Facilitating change in the educationalexperiences of professional footballers:

The case of Scottish football

David McGillivray

Cultural Business Group, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, UK

This paper evaluates the delivery of learning opportunities for footballers within the Scottish pro-

fessional football industry. Theoretically, the paper draws on Prochaska and DiClemente’s ‘stages

of change’ model and Miller and Rollnick’s ‘motivational’ and ‘brief intervention’ techniques to scru-

tinize Scottish professional football’s engagement with lifelong learning cultures within its labour

force. Empirically, a two-level research strategy was employed. First, elite interviews were under-

taken with strategic stakeholders drawn from the professional game in Scotland. Second, a single

case study of a Scottish League Division One club was undertaken, including short interviews with

a range of players and club officials. The study found that by introducing carefully designed inter-

ventions aimed at particular stages of change, professional footballers can be encouraged to partici-

pate in meaningful learning activities for the duration of their football careers. Success is dependent

upon motivational techniques being introduced at the most apposite time and with appropriate

resources.

INTRODUCTION

For some time the UK professional football

industry (and its inhabitants) has been con-

sidered resistant to change both in terms of

its engagement with formal educational

discourses and (lack of) investment in post-

football career development (see Coakley,

1998; Drawer and Fuller, 2002; Dunning, 1999;

Gearing, 1999; Jones and Armour, 2000; McGil-

livray et al., 2005; Monk, 2000; Parker, 2000;

Stewart and Sutherland, 1996; Weiss, 2001).

Various explanations are proffered for this

resistance ranging from those stressing the

occupational inevitability of professional foot-

ball status (Parker, 2000) to those bemoaning

the absence of educational cultural capital

(Bourdieu and Passeron, 1977) in young foot-

ballers traditionally emerging from urban,

working class environments.

None the less, a raft of recent initiatives

has brought the issue of players’ educational

attainment to the attention of those who

govern the professional game across the

UK. These initiatives have at their heart a

concern with lifelong learning and continu-

ing professional development. For example,

in England and Wales an extensive academy

structure has been developed within which

aspiring young footballers balance their foot-

ball education with an ongoing programme

of academic studies (see Richardson et al.,

2003). The Scottish professional game has

been much slower to introduce provision

for the ongoing educational needs of its

labour force.

A number of explanations have been

offered for this apparent tardiness. First,

most Scottish clubs are classified as small

and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) and

Managing Leisure ISSN 1360-6719 print/ISSN 1466-450X online # 2006 Taylor & Francis

http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals

DOI: 10.1080/13606710500445668

Managing Leisure 11, 22–38 (January 2006)

are unable (or unwilling) to invest in their

human resources. As a result, they afford

little value to learning and training outside

of their core business. Second, although

career development advice (and financial

support) has been available for some time

via an educational trust operated by the

players’ trade union (the Scottish Pro-

fessional Footballers Association), this

support has until recently been fragmented,

inconsistent and inevitably short-term in its

focus. The absence of a comprehensive strat-

egy for either lifelong learning or continual

professional development has meant that

insufficient effort has been expended in devel-

oping adequate career transition policies to

cater for those exiting the professional

game devoid of easily transferable skills and

qualifications (see McGillivray et al., 2005).

Despite its inglorious past history the

Scottish professional game has been forced

to reconsider its wider responsibility

towards its employees’ educational needs

by the ongoing rationalization of labour

affecting the industry. More than 300

players have been made redundant from

the Scottish game each year since 1999.

Until recently the task of raising awareness

about the precariousness of the contempor-

ary footballers’ career has fallen to the Scot-

tish Professional Footballers Association

(SPFA).

However, in light of the unstable economic

climate facing the game (Deloitte & Touche,

2004) and the contemporaneous Scottish

Executive concern with lifelong learning,

other agencies of governance (including

the Scottish Executive, Scottish Enterprise,

Scottish Football Association and Learn

Direct Scotland) have been persuaded to

shoulder some responsibility for the career

transition difficulties encountered by pro-

fessional footballers. These agencies have

recently collaborated in the development of

a Strategy for Lifelong Learning (hereafter

SLL) designed to provide adequate financial

resources and career advice to address

footballers’ lack of transferable skills on

departing the game. Yet, whilst it appears

that the argument for action has been won,

contestation remains over the most appro-

priate means of delivering those educational

and continuing development opportunities

within the existing structures (or strictures)

of the Scottish professional game.

This paper takes as its focus an evaluation

of the delivery of learning opportunities

for footballers within the Scottish pro-

fessional football industry. The empirical

component focuses on the plethora of initiat-

ives recently introduced within the Scottish

game now delivered under the banner of

the SLL. Theoretically, the paper draws on

Prochaska and DiClemente’s (1983) ‘stages

of change’ model and Miller and Rollnick’s

(1991) ‘motivational’ and ‘brief intervention’

techniques to scrutinize the range of learn-

ing initiatives which have recently been

introduced across the Scottish professional

game designed to foster in its members a

culture of lifelong learning.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: THESTAGES OF CHANGE MODEL

Working principally in the area of clinical

psychology, Prochaska and DiClemente

(1983) have argued that individuals progress

through five key stages once they con-

sciously decide to make changes to the

fabric of their lives. Although most often

associated with research into smoking cessa-

tion and addiction recovery (Prochaska and

DiClemente, 1984, 1992; Prochaska et al.,

1992), the transferability of their work has

become evident in recent years. It has now

been employed in sporting environments,

child welfare (Littell and Girvin, 2004) and

the authors themselves specify its appli-

cation to business, educational (Wallace,

2004) and management contexts (Prochaska

et al., 2001). The five stages of change are

depicted graphically in Figure 1.

