ritual spaces and performances in the asklepieia of roman greece

THE ANNUAL

OF THE

BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS

T H E A N N UA L

O F T H E

BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS

No. 105

2010

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RITUALSPACESANDPERFORMANCESINTHEASKLEPIEIAOFROMANGREECE1

PERFORMATIvE ritualshavebeenmostlystudiedbyreligioushistoriansandonlyinrecentyearshave they appeared in the archaeological literature.2 Such rituals are based on theperformanceofprecisedramatic sequencesof languageandactions in thepresenceofanaudiencecalledtoacollectiveparticipation.Theymayconsisteitherofpublicactionssuchasprocessions, dances, songs, and sacrificial rites, or of theatrical performances, such asdramaticenactmentsofdivinemythsandgenealogies. Inmostancient sanctuaries specificareasweredevotedtotheirperformance:theatricalbuildings,orstructuresonlyoccasionallyqualifiedasprocessionalorsacrificial.

InGreece,performativeritualsandspacesareespeciallywellknownforthesanctuariesoftheClassicalandHellenisticperiod.Festivalsandannualcelebrationsevokedthepresenceofthegodsinordertoobtaintheirfavoursandhelpmortalsovercomecrucialmomentseitheroftheagriculturalyearorofhumanlife.Thisisthecase,forexample,ofthecelebrationsintheAtticsanctuariesofEleusisandBrauron.Inthisrespect,recentstudieshavedemonstratedthatpublic ritualsperformed in sanctuaries acted as strongmeansof communication andcontributedtoformingandenforcingpoliticalideologiesinClassicalGreece(GoldhillandOsborne1999;Kowalzig2008).

FromthebeginningoftheRomanpresence,theimportanceoffestivals,processions,andcollectiveritualsinthesanctuariesofGreeceisstressedbyancientauthorsandsuggestedbytheepigraphicevidence.ItisoftensuggestedthattheirroleratherthanpoliticalwasoneofpreservationofthecollectivememoryinprovincialGreece,whenthiswasthreatenedbyexternal circumstances (Auffarth 1997, 21938; 1999, 3142). The archaeologicalcounterpart of this phenomenonthat is to say where these large collective celebrationsactually tookplaceis stillnot fullyemerging.SusanAlcockwas the first topointout thatdramatization, procession, and ritual left an archaeological mark on the sacred space ofRomanGreece(Alcock1993,172214).Afewrecentstudiesconstitutetheonlyattemptoffurtherdevelopingthisconcept(Galli2001,4377;2005,25390;PetsalisDiomidis2005,183218).Thereforetheaimof thispaper is to identify, throughthestudyofsomeof thesanctuariesofRomanGreece,theexistenceofperformativeritualsandtoassigntothematopographical space within the sacred precinct on the basis of the extant archaeologicalevidence.

The period under consideration here mostly coincides with the reign of the Antonineemperors, when the relatively peaceful environment allowed for a cultural revival, sometimes

1 I should like to thank the referees for theirhelpfulcomments.Igratefullyadoptedmostoftheirsuggestions,butallremainingerrorsandinaccuraciesaremyrespon-sibility. This paper was initially delivered at the GreekArchaeologySeminarsoftheUniversityofOxford,andattheCollegioGhislierisseminars,UniversityofPavia.Mythankstotheaudience,especiallytoBertSmith,MaurizioHarari,andMarilenaGorrini.

2 For a history of the relation between ritual andperformanceseeKowalzig2008,3255.Fromanarchae-ological point of view the problem has been onlysporadically explored in publications such as Nielsen2002,wherethecategoryofcultictheatresortheatricalspaces for musical or dramatic performative rituals isdenedforthersttime.

referred to as a Greek renaissance within the Roman empire (Walker and Cameron 1989).Such a revival affected every sector of cultural life, from the visual arts to literature and was builtaround a strong intellectual core: the aim being that of re-appropriating the ancient Greektradition and creating continuity with it (Woolf 1994; Goldhill 2001; Alcock 2002). Theemperors and the local elites, often educated according to the paideia, the highest form ofeducation within the cultural phenomenon known as the Second Sophistic, took a leading rolein shaping this process.3 By virtue of their political and cultural positions, wealthy patrons weretherefore able to transform traditional religious spaces, refounding entire building complexesand forgotten religious festivals (Alcock 1993, 172214; 1994, 24761; Galli 2001, 434).

ASKLEPIEIA : A CASE -STUDy

Because of their long life and their well-documented ritual practice, the sanctuaries ofAsklepiosconstituteanidealcase-studyforthisinvestigation.CultplacesforthehealinggodareuninterruptedlyfrequentedintheGreekworld,fromthelateClassicaltothelateImperialperiod. The traditional rituals performed therein are well attested in the epigraphic andliterarysources,andtheirexistenceisoftenconfirmedbythearchaeologicalevidence.

Within the traditional rituals practiced in honour of Asklepios from the late Classicalperiodonwards,themosttypicalwasundoubtedlytheincubation,thesleepthatideallyledtothemiraculoushealing.Itmostlyconsistedofdirectcommunicationbetweenthegodandtheindividualinaspacedefinedbythesourcesastheabatontheinaccessiblehall.Thisritualwas therefore confined to a personal, individual level, and reached a wider public onlythroughthededicationsofthefaithfulintheformoftalesofhealinginscribedonstone(LiDonnici1995;Girone1998;Melfi2007a,15596),anatomicalex-votos(Forsn1996)andsculpturalrepresentationsofdifferentkinds(Hausmann1948;vorster1983;Bobou2008).

