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Page 1: Rm terminologies

TMK  &  KCS   1    

RESEARCH  METHODOLOGY  KEY  CONCEPTS  &  KEY  TERMS  

ee"ff      

CHAPTER  1:   RESEARCH:  A  WAY  OF  THINKING    

-­‐ Research   is   one   of   the   ways   to   find   answers   to   your   questions.   The   terms  research   composed   of   2   syllables:   re   and   search.   (re:   again,   anew;   search:  examine  closely,  to  test,  to  try  and  to  probe)    

-­‐ Rigorous   :   the   procedures   that   are   followed   to   find   answers   to  questions  are  relevant,  appropriate  and  justified.  

-­‐ Systematic   :   the  procedures  adopted  to  undertake  an  investigation  must  follow  certain  logical  sequences.  

-­‐ Empirical   :   conclusion   that   are   drawn   are   based   upon   hard   evidence  gathered  from  information  collected  from  real-­‐life  experiences  and  observations.  

-­‐ Pure  Research:   involves   developing   and   testing   theories   and   hypotheses  that   are   intellectually   challenging   to   the   researcher   but   may   or   may   not   have  practical  application  at  the  present  time  or  in  the  future.  

-­‐ Pure  Research  is  also  concerned  with  the  development;  examination  verification  and  refinement  of  research  methods,  procedures,  techniques  and  tools  that  form  the  body  of  research  methodology.  

-­‐ Descriptive  Research:   attempts   to   describe   systematically   a   situation,  problem,  phenomenon,  services…  

-­‐ Correlational  Research:   attempts   to   discover   or   establish   the   existence   of  relationship  between  two  or  more  aspect  of  situation.  

-­‐ Explanatory  Research:   attempts   to   clarify   why   and   how   there   is   a  relationship  between  two  aspects  of  situation  or  phenomenon.  

-­‐ Exploratory  Research:   to   explore   an   area   where   little   is   known   or   to  investigate  the  possibilities  of  undertaking  a  particular  research  study.  

-­‐ Structured  approach:   everything   that   forms   the   research   process-­‐objectives,  design,  sample…  are  predetermined.  

-­‐ Unstructured  approach:   allows  flexibility  in  all  these  aspect  of  process.  o Structured   approach   is   more   appropriate   to   determine   the   extent   of   a  

problem,  issue  or  phenomenon.  o Unstructured  approach  is  used  to  explore  its  nature.  

 CHAPTER  3:   LITERATURE  REVIEW  

 -­‐ Literature  review:   the  preliminary  tasks  when  you  undertake  a  research  study.  

You  need  to  go  through  the  existing  literature  in  order  to  acquaint  yourself  with  the  available  body  of  knowledge  in  your  area  of  interest.  

-­‐ Theoretical  framework:   the   structure   that   can   hold   or   support   a  theory  of   a  research   study.   The  theoretical   framework  introduces   and   describes   the   theory  that  explains  why  the  research  problem  under  study  exists.  

-­‐ Conceptual  framework:   stems   from   the   theoretical   framework   and  concentrates,  usually,  on  one  section  that  theoretical  framework  which  becomes  the  basis  of  your  research  study.  

 

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 CHAPTER  4:   LITERATURE  REVIEW    -­‐   Operational  Definition:   is  a  result  of  the  process  of  operationalization  and  is  

used   to  define  something   (e.g.  a  variable,   term,  or  object)   in   terms  of  a  process  (or   set   of   validation   tests)   needed   to   determine   its   existence,   duration,   and  quantity.  

 CHAPTER  5:   IDENTIFYING  VARIABLES    -­‐   Variables:   an   image,   perception   or   concept   that   is   capable   of  measurement;  

hence  capable  of  taking  on  different  values.  -­‐   Concept:   mental   images   or   perceptions;   therefore,   their   meaning   varies  

markedly  from  individual  to  individual.  -­‐   Measurability:   the  main  difference  between  a  variable  and  a  concept.  

• Concept   cannot   be   measured;   whereas,   variables   are   subjected   to  measurement.  