Educational experiences of professional footballers 23

Prochaska and DiClemente propose that,

at each stage, individuals exhibit a different

mindset about their behaviour, as well as

varying degrees of motivation and demon-

strable commitment to change. They argue

that, at key stages, carefully designed inter-

ventions can assist individuals to move

through the change process towards the ulti-

mate goal of maintaining a desired lifestyle in

the long term. Although intended to be read

in a clockwise fashion, commencing at pre-

contemplation, to contemplation, action,

maintenance and relapse, Prochaska and

DiClemente argue that at any point, individ-

uals can return to either the previous stage,

or even to the beginning. Another key

feature (and advantage) of this model is

that, ‘by discriminating different stages of

readiness for change’, those delivering inter-

ventions are made aware that, ‘different skills

are needed’ (Miller and Rollnick, 1991, p. 15)

at each stage of change. In the following dis-

cussion, the appropriateness of the stages of

change model for the Scottish professional

football labour market is considered in

more detail.

At the pre-contemplation stage, Prochaska

and DiClemente identify individuals who

are either unwilling or unable to contemplate

changing their current (normally

Fig. 1. Stages of change. Source: Adapted from Prochaska and Diclemente (1983)

24 McGillivray

deleterious) lifestyle habits. Taken in the pro-

fessional football context, these individuals

are likely to have afforded little thought to

their level of educational attainment and

assigned little value to accessing opportu-

nities for educational development offered

by either their football clubs or players’

trade union (SPFA). Despite others expres-

sing concern about their lack of engagement

with educational discourses and alternative

career possibilities (e.g. their union repre-

sentative), the individual concerned is unli-

kely to share this viewpoint. Instead, they

are likely to be dismissive of the need to

invest in an alternative future. At this stage,

change is not yet an issue deemed worthy

of serious consideration.

In contrast, at the contemplation, or

ambivalence stage (Miller and Rollnick,

1991) individuals are beginning to experi-

ence conflict about the appropriateness of

their existing behaviour. Again, in the pro-

fessional football context, they might have

been made aware of the potentially negative

outcomes resulting from their lack of engage-

ment with educational discourses but

remain unsure as to whether they really

want to or can change their habits. They

remain unconvinced of the merits of change

and are yet to ascribe the appropriate value

to educational discourses in order to bring

about lifestyle change. This stage is some-

times referred to as the comfort zone,

where the scales are evenly balanced

between passive inaction and active

change. So, whilst change is considered,

there are no guarantees that action will

follow.

Nevertheless, if the individual has been

made aware that he is in danger of being

left high and dry, bereft of the necessary

skills and attributes for alternative employ-

ment, then he might be ready to enter the

contemplation stage. However, should there

be no acknowledgement of the value of

change, he is unlikely to be influenced by

the type of interventions being offered by

governing agencies. In short, at this stage,

it is necessary to win hearts and minds

(Peters and Waterman, 1982) before worth-

while contemplation is likely.

Prochaska and DiClemente (1983) define

the action stage as the point at which individ-

uals are ready and willing to change

their behaviour. Actions speak louder than

words as participation in an educational or

continuing professional development initiat-

ive tests the commitment of the individual

to change. However, on a cautionary note, it

is here that negative cultural baggage (Char-

lesworth, 2000) might be laid bare, as individ-

uals enter potentially alien environments

that they might have left some years earlier

with largely negative associations (e.g.

school). As a result, the potential for resist-

ance is high and the likelihood of failure

heightened. For this reason, Prochaska and

DiClemente suggest that providing suppor-

tive, communitarian environments is the

most effective means of reinforcing action.

Yet, there are also hazards associated with

reinforcing the cotton-wool culture or total

institution (Goffman, 1961) of the football

club. It is worth remembering that, in the

action stage, the new learner is likely to

be experiencing high levels of anxiety,

especially if he has been taken out of the

closed shop of the football club into the

‘real’ world.

For Prochaska and DiClemente, the main-

tenance or consolidation stage requires con-

sistent and ongoing effort on behalf of both

the producers and consumers of interven-

tions. For recent returnees to education,

sustainable change is only likely after the

individual has been able to maintain their

new identity as a learner and react differently

to old situations which might, in the past,

have caused them to abandon their studies.

Across the entire stages of change model

there is a risk that negative moods (e.g.

anxiety, depression, boredom) will detract

from positive learning behaviour and tempt

the individual to return to old habits. The

Educational experiences of professional footballers 25

maintenance stage is concerned with ensur-

ing that the necessary support networks

are in place so that new patterns of beha-

viour are allowed to emerge.

As part of the process of developing a new

identity, it is more than likely that the indi-

vidual will experience feelings of discomfort

and inadequacy as they distance themselves

from their past experiences and acquain-

tances. Those delivering interventions in

the professional football industry need to

be cautious not to reinforce feelings of iso-

lation as individuals move into previously

unexplored environments. Other research

investigations have already shown that the

masculinized dressing room culture can act

to isolate those players interested in break-

ing the mould and engaging with discourses

of education (see Gearing, 1999).

In some respects, the need for support at

the maintenance stage is greater than ever,

especially as relationships with family and

friends can also become strained by the

additional commitments (financial and

emotional) required when lapsed learners

re-engage with educational discourses. To

alleviate these worries, positive reinforce-

ment is vital, as is the presence of other lear-

ners who have returned to education in a

similar manner. Drawing positive feelings of

self-worth and achievement from edu-

cational engagement will allow the individual

to identify with others as well as maintain his

motivation to progress.