TheevidencefortheritualactionsperformedinpublicaspartofthecultofAsklepiosisfragmentaryandoftenobscureforthelateClassicalandHellenisticperiods.Archaeologicalandepigraphicdocumentssuggesttheexistenceofpreliminaryrites,includingsacrifices(e.g.Sokolowski1962,no.22;Habicht1969,16790)andmoneyofferings (Gorrini andMelfi2002,24757),thathadtobeperformedinpublicbythefaithfulinordertoobtainaccesstothehealingrite.Preciseritualroutescansometimesbearchaeologicallyidentified,owingtothepresenceofaltars,offertoryboxes(thesauroi),lustralbasins,andvotivededications.4 Inafew sanctuaries, the textual sources attest to theexistenceofprocessions and festivals, buttheirarchaeologicalandtopographicalimpactonthesacredspaceisneverthelessdifficulttoassess(e.g.Isyllospaean:IG iv2.128,seebelow).

ThissituationseemstochangedecidedlyintheRomanperiodand,inparticular,duringthesecondcenturyAD,whentheavailabledatadocumentagrowingnumberofperformativeritualsinsanctuariesofAsklepios.Poeticandtheatricalperformances,dramatizations,ritualenactments,andcollectivecelebrations,widelyattestedbythesources,giveanewdistinctiveshapetothesacredspaceandthemonumentswithinit.

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3 On the Second Sophistic in Roman Greece:Bowersock1969;Bowie1970;Sirago 1989,579;Swain1996;Goldhill2001;Whitmarsh2001.Forthedenitionofpaideia and pepaideumenoi:Anderson1989,1046,andmorerecentlyBorg2004,passim.

4 Compare, for example, the ritual routes of theAsklepieiaofEpidauros(Mel2007b,405,5663)andCorinth(ibid.299302;Ginouvs1994,23746).

ThebestknownandmoststudiedcaseisthatoftheAsklepieionofPergamon,wherethesecond-centurybuildingshavebeenrecentlyinterpretedasinspiredbytheperformanceofcollectiverituals,suchastheprocessionsandchoirsdescribedintheworksofAristides(Galli2005;PetsalisDiomidis2005).HeretheAntoninepropylonprovidedalargeporticoedspacewhere pilgrims could gather, in the words of Aristides: I thought that I stood within thepropylonofthesanctuaryandthatmanyothershadassembled,justaswhenpurificationtakesplace, and that they were clad in white [] (Aristid.Or. xlviii. 27, transl. Edelstein andEdelstein). The theatre of the newly built complex could host poetic and musicalperformances:Inthesacredtheatretherewasacrowdofpeoplecladinwhite,gatheringinhonourofthegod;andstandingamongthemImadeaspeechandsangthepraisesofthegod(Aristid.Or.xlviii.30,transl.EdelsteinandEdelstein).Suchperformancesoftenwereasummonstocollectiveparticipation:Andtheloudcrybothofthosewhoarepresentandofthosewhoarecoming,shoutingthiswidelyrenownedrefrain:GreatisAsklepios(Aristid.Or.xlviii.21,transl.EdelsteinandEdelstein).

LikePergamon,inmanyAsklepieiaofRomanGreeceitisnowpossibletoidentifyarangeof performative rituals and spaces using different documents: (i) the archaeological data,providingevidencefortheconstructionoftheatricalstructuresandthemonumentalizationof processional routes; (ii) the epigraphic sources, such as hymns, paeans, healing tales,sacredlaws,anddedications;(iii)theliterarysourceswhich,inthesecondandthirdcenturiesAD,giveparticularlyabundantaccountsoffestivals,myths,andritualspracticedinGreece.IhavechosentoexaminethesitesofthreeAsklepieia,Epidauros,Athens,andMessene,whichhavetheobviousadvantageofbeingrichinepigraphicandarchaeologicaldata,butalsoofferus quite different scenarios and developments that can stand as prime examples for thephenomenaunderexamination.

S INGING FOR ASKLEPIOS

Poetic and musical performances, especially in the form of hymns and paeans, are wellattested in sanctuaries ofAsklepios from theHellenistic period, but they seem to becomeparticularlypopularfromthemid-secondcenturyAD,judgingfromthenumberofepigraphicand literary sources which preserve poetic texts, and in consideration of the widespreadmonumentalizationoftheatricalspaces.

Epidauros

Amusical inscription and a corpus of hymnswere found in the sanctuary of Asklepios atEpidauros during the early excavations (IG iv2. 12935;Mitsos 1980; Bonefas 1989). Thehymnsweresunginhonourofthemanygodsworshippedinthesanctuaryandconsistedofreligious texts used during the rituals and poems associated with musical competitions.TogetherwithAsklepios,theycelebratedZeus,theMotheroftheGods,Hygieia,Athena,theuntiringSun,thewaxingmoon,andallthestarsthatcrownthesky,alltheimmortalgodsand immortal goddesses, that will always be (IG iv2. 129. 89, 1112), and, finally, PanNymphagetes,whoreachesthestarredOlympus,withtheechoofallsongsandsprinkleswithimmortalmusictheassemblyofthegods(IG iv2.130.810).

Thetexts,eventhoughofmixedoriginanddate,weretranscribedattheendofthethirdcenturyAD onblocksbelongingtoabuildingofthelateClassicalorHellenisticage(Wagman1995,359).Thisbuilding seems tobe identifiablewith themonumental banqueting-hall

THEASKLEPIEIAOFROMANGREECE 319

(Wagman 1999,87380;Galli 2004,3423),theso-calledgymnasium,locatedsouthofthetempleofAsklepiosandbuiltattheendofthefourthoratthebeginningofthethirdcenturyBC (FIG.1).The banqueting-hallwasheavilydamagedduringthedestructionsaffectingthesanctuaryinthefirstcenturyBC,butitwasonlyintheImperialperiodthatinsideitscentral

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FIG. 1.TheAsklepieionofEpidaurosintheRomanperiod(greycircle:gymnasiumodeioncomplex).AfterKavvadias1900.

courtyardasmallcoveredtheatre,anodeion, wasbuilt(Lambrinoudakis1988,2235).Thebuildingtechniqueoftheodeion,inbrickswithcoursesofstones,similartothatofthebathscompletedbetween160and180AD underthepatronageofthesenatorAntoninus,suggestsadateinthesecondhalfofthesecondcenturyAD (Melfi2007b,124).