-­‐   Operationalization:     how  concept  can  be  measured.  -­‐   Indicators   :   a  set  of  criteria  reflective  of  the  concept.  -­‐   Independent  Variable   :   the   cause   suppose   to   be   responsible   for  

bringing  about  changes  in  a  phenomenon  or  situation.  -­‐   Dependent  Variable   :   the  outcome  of  the  changes  brought  about  by  

the  introduction  of  independent  variable.  -­‐   Extraneous  Variable   :   real  life  situation  factors  that  affect  changes  in  

dependent  variable.  -­‐   Intervening  Variable  (confounding  variable):   link   the   dependent   and  

independent  variable.  -­‐   Active  Variables   :   variables   that   can   be   manipulated,   changed   or  

controlled.  -­‐   Attribute  Variables  :   variables   that   cannot   be   manipulated,   changed   or  

controlled.  -­‐   Constant  Variable   :   when  a  variable  can  have  only  one  value  or  category.  -­‐   Dichotomous  Variable:   2   categories   as   in   YES/NO,   GOOD/BAD   and  

RICH/POOR  -­‐   Polytomous  Variable:   when   a   variable   can   be   divided   into   more   than   2  

categories.  -­‐   Continuous  Variable:   have  continuity  in  their  measurement.  -­‐   Nominal  Scale   :   enables   the   classification   of   individuals,   objects   or  

responses  based  on  a  common/shared  property  or  characteristics.  -­‐   Ordinal  Scale   :   has   all   properties   of   a   nominal   scale   plus   one   of   its  

own.  It  ranks  subgroup  in  a  certain  order.  -­‐   Interval  Scale   :   has   all   characteristics   of   an   ordinal   scale;   that   is,  

individuals   or   response   belonging   to   a   subcategories   are   arranged   in   an  ascending  or  descending  order.  

-­‐   Ratio  Scale     :   has   all   properties   of   nominal,   ordinal   and   interval  scales  plus  its  own  property:  the  zero  point  of  a  ratio  scale  is  fixed,  which  means  it  has  a  fixed  starting  point.  

     

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CHAPTER  6:   CONSTRUCTING  HYPOTHESES    -­‐   Hypothesis     :   a   proposition,   condition,   or   principle   which   is  

assumed,   perhaps  without   belief   in   order   to   draw   out   its   logical   consequences  and   by   this   method   to   test   its   accord   with   facts   which   are   known   or   may   be  determined.  

-­‐   Hypothesis     :   is   written   in   such   a   way   that   it   can   be   proven   or  disproven  by  valid  and  reliable  data.  

-­‐   Alternate  Hypothesis:   explicitly   specify   the   relationship   that   will   be  considered   as   true   in   case   the   research   hypothesis   proves   to   be   wrong;   other  words,  alternate  hypothesis  is  the  opposite  of  the  research  hypothesis.  

-­‐   Null  Hypothesis   :   is   usually  written   as  H0   ,  stipulating   that   there   is   no  difference   between   two   situations,   groups,   outcomes,   or   prevalence   of   a  condition  or  phenomenon.  

-­‐   Hypothesis  of  difference:   stipulates  that  there  will  be  a  difference  but  does  not  specify  its  magnitude.  

-­‐   Hypothesis   of   point-­‐prevalance:   Hypothesis   that   researcher   have   enough  knowledge   about   the   situation   or   the   treatment   and   its   outcome   to   speculate  almost  the  exact  prevalence  of  the  situation  or  the  treatment  or  the  outcome  of  a  treatment  in  quantitative  unit.    

-­‐   Hypothesis   of   association:   This   hypothesis   implies   on   the   extent   of   the  relationships  in  the  study  population  as  prevalence  of  a  phenomenon  in  different  population  groups.  

-­‐   Type  I  Error     :   rejection  of  null  hypothesis  when  it  is  true.  -­‐   Type  II  Error     :   acceptance  of  null  hypothesis  when  it  is  false.    