Although in their five stage model,

Prochaska and DiClemente include a relapse

stage, it is not included in this particular

evaluation of the Scottish professional foot-

ball industry. As the Scottish professional

game’s engagement with LL and continuing

professional development is relatively

recent, it is not possible to effectively evalu-

ate evidence of this final stage in the

change process. Instead, the final com-

ponent of the theoretical framework is con-

cerned with a discussion of those

techniques developed to facilitate

progression through the four key stages of

change described above. Miller and Roll-

nick’s (1991) work on motivation and brief

interventions are pertinent here. They

assert that, although the ‘stages of change’

model is undoubtedly valuable, it must be

considered alongside a range of motivational

techniques if change processes are to be

truly effective. It is worth briefly identifying

some of the motivational strategies they

propose and their appropriateness for this

particular research investigation.

Miller and Rollnick’s motivational tech-

niques act as the engine of change designed

to increase the likelihood that an individual

will follow a recommended action. They

propose seven motivational techniques.

First, they argue that the giving of clear

advice helps individuals to make the

decision about change. Second, the removal

of attitudinal and practical barriers is

deemed vital in motivating individuals to

progress through the different stages of

change, especially important in the forma-

tive period (i.e. from pre-contemplation

through contemplation to action). Third,

providing choice is also important, as long

as individuals are not coerced to take a

particular course of action. As Miller and

Rollnick (1991, p. 23) argue, ‘offering clients

a choice among alternative approaches may

decrease resistance and dropout, and may

improve both compliance and outcome’.

Fourth, decreasing desirability, particularly

important at the contemplation stage,

refers to approaches which seek to

promote the benefits of change whilst stres-

sing the costs of the status quo. The role of

peer groups (e.g. other football players)

and family networks in increasing the desir-

ability of educational discourses will be

central to the effectiveness of this motiva-

tional technique. Fifth, practising empathy

is concerned with developing a reflective

listening approach, whereby the individual

is made to feel that they are understood. In

a similar vein, Miller and Rollnick also

26 McGillivray

suggest that providing positive feedback on

progress represents an extremely useful

motivational technique which, alongside

the regular clarification of goals, can help

the individual to self-evaluate and, ulti-

mately, self-regulate. Finally, the principle of

active helping is intended to affirm an inter-

est in the individual’s change process. This

might involve the individual in regular

contact with a learner representative or

someone from their football club who acts

as an interested party, encouraging partici-

pation and giving approval for positive

outcomes.

Alongside these motivational techniques,

Miller and Rollnick (1991, p. 35) also

promote the positive role played by ‘inter-

personal interaction’, brief interventions, in

maintaining motivation for change. Brief

interventions are, as the label suggests, nor-

mally relatively fleeting or momentary inter-

actions held with individuals. They can be

undertaken by non-specialists, eliminating

some of barriers associated with formal

treatment or counselling interventions. In

the football context it is likely that employ-

ees of the football club, union officials,

other players, friends and/or family

members would undertake brief interven-

tions. Although some of these groups may

receive formal training, they are normally

lay people with regular access to the

players, whether due to formal or informal

ties. As a result, ‘they are able to bypass

the problem of stigmatization that so often

prevents people from using specialist ser-

vices’ (Miller and Rollnick, 1991, p. 203).

Having reviewed the conceptual appropri-

ateness of the stages of change model,

related motivational techniques and brief

interventions (Miller and Rollnick, 1991), it is

now necessary to employ these theoretical

tools to evaluate the effectiveness of the SLL

for the Scottish professional football industry.

METHODOLOGY

The chosen research strategy facilitated an

evaluation of the Scottish professional foot-

ball industry’s provision of educational

opportunities for its labour force. A two-

level strategy was employed. First, the

opinions of strategic stakeholders within

the professional game in Scotland were

sought, utilising the elite interview method

(Saunders et al., 2003). Specifically, those

actors with a stake in promoting or financing

further educational opportunities for foot-

ballers were the target of investigations.

Interviews ‘provide data on understandings,

opinions, what people think’ and they

concentrate on ‘the distinctive features of

situations and events’ (Arksey and Knight,

1999, pp. 2–3). Given that these interviews

were conducted with those in strategic

positions within the Scottish professional

football industry, care was taken to negotiate

meaningful access and source background

knowledge of the interviewee (Arksey and

Knight, 1999). In total, five elite interviews

were carried out with representatives from

those agencies responsible for governing

the Scottish professional football industry

(see Table 1).

The second substantive fieldwork phase

was an in-depth, single case study (Donmoyer,

2000) exploration of a Scottish League

Division One club. This club is at the fore-

front of attempts to facilitate a lifelong

learning culture throughout its labour force.

Gomm et al. (2000) assert that case study

enquiries serve various purposes. First,

although often criticized for their lack of gen-

eralizability (see Donmoyer, 2000) and

unscientific status (Gomm et al., 2000), they

are useful in explaining the uniqueness of a

particular situation (i.e. the club’s approach

towards lifelong learning). Moreover, they

also facilitate the investigation of an issue,

event or, in this case, an institution, in con-

siderable depth. In some instances, they

can also be used to illustrate a theoretical

Educational experiences of professional footballers 27

point (e.g. stages of change) through an in-

depth exploration of a specific unit (in this

case a football club).

As Yin (1991, p. 14) suggests, the case study

approach allows access to, ‘real-life events,

such as individual life cycles, organizational

and managerial processes’. So, case studies

are a useful mechanism for accruing large

amounts of information about institutions

‘across a wide range of dimensions’ (Gomm

et al., 2000, p. 2). The single case study tech-

nique is well used in the study of organiz-

ations (Alvesson and Deetz, 2000), due to

the depth of information and ability to inves-

tigate a specific group in fine detail, providing

the platform to produce ‘a coherent and illu-

minating description of and perspective on a

situation’ (Schofield, 2000).