The construction of the odeion marked a definitive change in the function of theHellenistic banqueting-hall, whose structures were substantially reused for the Romanbuilding. If at theendof the thirdcenturyAD hymnswere transcribedon thewallsof theHellenisticporticosurroundingtheodeion,itislikelythattheyweresunginthesameodeion,probably right from the time of its construction in the Antonine period. A theatre-likestructure was, in fact, themost appropriate place for the performance of the Epidaurianhymns, as it is confirmedby their veryarticulatedramatic structure, featuringa choirandsoloist singers. We can then conclude that in Epidaurosas much as in second-centuryPergamona theatre was specifically built for hosting ritual performances in the form ofmusicanddramainhonourorthanksgivingofAsklepios.

Athens

ThesituationattheAsklepieionofAthensinRomantimesappearstobesomewhatdifferentfromthatofEpidauros.TheAtheniansanctuary,locatedonthesouthslopesoftheAcropolisbetweenthetheatreofDionysosandtheodeionofHerodesAtticus,accessiblebywayofthePeripatos,hadalwaysplayedapeculiarpublicrole,possiblybyvirtueof itscentralpositionwithin the urban topography (FIGS. 2 and 10). In such a confined space, new theatricalstructurescouldnothavebeenaccommodated,butaspecialconnectionwiththepre-existingtheatreofDionysosseemstobeattestedfromtheearliestperiodsandwillbefurtherclarifiedherebelow(Melfi2007b,3489;2003,1838).Inadditiontothis,anumberofdedicationstoAsklepiosattesttotheperformanceofpoeticandmusicaltextsinthesanctuarybetweenthesecondandthirdcenturiesAD.

The dedication by Sarapion, from a prominent family of Roman Athens, the Statii ofCholleidai,datestothisperiod(Oliver1936;Geagan1991,14565;Aleshire1991,4974).It was found east of the Asklepieion and consists of a reused triangular base, originallydesigned for the erection of a tripod. Around the mid-second century AD, the tripod wasremovedandSarapionsstatueerectedinitsplace.ThestatuebasewastheninscribedtobearthededicationtoSarapiondescribedaspoetandphilosopheraccompaniedbyapoemonamedical-religioussubject,composedbySarapionhimself(SEG 28.225).ThededicantofthemonumentinthislaterphasewasSarapionsgrandson,zakoros orsacredofficialofthecultofAsklepios.

Attheendof thesecondorthebeginningof thethirdcenturyAD, twomoretextswereinscribedontheremainingsidesofthetriangularbase:acatalogueof,thatistosaythesingersinchargeofperformingthehymnsinthesanctuary(Aleshire1991,4970),andthe Paean of Sophocles (IG ii2. 4510; Oliver 1936, 91122). The latter is mentioned byPhilostratosasthemostcommonhymnsunginAthensinhonourofAsklepios:SophokleshymnofpraisethatissungtoAsclepiusatAthens(Philostr.VA iii.17.2,transl.C.P.Jones).Similarly,Lucian states: Forno lesshonourcomes toAsklepios if, in casehisworshipperscomposednopaeansof theirown, thesongsofIsodemusofTroizenandofSophoclesaresung(Ps.-Lucian.Dem. Enc.27,transl.EdelsteinandEdelstein).

That singinghymns inhonourofAsklepioswas commonpractice in theAsklepieionof


AthensinthesecondandthirdcenturiesAD,isfurtherconfirmedbytheexistencethereinofa second catalogue of (IG ii2. 2481; Aleshire 1991, 3340), and a fragment ofanotherfamouspaean,thePaeanofErythrai(IG ii2.4509),copiesofwhichwerefoundinmanyof theknownAsklepieia.5 Inaddition to this, thePaeandedicatedbyDiophantosofSphettos,zakoros ofAsklepios,wasalsofoundinthesanctuary(IG ii2.4514;Aleshire1991,111; Girone 1998, 315). This contains a tale of healing designed to be performed in atheatricalspace,judgingfromitsdramaticandmetricstructure.Inthefirstpartofthepoetictext,theillnessisdescribedusingapokrota,tosuggestthesupplicantslimpingwalk;inthesecondpart,morefluiddactylichexametersareusedtoindicatetheaccomplishedhealing.Singing or reciting the paean would have resulted in a re-enactment of the miraculoushealing,similartothosethattookplace,forexample,intheAsklepieionofRomeonTiberIsland(Melfi2007b,384).Heretheinscriptionsrecordhowthepatientspubliclydeclaimed,or performed, their healing on a sacred stage in front of a festive demos(Moretti1968,no.148.2;Girone1998,15768).

Finally,an inscriptiondating to theendof thesecondcenturyAD ontheepistyleof theAugustanstoasouthofthetempleofAsklepios(Melfi2007b,36771)recordsthededication

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5 ThepaeanofErythrae(IG ii2.4509)containsatextthat originated inAsiaMinor in theHellenistic period,andknownfromlatertranscriptionsattheAsklepieiaof

Dion(EdelsteinandEdelstein1945,t.592a)andRome(Moretti1968,no. 149).

FIG. 2.TheAthenianAsklepieionintheRomanperiod(ingrey:areaoftripoddedications).AfterTravlos1971.

ofa tripod to thegod(FIG. 3).Theepigraphic textwas inscribedonanepistyleoriginallydedicatedtoAsklepios,Hygieia,andAugustus(IG ii2.3120AandB;Aleshire1991,100).Thissuggests that in Athens the same procedure as attested in Pergamonmight be found. AtPergamon,musical and poetical performances in honour of Asklepios were closed by thededicationofatripod(Galli2005,2723),asisattestedinthewritingsofAeliusAristides:Ialso gave choralperformances, ten in total, someofmen, someof boys (). It thereforeseemedfittingtodedicateasilvertripod,asthank-offeringtothegod,andatthesametime,asmemorialofthechoralperformanceswhichwegave,andIpreparedanelegiaccouplet()Therewerealsotwomoreverses,oneofwhichcontainedmyname(Aristid.Or. l.435).The Athenian tripod, in particular,must have been erected on the roof of the stoa, in aparticularlyprominentposition,attheentranceofthesanctuary.AnybodyapproachingthetheatrefromthePeripatoswouldhavebeenabletoseeit.Thisdedicationrepresentedtheappropriationofapre-existingbuilding,possiblyplayingaspecificrolewithinthecult,andoriginally dedicated to Asklepios,Hygieia, andAugustus, for the exhibition of an entirelyprivatemonumental offering. It suggests the growing importance of tripods and choregicdedications within the sacred precinct, and consequently the centrality of the rituals theycommemorated.

