDCN Data Communication NetworkDL DownLink

DLS Data Load SegmentDMA Direct Memory AccessDRFU Dual Rate Frame UnitDRX Discontinuous Reception (GSM TS)DSE Digital Switching ElementDSN Digital Switching NetworkDTX Discontinuous Transmission (GSM TS)DTC Digital Trunk Controller

(Type: DTCA, DTCC)DTE Data Terminal EquipmentEDGE Enhanced Data rates for GSM EvolutionEDA Extended Dynamic AllocationEI Extension interfaceEML Element Management LevelEPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only

MemoryETSI European Telecom Standard InstituteFPE Functional and Protective EarthFR Full Rate (GSM TS)






FR Frame Relay (Telecom)FRDN Frame Relay Data Network (Telecom)FU Frame Unit (BTS)FW FirmwareGCR Group Call RegisterGGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node (GPRS)GMLC Gateway Mobile Location CenterGMM GPRS Mobility Management (GPRS)GMSC Gateway Mobile Switching CenterGPRS General Packet Radio ServiceGPU GPRS Packet UnitGS-1 Group Switch of stage 1 (BSC)GS-2 Group Switch of stage 2 (BSC)GSL GPRS Signalling LinkGSM Global System for Mobile CommunicationsGSM TS GSM Technical SpecificationHAL Historical Alarm List (O&M)HDSL High rate Digital Subscriber LineHDLC High Level Datalink Control

HLR Home Location RegisterHMI Human Machine InterfaceHO HandOverHR Half RateHW HardwareIDR Internal Directed RetryILCS ISDN Link ControllerIMT Installation and Maintenance Terminal

(MFS)IND Indoor (BTS)IP Internet ProtocolISDN Integrated Services Data NetworkIT Intelligent TerminalLA Location Area (GSM TS)LAC Location Area Code (GSM TS)LAN Local Area NetworkLED Light Emitting DiodeLEO Low Earth Orbit (Satellite)LCS Location Services






PCH Paging CHannel (GSM TS)PCM Pulse Coded ModulationPCU Packet Control Unit (GPRS)PDCH Packet Data CHannelPDN Packet Data Network (Telecom)PDU Protocol Data Unit (generic terminology)PLL Phase Locked LoopPLMN Public Land Mobile NetworkPMA Prompt Maintenance Alarm (O&M)PMC Permanent Measurement Campaign

(O&M)PPCH Packet Paging CHannel (GPRS)PRACH Packet Random Access CHannel (GPRS)Prec Received PowerPRC Provisioning Radio Configuration (O&M)PSDN Packet Switching Data Network

(Telecom)

PSTN Public Switching Telephone Network(Telecom)

PTP-CNLS Point To Point CoNnectionLeSs datatransfer (GPRS)

QoS Quality of ServiceRA Radio AccessRACH Random Access CHannel (GSM TS)RAM Random Access MemoryRCP Radio Control PointRLC Radio Link Control (GPRS)RLP Radio Link Protocol (GSM TS)RML Radio Management LevelRNO Radio Network OptimisationRNP Radio Network PlanningRSL Radio Signalling Link






RTS Radio Time SlotRxLev Received LevelRxQual Received QualitySACCH Slow Associated Control Channel

(GSM TS)SAU Subrack assembly unit (BSC)SC Supervised Configuration (O&M)SCC Serial Communication ControllerSCP Service Control PointSCCP Signalling Connection Control PartSCSI Small Computer Systems InterfaceSDCCH Standalone Dedicated Control Channel

(GSM TS)SDU Service Data Unit (generic terminology)SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node (GPRS)SIEA SCSI Interface Extension A

SM SubmultiplexerSMLC Serving Mobile Location CenterSMP Service Management PointSMS Short Message ServiceSMS-CB Short Message Service - Cell BroadcastSM-GMSC Short Message Gateway Mobile Switching

CenterSRAM Static RAMSRS SubRate SwitchSS7 Signalling System ITU-T N°7 (ex CCITT)SSD Solid State DiskSSP Service Switching PointSW SoftwareSWEL Switch ElementTBF Temporary Block Flow (GPRS)TAF Terminal Adaptor Function






TC TranscoderTC Terminating CallTCC Trunk Controller ChipTCH Traffic CHannel (GSM TS)TCIL TransCoder Internal LinkTCSM TransCoder / SubMultiplexer equipmentTCU TRX Control Unit (Type: TCUA, TCUC)TDMA Time Division Multiple AccessTFO Tandem Free Operation (TC)TFTS Terrestrial Flight Telecom SystemsTLD Top Level DesignTMN Telecommunication Management

NetworkTRAC Trunk Access CircuitTRAU Transcoder and Rate Adapter UnitTRCU Transcoder UnitTRE Transceiver EquipmentTRS Technical Requirement SpecificationTRU Top Rack Unit

TRX TransceiverTS Time SlotTS Technical Specification (GSM TS)TSS Time Space Switch TSCA Transmission Sub-System Controller A

(BSC) TSU Terminal Sub Unit (BSC)TU Terminal Unit (BSC)UL UpLinkUMTS Universal Mobile Transmission SystemUSSD Unstructured Supplementary Services DataVBS Voice Broadcast ServiceVGCS Voice Group Code ServiceVLR Visitor Location RegisterVPLMN Visited PLMNVSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (BTS)WAN Wide Area NetworkWAP Wireless Application ProtocolWBC Wide Band Combiner





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