For Alvesson and Deetz (2000, p. 192), the

case study approach relies ‘mainly on inter-

views and observation of real settings for

getting empirical material . . . in addition,

archival material and secondary sources . . .may be useful’. The case study method can,

then, incorporate a range of methods for

investigating and, being reflexive towards,

the empirical material gathered in the field.

Following two visits to the case study club,

Falkirk FC, to observe the facilities available

for educational engagement and the sup-

plementary documentation produced to

support the educational programme; ten

short individual interviews were conducted

with professional players at different stages

in their careers (i.e. young apprentices,

established professionals and senior pro-

fessionals). Interviews were conducted at

the players’ training complex and restricted

to 15 minutes so as not to interfere with

their club commitments.

Falkirk FC, plying its trade in the

Scottish League Division One, was chosen as

the subject of investigation for a number of

reasons. First, this club was one of the first

to sign up to the new version of the SPFA’s

Modern Apprenticeship scheme, an indi-

cation of its commitment to the educational

needs of its employees. Moreover, this was

the first club into which the SPFA appointed

two learning representatives, another demon-

strable commitment to the construction of a

lifelong learning culture within the club. This

club also has a clearly defined educational fra-

mework through which its players progress

as they move from youth player, to estab-

lished professional and finally to senior pro-

fessional status. Finally, the club has been

lauded as a success story with 27 out of its

38 players engaged in some form of education

course in 2004.

LEARNING LESSONS: THE CHANGINGFACE OF SCOTTISH FOOTBALL

The research study findings point to poten-

tially significant changes taking place within

the Scottish professional football industry

in relation to its commitment to the labour

force (there are approximately 1000 pro-

fessionals plying their trade in the Scottish

professional leagues). Formerly, individual

clubs provided some career development

support to individual players on a largely

ad hoc and reactive basis, often in response

Table 1 Governance agencies’ sample

Name Position

Warren Hawke Scottish Professional Footballers Association Educational Co-ordinatorTom Docherty Scottish Football Association Educational OfficerDavid Thomson Scottish Football LeagueIain Blair Scottish Premier LeagueTony Coultas Enterprise and Lifelong Learning, Scottish Executive

28 McGillivray

to career threatening injury. On the whole

the industry suffered from the absence of a

comprehensive strategy on lifelong learning

supported by the game’s strategic stake-

holders (i.e. Scottish Football Association,

Scottish Premier League, Scottish Football

League, Scottish Professional Footballers

Association and the clubs). However, this

has now been addressed with the production

of the collaborative SLL led by the SPFA in

partnership with other key agencies drawn

from the football, education and employ-

ment fields. The game’s governing body, the

Scottish Football Association (SFA) has

been actively involved in the production of

this strategy:

We operate it from here with the assistance

of the Scottish Executive and Learn Direct

for Scotland, the Career Service is in there

and also the players unions themselves.

Very much a heavy involvement and it is a

partnership which has gone forward. (SFA

Educational Officer)

The strategy is funded to the tune of

£100,000 through the Scottish Union Learn-

ing Fund (SULF) under the management of

the SPFA. The principal objectives of this

strategy are laid out in Table 2. Fundamen-

tally, it is designed to hasten culture

change within the professional game

across Scotland. It is, in this respect, an

openly normative project which seeks to

embed a learning culture within the pro-

fessional game at every level. Two of the

strategy’s champions articulate its vision,

arguing:

We are probably in a 10–15 year cycle to

change the culture within football but come

10 years time we are going to be most of

the way there. I think for a football club to

see these players getting churned out the

game on a regular basis, I think a lot of

Table 2 Objectives of Scottish Union Learning Fund Round 3 bid, ‘scoring career goals for footballemployees in scotland’

To appoint a SPFA SULF Co-ordinator to establish a learning representative network to support lifelonglearning in the industry

To pilot a programme of learning representative training and development with SFL/SPL clubsTo establish collaborative relationships with Careers Scotland; the enterprise networks, SUfI, and other key

stakeholders such as the emerging Sector Skills Councils/NTOs and Sport ScotlandTo secure the co-operation of and joint working with SFA, SPL and SFL on career transition planning and

lifelong learning for all employees in the industryTo investigate with Careers Scotland and the University of Paisley the feasibility of providing a web-enabled

information, advice and guidance service for members and other employeesTo establish in the longer term working relations with the emerging Football Academies and where possible

seek to extend their role to encompass provision of lifelong learning services to older footballers and otherfootball employees

To research the learning needs of players and other employees including literacy, numeracy, core skills andinformation technology and identify means of meeting these needs perhaps through on line learning andshared learning facilities for clubs

To develop and deliver, in collaboration with the STUC’s recently appointed Adult Literacy/Numeracy Co-ordinator, programmes consistent with the objectives and goals set out in the Scottish Executive StrategyReport ‘Adult Literacy and Numeracy in Scotland’

To disseminate information about the project and raise awareness so that more clubs and individualemployees take up guidance and learning opportunities

To work with relevant FE/HE providers and training organizations in Scotland to remove barriers to learningand enhance the potential for growing the learning market within the football sector

Educational experiences of professional footballers 29

their consciousnesses will be woken up . . . I

want the lifelong learning not to be from 16

to whenever, I want it to be from 13–14, I

want them to know the importance of their

education when they are joining the club.