Since poetic andmusical performances are undoubtedly attested in the Asklepieion of


FIG. 3.AthenianAsklepieion,epistyleoftheAugustanstoawithinscriptionIG ii2.3120.Authorsphoto.

Athens,wherecouldtheyhavetakenplacewithintheratherrestrictedsacredprecinct?ThemonumentofSarapionwasfoundattheeastendoftheAsklepieion,neartheanalemmaofthe theatre (Levensohn 1947, 71). In the same area, a seconddedication by the Statii ofCholleidaimentioning thepresenceofa tripodcame to light(IG ii2.3704;Koumanoudes1876,1989).Hereanuninscribedmonumentaltripodbaseisalsovisibletoday(FIGS.2and4).ThismeansthatintheareawheretheAsklepieionprecinctmeetsthatofthetheatre,atleastfourdocumentsdatedtothesecondandthirdcenturiesAD werediscovered,andattesttheperformanceanddedicationofpoetictexts.

ThelocationofthesemonumentssuggeststhatperformativeritualsinhonourofAsklepioscouldhavetakenplaceinthetheatreofDionysos,especiallyinviewofthelimitationsofspaceimposedby theurbansettingof the sanctuaryof thehealinggod.This typeof interactionbetweentheAsklepieionandthetheatreofDionysoswasnotunusual,sincethecloserelationof thebuildings isclearlyattested fromtheearliestperiods.Ontheonehand, thearchae-ologicalevidencethattheDoricstoaoftheAsklepieionwasbuiltaround300BC againstthewestanalemmaofthetheatreledTownsendtohypothesizetheexistenceofapassageleadingfromtheupperfloorofthestoadirectlytothetheatreauditorium(Townsend1982,70).Onthe other hand, the literary and epigraphic sources point towards a special connectionbetweenAsklepios andDionysos inAthens (Melfi 2007b, 348).According toAeschines, 8

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FIG. 4.AthenianAsklepieion,uninscribedtripodbase.Authorsphoto.

Elaphebolion, ofthecelebrationsfortheGreatDionysia,wasdevotedtothesacrificeforAsklepios(Aeschin.In Ctes. iii.668).Afourth-centuryBC decreefoundintheAsklepieionhonouredapriestofAsklepios,whowasinchargeofmaintainingupsilonlenispublicorderinthetheatreofDionysostoo(IG ii2.354;Hubbe1959,1514,no.2;Schwenk1985,no.54).InthethirdcenturyBC,atleastonechoregicdedicationwasexhibitedintheAsklepieion(IGii2.3081).Finally,inthefirstcenturyBC,DioklesfromKephissia,priestofAsklepiosandmintmagistrate,struckNewStylecoinsfeaturingthesymbolsofAsklepios,Hygieia,andDionysos(Melfi2003).

IfthetheatreofDionysuswasthus,asitseemslikely,actuallyusedforperformativeritualsinhonourofAsklepios,theAtheniansanctuarywouldthereforebenodifferentfromthoseofEpidaurosandPergamon,withtheirsecond-centuryAD sacredtheatres(inthewordsofAristides).

Messene

Less documented but similarly revealing is the case of the Asklepieion ofMessene, ofteninterpretedasacivicandpoliticalratherthanreligiouscentre(FIG. 5).6 Thecomplexappearsneverthelesstobeclearlyidentifiedasasacredprecinctwithawell-definedsacrificialareaandstructuresdevotedtothehealingpractice(Melfi2007b,2658).

Here, the building, normally interpreted as an ekklesiasterion for themeetings of theupsilonacute oftheMessenianstate(Birtacha2008),musthavebeenusedintheRomanperiodasanodeion forpoeticandmusicalperformances.Thisisdemonstratedbythediscoveryofat least one musical inscription (Themelis 1994, 902), generally dated to the Imperialperiod,andbytheexistenceofmusicalcompetitionsinthesanctuaryfromthelatesecondcenturyAD,ontheoccasionofthefestivalsinhonourofthegod,theAsklepieia(Themelis1990,856).Ifsuchmusicalperformancestookplaceinthesanctuary,itappearsthemostlikelythattheywerestagedinthetheatricalbuildingknownastheekklesiasterion.

AccordingtoThemelis(1996,1478),aproperstagewasaddedtothesmalltheatreonlyin the late secondor early third centuryAD. This seems to confirm this hypothesis (Melfi2007b,271).Theconstructionofthenewstagemighthavebeenpaidforbythedescendantsof the wealthy Messenian Tiberios Klaudios Saithidas Kailianos I, a member of the mostinfluential family of Roman Messene (Themelis 2000, 7881). His equestrian statue wasplacedinsidetheauditoriumofthetheatre,and,judgingfromtheinscriptiononitsbase(IGv.1455),wasprobablydedicatedbyhisgrandsonTiberiosKlaudiosSaithidasKailianosIIacontemporary of Marcus Aurelius.7 The monument was displayed in such a prominentpositionthatitchangedthefunctionofthebuilding,sinceitpartiallyblockeditsaccessfrom


6 Theproblemofthechoicebetweenapoliticalandareligious function of the Messenian Asklepieion aroseimmediately after Orlandoss first excavations in the1950s, because of the uncharacteristic presence ofbuildingssuchasabouleterionandanekklesiasterioninthe complex. The issue has been tackled by manyscholars, but the proposed explanations are stillunsatisfactory. For the status quaestionis seeMelfi 2007b,2489.