CHAPTER  7:      THE  RESEARCH  DESIGN      

-­‐ Research  design   :   is   a   plan,   structure   and   strategy   of   investigation   so  conceived  as  to  obtain  answer  to  research  question  or  problem.  

-­‐ Traditional   research   design:   is   a   blueprint   or   detail   plan   of   how   a   research  study   is   to   be   complete   _   operationalizing   variable   so   they   can   be   measured,  selecting  a   sample  of   interest   to   study,   collecting  data   to  be  used  as  a  basis   for  testing  hypotheses,  and  analyzing  the  result.  

-­‐ Independent  variable  :     any  variable  that   is  responsible  for  bringing  about  a  change.    

-­‐ Dependent  variable  :     the   change   in   the   degree   of   marital   problems   was  depend  upon  counseling.  

-­‐ Extraneous  variable:     all  other  factors  that  affect  the  relationship  between  marital  problem  and  counseling  

-­‐ Change  variable   :   change   in   the   dependent   variable   because   of   the  respondent’s  state  of  mood  or  ambiguity  in  the  research  instrument.  

-­‐ Change  or  Random  error  :  the  error  thus  introduced  in  the  change  variable.    

CHAPTER  8:   SELECTING  A  STUDY  DESIGN      

-­‐ Cross-­‐sectional  study:     this  design  is  best  suited  to  studies  aimed  at  finding  out   the   prevalence   of   a   phenomenon,   situation,   problem,   attitude   or   issue,   by  taking  a  cross-­‐section  of  the  population.  

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-­‐ Before  and  after  studies:     are  conducted  by  measuring  the  dependent  variable,  or  the  variable  caused  by  the  manipulated  independent  variable,  before  and  after  the  manipulation  has  occurred.    

-­‐ Longitudinal  study    :     is   an   observational   research   method   in   which   data   is  gathered  for  the  same  subjects  repeatedly  over  a  period  of  time.  

-­‐ Maturation  effect   :   the   effect   of   this   maturation,   if   it   is   significantly  correlated  with  the  dependent  variable,  is  reflected  at  the  “after”  observation.  

-­‐ Reactive  effect   :   when  the  instrument  itself  educates  the  respondents.  -­‐ Regression  effect   :   the  more  expression  of  an  attitude  in  response  to  the  

questionnaire  or   interview  has  cause  them  to  think  about  after  their  attitude  at  the  time  of  the  past  test.  

-­‐ Conditioning  effect  :   a   situation   where,   if   the   same   respondents   are  contacted   frequently,   they   begin   to   know   what   is   expected   of   them   and   may  respond   to   questions  without   though,   or   they  may   lose   interest   in   the   inquiry,  with  the  same  result.  

-­‐ Reference  effect   :   refer  to  the  time  frame  in  which  a  study  is  exploring  a  phenomenon,  situation,  event  or  problem  

-­‐ Retrospective   study   design:     studies   investigate   a   phenomenon,   situation   or  issue  that  has  happen  in  the  past.  

-­‐ Prospective  study  design:      studies   refer   to   the   likely   prevalence   of   a  phenomenon,  situation,  problem,  attitude  or  out  come  in  the  future.  

-­‐ Retrospective   prospective   study   design:   study   focus   on   the   past   trends   in   a  phenomenon  and  study  it  onto  the  past.  

-­‐ Experimental  study:     the  study  starts  from  the  cause  to  establish  the  effect.  -­‐ After  only  experimental  design  :    researcher  knows  that  a  population  id  being,  

or   has   been,   exposed   to   an   intervention   and   wishes   to   stud   its   impact   on   the  population.  

-­‐ Control  group  design  :     the   researcher   select   too   groups   instead   of   one  (control  group  and  experimental  group).  This  group  is  expected  to  be  comparable  as  far  as  possible  in  every  respect  except  for  the  intervention.    

-­‐ Double  control  design:   is   to   identify   and   separate   out   the   reactive   effect  maturation  or  regression  effect  of  placebo  effect.  