(SPFA Educational Co-ordinator)

What I do know is that the entire culture and

the responsive attitude of the players is

changing. (SFA Educational Officer)

Whereas these objectives are no doubt laud-

able and beyond reproach, it remains ques-

tionable whether they are realistic,

achievable and will lead to worthwhile

change in the Scottish professional game.

Until now, their outcomes remain unclear

and largely unsubstantiated. In evaluating

its early performance, it is worth subjecting

the SLL to the ‘test’ of Prochaska and

DiClemente’s (1983) stages of change model

and associated motivational and brief inter-

vention techniques. The early signs are

promising, given that within the strategy pro-

posal itself the SPFA identifies itself as a

‘change agent and influencer, promoting

learning partnerships with clubs and other

strategic allies as well as encouraging inno-

vation in guidance and learning delivery’

(SPFA, 2003).

The rhetoric suggests that those agencies

governing Scottish football are at least con-

vinced of the need for change. However, it

is now necessary to consider in more detail

how this strategy will facilitate change pro-

cesses from pre-contemplation, through

action to maintenance. Only then is it poss-

ible to effectively evaluate whether the

changes afoot are merely superficial or

more meaningful and sustainable.

RAISING AWARENESS: THEPRE-CONTEMPLATION STAGE

At the pre-contemplation stage of change,

Prochaska and DiClemente (1983) assert

that individuals are either unwilling or

unable to contemplate changing their

lifestyles, largely because they assign low

value to the behaviour change expected of

them. For this research investigation, the

relative value attached to educational dis-

courses is of particular interest. Despite irre-

vocable evidence of a contracting Scottish

football labour market (Fisher, 2002), the

research to date indicates that a significant

proportion of players have yet to think

about the implications of their relative

dearth of educational qualifications and

lack of employability competencies (see

McGillivray et al., 2005). This research indi-

cated that players accord little value to edu-

cation, instead continuing to concentrate

fully on their apparently inevitable football

careers. Although urged to face up to the

looming threat of unemployment by organiz-

ations like the SPFA, players remain largely

dismissive of the need to invest in an alterna-

tive future.

The problems encountered in persuading

players of the merits of education are

neither recent nor restricted to this sport.

However, a significant literature exists on

the barriers to educational performance in

the world of football. Some authors blame

immersion in a masculinized game

(Gearing, 1999) where intellectual curiosity

is accorded effeminate status (Dunning,

1999) for the difficulties experienced, whilst

others lay the blame with a lack of support

and encouragement from the clubs them-

selves (Kremer et al., 1997; Coakley, 1998;

Whannel, 2002). Our research findings indi-

cate that both perspectives have some

merit. The SPFA’s Educational Co-ordinator

encounters some real difficulties in penetrat-

ing the football industry:

The main problem you have got in football is

anti-educational culture and . . . if you’ve got

a negative education opinion-former, wow,

it’s infectious and you’ve got a problem

there . . . football is all about living in a

bubble. You eat together, you play together,

you train together, you socialize together

30 McGillivray

and getting outside of this bubble is half the

battle

For negative opinion-formers this anti-

intellectualism (Williams, 1995) is both

normal and acceptable. In fact, within the

professional football industry possession of

educational cultural capital (Bourdieu and

Passeron, 1977) is often deemed unwelcome

and threatening. One footballer recounts the

story of being freed from his first club 3

weeks after he told them he was unwilling to

sign a full-time contract with them, ‘it was

basically sign or you are released’ (estab-

lished professional). In attempting to reach

those in the pre-contemplation stage, this

tale is illustrative, alluding to an institutiona-

lized disregard for the longer term. This

concurs with Wacquant’s (1995, p. 73) view

that, in the sporting world, ‘practical labour’

(e.g. footballing ability and physique) is

valued more highly than the cultural capital

conferred in the formal educational field.

Even when Scottish football’s governing

body tries to spread the word about the edu-

cational opportunities and support services

available, there are those who are more than

willing to discredit it, ‘a comment I heard

not any more than a week ago, from some-

body who was introducing me. By the way

this is Tommy, he trains footballers not to

be footballers’ (SFA Educational Officer).

The difficulties experienced in encoura-

ging engagement are exacerbated at certain

age groups. For example, whereas all 16–18-

year-old youth players are now required to

undertake some form of education with

their clubs as a condition of their apprentice

contract, the prescriptive element of this dis-

appears once a full-time professional con-

tract is secured. Once players reach this

milestone neither the clubs nor the learning

agencies can prescribe participation. Reach-

ing these pre-contemplators is the—often

thankless—task of the SPFA’s Educational

co-ordinator, ‘between 19 and 23 this is just

the “bury your head in the sand” time,

everything will be fine . . . there is a huge

gulf in the middle between 19–23 which is

my banging the head off the wall stage’.

Notwithstanding these dilemmas, the

introduction of the SLL has addressed some

of the obstacles to educational engagement

encountered at the pre-contemplation

stage. The use of motivational techniques

has been integral to this change. The SPFA,

in collaboration with Careers Scotland, has

secured funding to place a host of learner

representatives in every professional club

in Scotland to encourage players to progress

from the pre-contemplation to contempla-

tion stage. These representatives are respon-

sible for providing frontline information and

learning advice to players so as to encourage

greater take-up of learning opportunities.

Allied to the SPFA’s improved marketing

communications, the hope is that players

will become better informed, not only of

the threats posed by changes in the labour

market, but also of the emerging opportu-

nities to register on educational programmes

at little or no cost to the individual. The SPFA

now produces and distributes a quarterly

newsletter, Extra Time, to every Scottish pro-

fessional player and club employee. This

newsletter contains information about the

why, what, where and when of learning

opportunities. At this stage, the interven-

tions are for the most part laissez-faire, con-

cerned with raising awareness and sowing

the seeds of doubt within the minds of the

pre-contemplators.