7 TiberiosClaudiosSaithidasKailianosIIisknownforhis dedication of a bronze statue ofMarcusAurelius intheagoraofMessene(IG v.1451).Thestatuemustdate

totheyearsofthereignofAntoninusPius,whenMarcusAurelius was still Caesar (13961) and offers animportantelementforthechronologyofthedescendantsof Saithidas I. The fact that Saithidas II was acontemporaryofMarcusAureliusledThemelistosuggestthathemighthavebeentheSaithidasknowntoPausaniasin his description of Messene (Themelis 2001, 6970,Paus. vi. 32. 2). Saithidas II might well have been thededicantofthestatueofSaithidasIintheekklesiasterion,sincethehonorandisrememberedasfatherofFrontinusIandgrandfatherofSaithidasII.

theeast.Theimplicationisthat,atthetime,theekklesiasterionwasaccessibleonlyfromthesanctuary precinct towhich it belonged: not differently fromAristides sacred theatre atPergamonandtheodeionofEpidauros.

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FIG. 5.AsklepieionofMessene(A=ekklesiasterion;thearrowindicatesthestatueofSaithidas).AfterThemelis2000.

RE - ENACTING THE MyTH

Some of the performative rituals that took place in the sanctuaries of Asklepios were re-enactmentsofmythsregardingthegodandthefoundationofhiscult.Thebest-documentedexamplesofthiskindaretobefoundinthesanctuariesofEpidaurosandAthens.

Epidauros

OneoftheoldestperformativeritualsattestedinthesanctuaryofEpidaurosisthatrecordedbythePaeanofIsyllos(IG iv2.128;Girone1998,465).AtthebeginningofthethirdcenturyBC,Isyllos,anEpidaurianaristocrat,establishedanewritualinhonourofAsklepios(Sineux1999,15364;Melfi2007b,524).Theritualconsistedofaprocessionandtheperformanceof a hymn on the myth of the birth of Asklepios, son of Apollo and Epidaurian Koronis.The hymnwas sungduring theprocessionbetween the cult-placeofApolloon the topofMountKynortionandthatofAsklepiosintheplain(FIG. 6).Thetextaffirmedclearlythatthe


FIG. 6.Epidauros,sanctuariesofAsklepiosandApolloMaleatas.AfterBurford1969.

cultofApollo,calledMaleatasandbasedonMountKynortion,precededthatofAsklepiosintheplain.TheimportanceandtheroleofApollossacredprecinctintheestablishmentofthecultofAsklepioswerefurtherstressedbythefactthatinthesameprecinctAsklepioswasbornto Koronis. Amongst the gods featuring in the hymn as part of Asklepios genealogy andtakingpartinthemythwerealsoZeus,Leto,theMuses,andtheMoirai(Melfi2007b,53).

ItislikelythattheprocessionlefttheAsklepieionfromtheareasouth-eastofthemainaltarofAsklepios,whichwasnormallydevotedto orsacrificespreliminarytothemainhealingrituals(FIG. 7).Thisarea,borderedanddefinedbytwoperpendicularrowsofsmallrectangularstonealtarsofroughlyequaldimensions,wasnoticedforthefirsttimebyGeorgeRoux(Roux1961,398400),andonly later identifiedasdevoted topreliminary sacrifices(Melfi2007b,4951).ThealtarswerededicatedtomostofthedeitiesmentionedinIsylloshymn,Zeus,Leto,theMuses,theMoirai,butalsomembersofAsklepiosfamilyandhealingheroes.

Thearrivalpoint, in thesanctuaryofApolloMaleatasonMountKynortion(FIG. 8),wasprobably the monumental altar of Apollo and theMousaiona precinct sacred to thoseMusesinvolvedinAsklepiosbirth-myth(Lambrinoudakis1999,678;Melfi2007b,445).

Itissignificantthatthededicatoryinscriptionsofmostofthesmall altars(FIG. 9)rangefromthefifthtothethirdcenturyBC (IG iv2.269;270;2735;2823;2946;301;3045;311).Afteragapofmorethanthreecenturies,inthesecondcenturyAD,anumberofnewaltarsappearnexttotheoldonesinpreciselythesamestyleanddedicatedtothesamegods,thecultsofwhichhadnotbeenattestedformorethanfourcenturies(e.g.IG iv2.383;397;500;567).Oneofthem(IG iv2.567),perfectlyinlinewiththeolderspecimens,bearsthededication of a slave of the Roman senator Iulius Antoninus Pythodorus (Hiller vonGaertringen 1929), responsible for the mid-second-century reconstruction of many

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FIG. 7.Epidauros,sanctuaryofAsklepios,centralarea(FIG. 6,A).AfterKavvadias1900.

importantbuildingsofthesanctuary(Galli2001,526;Melfi2007b,1212).Itisthereforelikelythatthenewdedicationswereintendedtorevivetheoldaltarprecinctprobablyfalleninto disuse in the lateHellenistic period, whenmany structures of the sanctuary sufferedseriousdamage8and thus toevoke thecultswhichaccompanied thatofAsklepios in theearlyyearsofthesanctuary(Melfi2007b,10611).

AsimilarphenomenonistobeidentifiedinthesanctuaryofApolloMaleatasonMountKynortion.ThenameofMaleatas,traditionallyattributedtothegodandthecultplacebythe


8 InthesanctuaryofApolloMaleatas,1st-c.BC damageisreportedbyLambrinoudakisinPAE 1983,1524,1988,299300. In the Asklepieion, the so-called gymnasium(Lambrinoudakis (ed) 1988, 2235 and n. 21), themonumental katagogion (Kraynak 1991, 14), and the

water-supply system (Peppa-Papaioannou 1990, 5534)suffered major damage, differently attributed by theexcavators to the incursions of Sulla or the Cilicianpirates.Foranoverviewofthe 1st-c.-BC events,seeMelfi2007b,6870.