-­‐ Comparative  design:      compare  the  effective  of  different  treatment  modalities.  -­‐ Matched   control   experimental   design:     in   this   studies,   comparability   is  

determined  in  an  individual-­‐by-­‐individual  basis.  -­‐ Non  experimental  study:   to  study  starts  from  the  effect  to  trace  the  cause.  -­‐ Semi  experimental  study:      has   the   properties   of   both   experimental   and   non-­‐  

experimental.  -­‐ Placebo  effect:      A  patient’s  believe  that  someone  is  receiving  treatment  can  play  

on   important   role   in   his/her   recovery   from   an   illness   even   if   treatment   is  ineffective.  The  psychological  effect  called  placebo  effect.  

-­‐ Cohort  studies:      The  study  bused  upon  the  existence  of  a  common  characteristic  such  as  year  of  birth,  graduation  a  marriage,  within  a  subgroup  of  a  population.  

-­‐ Panel   studies:       The   same   to   cohort   study   except   that   panel   studies   are  longitudinal   and   prospective   in   nature   and   collect   information   from   the   same  respondents.  

-­‐ Case   studies:       is   an   approach   to   studying   a   social   phenomenon   through   a  thorough  analysis  of  an  individual  case.    

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CHAPTER  9:   SELECTING  A  METHOD  OF  DATA  COLLECTION    

-­‐ Observation:     Is   a   purposeful   systematic   and   selective   ways   of   watching   and  listening  to  an  interaction  or  phenomenon  as  it  takes  place.  

-­‐ Participant   observation:      Researchers  participate   in   the  activity  of   the  group  being  observe  in  the  same  manner  as  its  members,  with  or  without  their  knowing  that  they  are  being  observed.  

-­‐ Non-­‐Participant  observation:      Researcher  do  not  get  involved  in  the  activity  of  the  group  but  remains  a  passive  observer,  watching  and  listening  to  its  activities  and  drawing  conclusion  from  this.  

-­‐ Hawthorne  Effect   :   When   a   charge   in   behavior   of   persons   or   groups   is  attributed  to  their  being  observed.  

-­‐ Elevation  Effect   :   When   observer   have   a   tendency   to   use   particular  part  of  the  scale  in  recording  an  interaction.  

-­‐ Halo  Effect     :       When  the  way  an  observer  rates  an  individual  on  one  aspect   of   the   interaction   influence   the   way   someone   rates   that   individual   on  another  aspect  of  the  interaction.  

-­‐ In-­‐depth  interview   :   is   repeated   face   to   face   encounters   between   the  researcher   and   information   directed   toward   understanding   informants’  perspective  on  their  life,  experience,  or  situation  as  expressed  in  their  own  word.  

-­‐ Focus  group  interview  :   research   explore   the   perception,   experiences   and  understanding  of  a  group  of  people  who  have  some  experiences  in  common  with  regard  to  a  situation  or  event.  

-­‐ Structured  Interview  :   The   interviewer   asks   respondents   the   same  questions  using  a  predetermined  series  of   interview  questions.  Deviations   from  the  predetermined  series  of  questions  are  not  allowed  in  the  interview  process.  

-­‐ Unstructured  Interview  :    An   interview   in   which   the   researcher   asks   open-­‐ended   questions.   The   researcher   aims   to   give   respondents   the   latitude   to   talk  freely   on   a   topic   and   to   influence   the   direction   of   the   interview.   There   is   no  predetermined   plan   about   the   specific   information   to   be   gathered   from   these  types  of  interviews.  

-­‐ Open-­‐Ended  Data     :   the  possible  response  are  not  given.   In  the  case  of  a  questionnaire,  the  respondent  write  down  the  answer  in  his/her  own  word.  

-­‐ Close  ended  question:   the  possible  answers  are  set  out  in  the  questionnaire  or   schedule   and   the   respondents   or   investigators   ticks   the   category   that   best  describe  the  respondent’s  answer.    