CONTEMPLATING CHANGE:‘WHAT’S IN IT FOR ME?’

In the earlier discussion of Prochaska and

DiClemente’s (1983) contemplation stage, it

was suggested that this is an extremely sensi-

tive, transitional stage, where the risk of

failure competes with the allure of success.

For professional footballers, it is a stage rep-

resented by conflict about the future direc-

tion of their lives. The research study

Educational experiences of professional footballers 31

findings indicate that awareness of the

finance predicament facing the Scottish

game is slowly seeping through to players.

This is illustrated in the comments of the

following players:

Yeah, the boys now are becoming aware of

the fact that the most you’re getting is a

year contract. So players now realize that

they’ve got to be going and getting other qua-

lifications. They would be mad not to. (Estab-

lished professional)

I mean look at the state of football. Three or 4

years ago you could get freed from a club and

you would get another club no problem, but

at the end of the season there are now

maybe 200 or 300 guys out of work . . . it is

important that you do get some sort of quali-

fications. (Established professional)

I’ve noticed it’s changed here a lot . . . prob-

ably next week there will be about 300 boys

getting freed from clubs with nothing.

(Learner representative, senior professional)

Somewhat paradoxically, the heightened

sense of awareness amongst players benefits

those trying to embed a lifelong learning

culture within the Scottish professional foot-

ball industry. They are now in a better pos-

ition to exert an influence than they were

when players felt their professional footbal-

ler status was inevitable (Gearing, 1999).

The SPFA’s Educational Co-ordinator

reinforces this point, arguing that:

I probably wouldn’t have had the success

that I’ve had if it hadn’t been for the

current football industry climate. It’s a good

springboard and players are all scared, and

when players are all scared they are looking

for the next contract and they might have

had a wee scare this summer.

Yet, whereas Prochaska and DiClemente (1983)

insist that contemplation is a pre-requisite for

active change they also assert that, at this

stage, individuals are likely to remain uncertain

or unconvinced of the merits of changing their

behaviour and, perhaps, unsure of their ability

to do so. For this reason, at the contemplation

stage, the careful design of interventions is

imperative. The appointment of the SPFA’s Edu-

cational Co-ordinator in 2003 and the sub-

sequent recruitment of a series of learner

representatives from within the clubs them-

selves each represent important

developments.

Learner representatives are particularly

influential as they actively preach the

message within the clubs, breaking down

the age-old problems associated with

impenetrable dressing room cultures

(Williams, 1995). These representatives act

as are friendly faces who participate in brief

interventions (Miller and Rollnick, 1991),

communicating with players and promoting

the beneficial outcomes they themselves

have enjoyed from an engagement with edu-

cational discourses. They have the added

advantage of being respected by their

peers, overcoming obstacles associated

with other professional experts (Miller and

Rollnick, 1991). Benefits accrue on at least

two-levels. First, for those trying to penetrate

the shield around the collective (team) iden-

tity often found within clubs:

The fact is that there is a contact, a contact

that I can turn round and speak to now as

opposed to lifting a phone and speaking to

a stranger. (SFA, Educational Officer)

We did very well with Falkirk . . . two

respected guys in the dressing room. (SPFA

Educational Co-ordinator)

The other significant factor was Warren’s

appointment of the learner reps because

that gave me a receptive face in the dressing

room as opposed to, ‘we’re not interested’.

(Falkirk FC Director)

Second, motivationally, the learner represen-

tative role has been invaluable in relaying

advice to those contemplating change,

removing barriers (e.g. by providing a wel-

coming environment), raising awareness of

choice and practicing empathy:

32 McGillivray

Warren [SPFA Educational Officer] was saying

it’s just like an in-between guy for him . . .you’ve got the young boys here and it’s just

maybe to keep track on them. Watch out

how they’re getting on. (Learner representa-

tive, senior professional)

Well it was Craig [the learner representative]

that started it. I’d never heard anything

about any of this until Craig came and said

this is an option some of you can do if you

want. (Established professional)

Well Craig (the learner representative) gives

a lot; he always asks how we’re getting on.

(Young apprentice)

Each of these qualities fits with Miller and

Rollnick’s (1991) advice on appropriate moti-

vational techniques for facilitating change.

One of the key motivational themes they

identify is providing credible choice to

ensure that individuals can construct their

own future educational or career paths.

Engendering choice is also an essential

feature of the SLL promoted by the SPFA

and its fellow agents of change. Players are

now permitted to choose the most appropri-

ate route back into, or continuation of, edu-

cation, avoiding prescription in the course

of studies selected. To this end, the SPFA

has used SULF funding to roll out a newly

designed Modern Apprenticeship scheme

which enables 16–18-year-olds to follow an

individualized programme of studies which

best suits their position on the stages of

change model. Previously, all young recruits

signed up to a Scottish Vocational Qualifica-

tion (SVQ) in Sport and Recreation. As a

result, they were treated a homogenous

group with identical learning needs. The

more flexible programme of studies now

enables the SPFA to:

Get our players on whatever is flexible for

them . . . the sport and recreation courses

that have been on offer to apprentices pre-

vious to now and the courses that one quali-

fication fits all, I think was the biggest waste

of money ever. I think it had probably been

relevant to 10% of the players. (SPFA Edu-

cational Co-ordinator)

Certainly the available evidence relating to

forced participation in learning suggests

that it is given little value by players and is,

more often than not, simply used as a

vehicle for clowning around (Monk, 2000).