FIG. 8.Epidauros,sanctuaryofApolloMaleatas(FIG. 6,B).AfterLambrinoudakis1988.

archaeological literature, is not attested in the votive dedications of the Classical andHellenisticperiod,exceptforthethird-centuryBC PaeanofIsyllos.ThefirstvotivededicationstomentionthegodwiththeepithetofMaleatasarethosedatedtothesecondcenturyAD andassociatedwithAntoninusreconstructionof thesanctuary(IG iv2.25;391;454;456;479;Peek1969,nos.177,178,191).AccordingtoPausanias,thesenatorhadthewholesanctuaryof Apollo onMount Kynortion rebuilt (Paus. ii. 27). Recent archaeological investigationsdemonstrated that this reconstruction took place in the context of near-completeabandonmentofthesite,becauseallthebuildingsofthecultplacehadbeendestroyedinthefirstcenturyBC andneverrebuilt.

HerethecultseemstohavebeenrestoredonthebasisoftheindicationsgivenbyIsyllosinhispaean,whereApollowasdefinedasMaleatas for the firstandonly time.The senatorsreconstruction was inspired by local traditions, no doubt upheld by the contemporaryEpidaurian elite. These same traditions were received and recounted by Pausanias, whodescribes the sacredEpidaurian landscape in its ancientdetailsabove the grove are themountTitthionandanothercalledKynortion;onthelatterisasanctuaryofMaleatasApollo(Paus. ii. 27.7,transl.W.H.S.Jones)andthebirthofAsklepiosastransmittedbyIsyllosinthecountryoftheEpidaurians,Coronisboreasonandexposedhimonthemountain()As the child lay exposed he was given milk by one of the goats that pastured about themountain andwas guarded by thewatch- dog of the herd (Paus. ii. 26. 4, transl.W.H.S.Jones).ThislattermythprovedtobeverypopularintheAntonineperiod,asisdemonstratedbythe issueofEpidauriancoinsrepresentingthepreviouslyunattested iconographyof thebirth-myth of the baby Asklepios, nursed by a goat, on the mountains of Epidauros(Holzmann1984,868,no.4).

Therestorationofboththe forthepreliminarysacrificesandthesanctuaryofApolloMaleatassuggeststheexistenceofaconcertedplanofreconstruction:notonlyofbuildings,but also of rituals and religious practice. Judging from the literary sources and theepigraphicalevidence,theprogramwaspaidforbythesenatorAntoninus(Melfi2007b,99101). Its inspiration must have come from the Paean of Isyllos, the only document thatenforcesthecentralityofApolloMaleatasandhissanctuaryinthecultofAsklepios,andtherole of theminor deities, such as theMuses and theMoirai, within the genealogy of theyoungergod.AntoninuspatronageoftheEpidaurianreconstructionreflectsthereforetheengagement of the contemporary intellectual and political elite in the restoration oftraditionalcultplacesandritualsbestexemplifiedbytheAsklepieionofPergamon(Habicht1969,911;LeGlay 1976,34772;Hoffmann1998,4950)andappearstobemotivatedbythedesireofpromotingandredefiningthereligiouscontextafteraperiodofhistoricaldisruptions(cf.Galli2002,20750).

IfweacceptthattheAntoninerevivaloftheEpidaurianpantheonwasinspiredbyIsyllostext,itislikelythatwithinthesecondcenturyAD ritualsacentralpositionwasoccupiedbyare-enactmentoftheancientprocession.Alongtherouteleadingfromtheplaintothehilltop,theancienthymnmighthavebeensungtoevokethebirthofAsklepios inthelandoftheEpidaurians and consequently re-establish the ancestral connection of the god with hissanctuary.Theprocessionalway,fromthealtarsintheplainandalongthesideofthenewodeion,whichwasprobablypurposefullyinsertedintotheritualroute,wouldhavereachedthetopofthehill,whereanewsteppedpropylongaveaccesstothesacredprecinct(FIG. 6).HerethealtarofApolloandtheopen-airspacearounditwouldhaveprovidedtheperfect

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stagefortheritualenactment(FIG. 8);whilethespectatorscouldhavesatonthestepsfacingthe andtherestoredMousaion(Lambrinoudakis1999,713;Melfi2007b,11621).

Athens

AsatEpidauros,theevocationofmythsthatstrengthenedtheassociationofthegodwithhissanctuary seems to be attested in the Athenian Asklepieion. Here, from the mid-secondcenturyAD,theevidenceforthefestivaloftheEpidauriaincreasesconsiderably.Accordingtotheancient sources(Philostr. VA. iv.18;Paus. ii. 26.8), theEpidauria commemorated thefoundation-mythofthecultonthedayofAsklepiosarrivalinAthensfromEpidauros,andthegodsaccommodationinthecityEleusinion,beforetheestablishmentofhissanctuaryontheslopesof theAcropolis.While this foundation-myth isknownfromthe inscriptionandreliefdedicatedattheendofthefifthcenturyBC byTelemachosofAcharnai,founderofthesanctuary(Beschi1968,381436),thenatureoftheAthenianEpidauriaasafestivalremainsobscure. A few second-century BC decrees honour priests of Asklepios in charge of theorganizationoftheEpidauria(IG ii2.9745;SEG 18.218),butdonotprovideanydetailoftheritualtakingplaceduringthefestival.OnlyaninscribedfragmentrecentlyfoundintheAthenianAgora(SEG 47.71),anddatedtotheyearsaround410BC,hasbeenassociatedbyKevinClintonwiththefunctioningoftheEpidauria(Clinton1994).ThefragmentpreservesthewordEpidauriafollowedbyalistofatleastfoursacredofficials.AccordingtoClintons


FIG. 9.AsklepieionofEpidauros,prothysia altars.Authorsphoto.

reconstructionofthetext,theinscriptionreadsthatthepriestessofDemeterandsomecultattendants from Epidauros led the procession of the Epidauria. Clinton identifies such aprocessionwiththatcommemoratingthefirstjourneyofAsklepiosfromEpidaurostoAthens,and hypothesizes that in the city Eleusinion, before reaching his own sanctuary on theAcropolis slopes (FIG. 10), Asklepios, or more likely his statue, was initiated into theEleusinianmysteries.Theproblemwiththisreconstructionisthatitreliesentirelyonaritualpreservedonlyinthelateliterarysources,whichhasleftnoevidenceinthedocumentsoftheClassicalandHellenisticperiods.