CHAPTER  10:   COLLECTING  DATA  AND  USING  ATTITUDINAL  SCALES    -­‐   Likert  Scale     :   summated  rating  scale  that  are  based  on  assumption  

that  each  statement/item  on  the  scale  has  equal   ‘attitudinal  value’,   ‘importance’  or  ‘weight’  in  terms  of  reflecting  an  attitude  towards  the  issue  in  question.  

-­‐   Thurstone  Scale   :   equal-­‐appearing   interval   scale   or   differential   scale  that  calculates  a  ‘weight’  or  ‘attitudinal  value’  for  each  statement.  

-­‐   Guttman  Scale   :   cumulative   scale   that   is   one   of   the   most   difficult  scales  to  construct  and  therefore  is  rarely  used.  

-­‐   Attitudinal  Scale   :   measure  attitudes  toward  an  issue.    

CHAPTER  11:   ESTABLISING  THE  VALIDITY  AND  RELAIBILITY  OF  RESEARCH  

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 -­‐   Validity     :   the   ability   of   an   instrument   to   measure   what   it   is  

designed  to  measure.  -­‐   Face  Validity     :   the  establishment  and  judgment    of  a  logical  link  that  

instrument   is   measuring   what   it   is   supposed   to   between   the   questions   and  objectives  of  the  study.  

-­‐   Content  Validity   :   the  assessment  of  the  items  and  questions  that  cover  the  full  range  of  the  issue  or  attitude  being  measured.  

-­‐   Predictive  Validity   :   is   judged   by   degree   to   which   an   instrument   can  forecast  an  outcome.  

-­‐   Concurrent  Validity:   is  judged  by  how  well  an  instrument  compares  with  a  second  assessment  concurrently  done.  

-­‐   Reliabity     :   it   is   considered   as   so   when   the   research   tool   is  consistent  and  stable,  and,  hence,  predictable  and  accurate.  

-­‐   External  Consistency  Procedures:   compare   findings   from   2   independent  processes  of  data  collection  with  each  other  as  a  means  of  verifying  the  reliability  of  the  measure.  

-­‐   Test/re-­‐test     :   an   instrument   that   is   administered   once,   and   then  again,  under  the  same  or  similar  condition.  

-­‐   Parallel  forms     :   the   construction   of   2   instruments   that   are  intended  to  measure  the  same  phenomenon  to  2  or  similar  populations.  

-­‐   Internal  Consistency  Procedure:  items   measuring   the   same   phenomenon  should  produce  similar  results.  

-­‐   The  Split-­‐half  Technique   :   designed   to   correlate   half   of   the   items   with  other  half  and  is  appropriate  for  instruments  that  are  design  to  measure  attitudes  towards  an  issue  or  phenomenon.  

-­‐   Stepped-­‐up  Reliability   :     calculated   by   Spearman-­‐Brown   Formula   on  half   the   instrument   that   are   needed   to   be   corrected   in   order   to   assess   the  reliability  for  the  whole  instrument.  

 CHAPTER  12:   SAMPLING    

-­‐ Population  /  Study  population:   A   clearly   defined   group   of   people   or   objects.  Samples   are  drawn   from   the  population   and   statistical   results   that   are  derived  from  random  samples  can  be  generalized  to  the  whole  population.  

-­‐ Sample     :   A   group   that   is   selected   from   a   larger   group   (the  population).   By   studying   the   sample,   the   researcher   tries   to   draw   valid  conclusions  about  the  population.  

-­‐ Sampling  design       :   The   part   of   the   research   plan   that   specifies  how  and  how  many  respondents  will  be  selected  for  a  study.  

-­‐ Sampling  unit  /  sampling  element:    each  respondent  that  become  the  basis  of  selecting  your  sample.  

-­‐ Sampling  frame     :   the   list   identifying   each   despondent   in   the  study  population.  

-­‐ Sampling  statistics     :   your   finding  based  on  the   information  obtain  from  your  respondents  (sample).  

-­‐ Population  parameter/  population  mean     :   the   estimates   arrived   at  from  sample  statistics.  

-­‐ Saturation  point     :   when   you   reach   a   stage   where   no   new  information  is  coming  from  your  respondents.  

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