Miller and Rollnick also caution against coer-

cion as a strategy for change. They reject

standardization, instead arguing that, ‘offer-

ing clients a choice among alternative

approaches may decrease resistance and

dropout, and may improve both compliance

and outcome’ (1991, pp. 22–23). Once you

have a captive audience, aware of the value

of the stakes in the game, then persuasion

becomes much more effective. However,

turning contemplation into action remains a

daunting challenge for the governing

agencies. It is at this phase that the specific,

contextualized design of learning opportu-

nities is of paramount concern.

SECURING ACTIVE CHANGE:‘THIS IS FUN’

As the preceding discussion demonstrates,

providing a choice of alternatives is para-

mount if players are to convert their ambiva-

lent contemplation into sustainable action

(i.e. participation in a learning experience).

Prochaska and DiClemente (1983) insist

that, whilst individuals at this stage often

present as ready and willing to contemplate

change, the real test of an individual’s

commitment is sustained participation in a

programme of studies. The SLL makes pro-

vision so that providers can eliminate the

most common barriers standing in the way

of active participation (Miller and Rollnick,

1991). These might include cost, lack of

choice and learning anxiety. To this end,

the careful design and delivery of pro-

grammes is vital.

The research study findings indicate that,

by opening up avenues of choice, players

Educational experiences of professional footballers 33

are more able to make the transition from

contemplation to action. The following com-

ments support this perspective:

I think a while ago at clubs they used to

give boys courses and you had to do it

regardless but I think now that there’s

the choice you can do something you’re

interested in then obviously you are going

to stick at it. (Learner representative,

senior professional)

I did the Scotvec modules and it was basi-

cally just going to class and there’s your

module. It was a waste of time basically, the

teacher was basically telling you what to

write on your sheets. I think at least some

of them now are at least getting a choice.

(Established professional)

So we’ve all got different things to do, like,

we’ve all got a choice anyway so it’s our

choice so it’s not as if we are forced to do

something, so it’s all sort of enjoyable.

(Young professional)

Players used to be forced to undertake stan-

dardized courses because youth football

funding was tied to the acquisition of a par-

ticular qualification (the SVQ Sport and

Recreation). In other words, if clubs wished

to provide alternative opportunities for

their players, they had to incur a financial

penalty for this decision. It is, however, all

well and good providing players with a

wide range of choice in courses, but there

are other barriers to educational engage-

ment which must also be overcome for

action to be meaningful. One of these is

cost, not only the direct financial outlay,

but also the opportunity costs associated

with participation. The SPFA and its partners

have sought to remove the former in the way

in which it subsidizes players’ attendance on

courses:

The European Computer Driving Licence

(ECDL), ended up costing the boys a little

amount but . . . if they had done it themselves

in a college it would have cost them a couple

of hundred pounds. (Learner representative,

senior professional)

The course is meant to be £99. The SPFA con-

tributed two-thirds of that £66 and the club

on completion will give you the other £33

so it’s not going to cost the players anything.

(Established professional)

Another opportunity cost of participation in

an educational programme is the loss of free-

time. Moreover, the desirability of changing

behaviour can also be reduced by the fear

of embarrassment and anxiety caused by

returning to, what for most, will be an alien

environment. In dealing with the latter,

Falkirk FC have retained a collective sense

of identity by organizing courses attended

by a group of players. This approach

proved advantageous in securing partici-

pation from potential laggards:

You’ll maybe be willing to say I’ll go and do a

college course next year but it ends up in

good intentions and you don’t go and do it.

But once there are a few of you involved it

makes it easier for you to go as well (Senior

professional)

Because it’s a group . . . if I was going to

college myself and I was turning up and I

knew I was going to be myself, some days

I’m like that, I can’t be bothered. See maybe

if there are three or four of you travelling

together and a couple of them want to go

that day it makes it harder for you not to

go. (Established professional)

This desire for group learning modes can,

however, be problematic for the longer-

term sustainability of programmes. As

Coakley (2001) elsewhere has argued, many

elite sports performers have never lived

outside the culture of elite sport. Team

sports in particular require a ‘disciplined

and collective’ (Gearing, 1999, p. 47)

approach facilitated through a series of

formal (rules and codes of behaviour) and

informal (eating and socializing together)

procedures implemented on behalf of the

club. However, these restrictions on

34 McGillivray

autonomy and individuality in favour of a col-

lective approach have implications for the

possibility of sustainable change in an edu-

cational sense.

The lack of individualism can be a barrier

to creativity and the generation of self-

responsibility, both of which are recognized

as being crucial in the maintenance of

change (Miller and Rollnick, 1991). Yet, con-

versely, another way of encouraging retur-

nees to learning is to ensure that they are

not immediately de-motivated, or put into

situations where their levels of anxiety

about learning are heightened:

I see the European Computer Driving Licence

as a wee ice breaker because what you’ve got

there is seven modules and each test is some-

thing like 15 minutes, you’ve got 35 minutes

to do it but 15 minutes and most guys pass

so if you’ve had bad experience at school at

you hated exams and hated tests then I just

think it’s that wee ice breaker. (SPFA Edu-

cational Co-ordinator)

Miller and Rollnick (1991) rate anxiety as one

of the most common reasons for individuals

failing to maintain their new lifestyles. They

recommend the provision of supportive

environments as a pre-requisite for reinfor-

cing the value of action. It is now worth com-

pleting the evaluation of the SLL by briefly

discussing the maintenance of new identities

in learners.