A ritual initiationofAsklepios is, in fact,describedonly in the textsofPhilostratusandPausanias (Philostr. VA. iv. 18; Paus. ii. 26. 8). There is also a single inscription from theAthenianAsklepieion,which records aupsilonacute or initiation ofAsklepios, and it is similarlydatedtothereignofHadrian(IG ii2.3195;Aleshire1991,1013).ThisisthededicationofaDemetrios fromGargettos,whoclaims tohavepaid for thereception(upsilonasper)and theinitiation (upsilonacute) of Asklepios. Demetrios dedication and the literary descriptions ofPhilostratosandPausaniasthereforeformacoherentbodyofevidence,whichcanhardlybeput in any relation with the epigraphic documents from the Classical period that nevermention an initiation for Asklepios (as proposed in Clinton 1994). Philostratos gives thefollowingaccountoftheEpidauria:ItwasthedayoftheEpidauria.AttheEpidauria,afteranannouncementandsacrificeofvictims it iscustomary for theAthenians,evennow, togiveinductionaccompaniedbyasecondarysacrifice.Thispractice they instituted inhonourofAsklepios,becausetheyinductedhimwhenhehadarrivedfromEpidaurostoolatefortheMysteries(Philostr.VA.iv.17,transl.C.P.Jones).ThisdescriptionisconfirmedbyPausanias:IndeedtheAthenians,whosaytheyletAsclepiusparticipateintheirmysteriescallthisdayEpidauriaandtheysaythatfromthatmomentAsclepiuswasworshippedbythem(Paus.ii.26.8,transl.W.H.S.Jones).

Theconclusionisstraightforward:whetherornottheinitiationofAsklepioswaspractisedfromanearlydate,itisclearthattheeventwasconsideredanextremelyrelevantstageofthefoundationmythoftheAtheniancultbysecondandthirdcenturyauthors,whilstithadnoorverylittleimportanceintheearlysources.Thissuggests,again,thatwemightbedealingwithalaterreconstructionoftheritualpractice,whichtranslatedtheEleusinianconnectionof Asklepios into a proper ritual of initiation, to take place during the well-establishedEpidauria.

TheinspirationfortheEleusinianconnectionmighthavebeenofferedbytheinscriptionofTelemachos,whilstthechoiceofperformingaritualofinitiationmightbeexplainedbythepopularityoftheEleusinianMysteriesinthesecondcenturyAD.Inparticular,theideaofaninitiated Asklepios must have been popular among contemporary authors, because itappearedparticularlyrelevantontheoccasionoftheinitiationofHadriantotheEleusinianMysteries.Theemperor,beinginitiatedtotheMysteriesasaforeigner,foundhispredecessorsinillustriousupsilonacute suchasAsklepiosandDionysos(cf.Graindor1934,8n.23;Calandra199, 106). In this same line,we should interpret both the statueofAsklepios as aupsilonacutededicatedbyHerodesAtticusinEleusisandtheportraitofAntinoosintheiconographyofAsklepiosfoundatthesamesite(Galli2001,657;2002,212).AllthesedataconfirmthatfromtheHadrianicperiodonwardstheEleusinianritualbecamefundamentalforthefestivaloftheEpidauria,becauseitevokedthestagesoffoundationoftheAtheniansanctuaryandguaranteeditsconnectionwithoneofthemostimportantcultsofcontemporaryGreece.

332 MILENAMELFI

Howtheritualwasactuallyperformedfromthemid-secondcenturyonwardswecannotsay,butitisevidentthatduringtheprocessionfromthecityEleusinionintheagora(Miles1998)totheAsklepieionatthefootoftheAcropolisthereceptionandinitiationofAsklepiostookplace(FIG.10). In theEleusinion,an impressivepropylonrebuilt in thesecondcentury toresemble that of Eleusiswith two caryatids and aDoric frieze bearing depictions of cultobjectswould have eased the passage of the procession and reminded the viewer of theconnectionwiththemainEleusiniansanctuary(Miles1998,8991andcat.iii,nos.1516).


FIG. 10.TheAthenianagoraanditsenvironsinthesecondcenturyAD.FromTravlos1971.

Theactualritual,organizedandpaidforbyprivatecitizenssuchasDemetriosofGargettos,probablyconsistedofadramaticenactmentofthereceptionandinitiationofAsklepios.Theabsenceof a theatrical space in theneighbourhoodand the space restrictions inboth theEleusinion and the Asklepieion leads us to hypothesize the exploitation of the adjacenttheatreofDionysus.Hereatheatricalre-enactmentcouldhavebeenperformed,inamannersimilartothatattestedbytheinscriptionoftheIobakchoi(IG ii2.1368).Thistext,datedto178AD, records the parts played by differentmembers of the religious community in theenactmentofaritualdramafeaturingDionysos,Kore,Palaimon,andAphrodite.

EventhoughtheexamplesexaminedabovearemostlylimitedtothesanctuariesofAthensand Epidauros, where the epigraphic and literary documentation is more abundant,performative rituals are nevertheless attested in a number of other Asklepieia. Otherexamples of second-century AD restored or newly built theatrical spaces might bementionedsuchasthoseofLebena(Melfi2007a)andButrint(Melfi2007d)butatthispointIprefertodrawsomeconclusionsonthesignificanceandroleofperformativeritualsintheAsklepieiaofRomanGreece.9

CONCLUSIONS

Onthebasisofthedatapresentedabove,Iproposetwodifferentlevelsofinterpretation:onewithin the cult of Asklepios, the other in the larger historical context of second-centuryculture.

ThespreadofpoeticandmusicalperformancesinthecultofAsklepiosmightbeexplainedbythefactthatthesewerebelievedtohaveatherapeuticfunction,atleastfromthesecondcenturyAD. Important testimoniesof thisphenomenonarethewritingsofAeliusAristides,who composed a number of hymns after the commandment of the god, andGalen, whoprescribedsuchapracticeasacureforstatesofanxiety.Hewrites:

andnotafewmen,howevermanyyearstheywereillthroughthedispositionoftheirsouls,wehavemadehealthy by correcting the disproportion of their emotions.No slight witness of the statement is also ourancestralgodAsklepios,whoorderednotafewtohaveodeswrittenaswellastocomposecomicalmimesandcertainsongsforthemotionsoftheirpassionshavingbecomemorevehement,havemadethemixtureofthebodywarmerthanitshouldbe(Gal.De San. Tuenda i.8.1921,transl.EdelsteinandEdelstein).

On the other hand, poetic and musical performances often shared with dramaticenactmentstheaimofreconstructingtheearliestphasesofthesanctuaries,especiallythoseassociated with myths of foundation. While the same existence of these rituals might begenerallyexplainedwiththeantiquarianapproachtoreligiositythatcharacterizedthecultureofRomanGreecefromthefirstcenturyBC onwards,theirsystematicpromotionfindsawidersignificancewithin the revivalof thepastoperatedby thewealthy intellectual elites in thecultural environment of the Second Sophistic.10 In theGreek province of Imperial times,

334 MILENAMELFI

9 The Asklepieion of Lebena in Crete was entirelyrebuilt in the 2nd c. AD, with a large theatrical spaceframedbyamonumentalstaircase(Melfi2007a);attheAsklepieion of Butrint, the Hellenistic theatre wasenlargedandcompletelyenclosedinthesacredspaceinthesameperiod(Melfi2007d).

10 On the Second Sophistic as an elite habitus inRoman Greece see Bowersock 1969, 30; Bowie 1970;Sirago 1989, 579; Swain 1996; Goldhill 2001;Whitmarsh2001;Borg2004,passim.Inthespecificcaseof the sanctuaries of Asklepios: Petsalis Diomidis 2005,18998;Melfi2007c,24154.

mythsandhistoryplayeda fundamental role in thepreservationof thecollectivememoryand,inthespecificcaseofthesesanctuaries,allowedthemaintenanceofastrongassociationofthegodwithhiscultplaces.Inthiscontext,performativeritualsmusthaveplayedamajorrolebecausetheyevokednotonlythegodandhisfavour,asintheearlierperiods,butalsoconfirmed and asserted the continuation of the divine presence on the site, despite thediscontinuityofthehistoricalevents.

SuchaninterpretationisconfirmedbythefactthatallthededicantsofpoetictextsandtheatricalstructuresinthesanctuariesofAsklepiosofImperialagebelongedtothesameclassofwealthyintellectuals.SarapionofCholleidai,dedicantofpoetictextsandhonouredintheAthenianAsklepieionasapoetandaphilosopher,camefromaprominentfamilyofrhetorsand intellectuals, won the dramatic competitions of the Dionysia under the choregia ofAntiochosPhilopappos,andwasknowntothesourcesasafriendofPlutarch.11 SextusIuliusAntoninus Pythodoros, responsible for the Epidaurian reconstructions, came from anextremely wealthy family of Nysa on the Maeander (Hiller von Gaertringen 1929, 638;Halfmann1979,171),wherehecarriedouteuergeticactivities(Kouroniotes1922,6872).HispersonalrelationwithPausaniasandhisfrequentationoftheAsklepieionofPergamontogether with Aelius Aristides are well known (Habicht 1969, 646). Tiberios KlaudiosSaithidasKailianosII,probablyresponsibleforthetransformationof theekklesiasterionofMessene into a sacred theatre, similarly belonged to an extremely wealthy and influentialfamily(Themelis 2000,7881;2001,6470).HewasalsoknowntoPausaniasandprobablymentionedinthelattersaccountofMessene(Paus.iv.32.2).

All these individuals undoubtedly adhered to the intellectual model of paideia thatcharacterisedtheculturalenvironmentoftheSecondSophistic(cf.Anderson1978,1046;Borg2004,passim).Forthempaideia wasadeepknowledgeofthepastandoftraditionshistory,landscapes,myths,andritualseventuallytranslatedintoavaluesystemandamodeof thought.Paideia in second- and third-centuryGreece allowed euergetai, emperors, andoffice-holderstorecognizethemselvesastakingpartinthesameintellectualcommunication,and, consequently, to negotiate power relations. In this perspective, the interventions ofwealthy patrons in theAsklepieiawere not different, for example, from those ofHerodesAtticus atOlympia andDelphi,MarcusAurelius andLuciusverus atEleusis, andLiciniusPriscus Juventianus in Isthmia (Galli 2002, 20550). Theywere only part and parcel of abroader employmentof thepast in imperialGreece, aimed at enforcing a senseofGreekidentity,whileatthesametimecreatingasymbolicandelitistdiscourse.

Toconclude,thepromotionofperformativespacesandritualsinsanctuariesofAsklepiosseemstobecompletelyunderstandableasaproductofthecultureofsecondandearlythirdcenturyGreece.Moreover,inthisperiodatendencytowardsdramatizationandtheatricalityinreligiousandpubliclifemetwithaspecialsensitivityforallmattersconcerninghealth,astheemergenceofliteraryfiguressuchasAeliusAristidesandGalendemonstrates.Thereforewriting,singing,andperformingforAsklepioswouldhavebeentheperfectwaytoattaingoodhealthwhileactivelyparticipatinginthecontemporaryculturalenvironment.

University of Oxford, Ioannou Centre for Classical and Byzantine Studies MILENA MELFI


11 OnthefamilyofSarapion:Aleshire1991,529.Thechoregia of Philopappus is probably recorded in aninventory from the AthenianAsklepieion (IG ii2. 4511)

and in the text of Plutarch (Quaest. Conv. 628 AB;Teodorsson1989,1567).

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