MAINTAINING NEW IDENTITIES

Although the maintenance stage of change is

a key element of Prochaska and DiClemente’s

model, for this particular research investi-

gation, it is difficult to evaluate the effects

of the SLL because of its relatively recent

introduction to the Scottish professional

football industry. Nevertheless, it is possible

to make interim comments about the extent

to which action is consolidated through the

strategy. Miller and Rollnick (1991) argue

that providing positive feedback on progress

is a crucial motivational tool in maintaining

new behaviours. Maintenance interventions

include the presence of support mechan-

isms, incentive schemes, rewards, ongoing

financial support, work experience opportu-

nities and the development of career

pathways.

The SLL makes provision for a number of

these mechanisms, many of which have

been discussed already (e.g. subsidized

courses, learner representative training, dis-

tribution of newsletter and extended choice

of courses). However, there remain innumer-

able obstacles to overcome if a lifelong learn-

ing culture is to be truly embedded within

the Scottish game, evidenced by the follow-

ing comment from the SFA’s Educational

Officer:

I’ve had reluctance from the educational pro-

fession in the wider sense . . . I’ve had reluc-

tance from players, I’ve had reluctance from

clubs. . .I’ve had reluctance from the SPL the

SFL, I’ve had reluctance from referees . . .yes there are 101 flaws, I know fine well

some of the players don’t turn up at college

I know that, I know that they don’t partake

in some of the classes that they are attending

Nevertheless, despite this reluctance, the

research study findings from Falkirk FC illus-

trate that securing the support of the club

hierarchy is imperative. Senior personnel

within this club (i.e. Directors and manage-

ment staff) are now more aware of the advan-

tages for their players and the club itself in

supporting educational opportunities. In

fact, the development of a comprehensive

learning strategy has a market value to

Falkirk FC. It uses its educational programme

to sell itself to prospective new recruits:

I want the best players possible to sign for

Falkirk, what I don’t want to go into a house

and for them simply to pick the team that

their dad supports or the team that’s

highest up the league. Forget where we are

in the league; who’s going to look after your

Educational experiences of professional footballers 35

son better than anyone else—us—send them

to us. (Falkirk FC Director)

There are also signs of progress in quantitat-

ive terms. 25 Scottish professional clubs now

have formal Apprenticeship schemes, and 16

of these are signed up to the new flexible pro-

gramme being supported and funded by the

SPFA and its partners. Anecdotal evidence

also supports the ongoing impact of the

reforms, especially their organic and incre-

mental nature. In order to maintain a new

learning culture in the Scottish professional

game, the support of the clubs, the govern-

ing agencies and the media are essential.

The SFA’s Educational Officer believes this

support is growing:

Strangers are coming in, people who are

very influential in the game are seeing what

is going on. They are recognizing that there

is change, they maybe don’t know who is

behind it and maybe don’t fully understand

it but they like what they are seeing and

they like the impact that it’s having.

Although it will be some time before the main-

tenance stage can be accurately evaluated,

the new SLL does emphasize the importance

of continuous monitoring and evaluation of

the delivery of learning opportunities. This

provides an opportunity for longitudinal

research into whether the culture changes

predicted by the SPFA’s Educational Co-

ordinator are a realistic outcome.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

This paper set out to evaluate the delivery of

learning opportunities for footballers within

the confines of the Scottish professional

football industry. It utilized Prochaska and

DiClemente’s (1983) ‘stages of change’ model

and Miller and Rollnick’s (1991) ‘motivational’

and ‘brief intervention’ techniques to con-

sider the extent to which the Scottish pro-

fessional game has successfully embedded a

lifelong learning culture within its labour

force.

Whilst any attempt to initiate cultural

change is, by definition, a slow process, the

research findings indicate that, by introdu-

cing carefully designed interventions aimed

at particular stages of change, professional

footballers can be encouraged to participate

in meaningful learning activities for the dur-

ation of their football careers. That Scottish

football’s key governing agencies have colla-

borated in the production of a Strategy for

Lifelong Learning is itself illustrative, demon-

strating a seeping realization within the

game of a wider responsibility for preparing

players for alternative futures.

The strategy is consistent with Prochaska

and DiClemente’s stages of change model

and contains a number of Miller and

Rollnick’s motivational techniques. Crucially,

the strategy proposes distinctive interven-

tions designed to meet the needs of players

with diverse experiences of formal edu-

cation. The case study findings demonstrate

that players are more likely to progress

through the stages of educational change

when motivational techniques are intro-

duced at the most apposite time and with

the appropriate level of financial and pas-

toral support.

Although the appropriateness of the

stages of change model for the delivery of

educational opportunities in the football

industry must be corroborated by further

longitudinal research, the early signs indi-

cate that the Scottish football authorities

should persevere with the current strategy.

The advantages of this model are threefold.

First, it helps the football authorities to

develop a much more systematic and struc-

tured approach to addressing the significant

lifelong learning needs of young footballers.

Second, the model appreciates the range of

attitudes, skills and competencies that each

individual possesses. Until recently the Scot-

tish football authorities had adopted a

broad-brush approach to education which

failed to take cognisance of players’ differen-

tial motivations to change and the

36 McGillivray

availability of appropriate support networks.

Taken alongside Miller and Rollnick’s range

of brief intervention and motivational tech-

niques this model provides guidelines on

the design of appropriate learning interven-

tions for a diverse audience.

Finally, Prochaska and DiClemente’s model

is more appropriate than alternative

approaches because it is concerned with

incremental progress towards sustainable

behaviour change. In emphasizing the

importance of transitional stages rather

than fixed outcomes the additional flexibility

provides those delivering educational oppor-

tunities with the space to produce appropri-

ate, individually tailored, learning strategies.

This, it is proposed, will lead to meaningful

progress in engaging young footballers with

the benefits of lifelong learning.

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