risk and rationality in adolescent decision making: implications for theory, practice, and public...
TRANSCRIPT
Risk and Rationality in Adolescent Decision
Making:Implications for Theory,
Practice, and Public PolicyValerie F. Reyna and Frank Farley
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
CONTENTS Volume 7 Number 1 September 2006 2 Introduction 4 Background and Perspectives 7 Significance of the Problem 16 Explanatory Models of Adolescent Risk Taking 24 Key Findings: Description 29 Developmental Differences in Judgment and
Decision Making 33 General Discussion: Implications of Data and
Development for Risk Reduction and Avoidance
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Importance: Social, Health, and Economic Life-threatening risks
Crime, smoking, drug use, reckless driving, binge drinking, eating disorders and many others
Debut during adolescence and young adulthood
Enormous toll in disease, injury, human suffering and associated economic costs
Males and females 16-20 are (at least) 2X as likely to be in car accidents than drivers 20-50. Auto accidents are the leading cause of death among 15- to 20-year-olds, and 31% of those killed in 2003 had been drinking. 3 million adolescents contract sexually transmitted diseases every year. > 50% all new cases of HIV infection in U.S. occur in people younger than 25 (2 infected every hour).AIDS is the 7th leading cause of death among 13- to 24-year-olds.40% of adult alcoholics report having their first drinking problems between 15 and 19. Pathological or problem gambling is found in 10%-14% of adolescents, and gambling typically begins by age 12.
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Programs to Prevent or Change Risky Behaviors Must… Normative
What behaviors, ideally, should the program foster?
Descriptive How are adolescents making decisions in the
absence of the program? Prescriptive
Which practices can realistically move adolescent decisions closer to the normative ideal?
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Normative Ideals: What is Rational or Adaptive is Not So Simple Evolutionary theories have serious shortcomings.
Behaviors that promote positive physical and mental health outcomes in modern society ≠ those selected for by evolution (e.g., early procreation).
Behavioral decision making and decision analysis have serious shortcomings. Economic models and psychological theories say rational =
reach our goals. Adolescents’ goals are more likely to maximize immediate pleasure, and strict decision analysis implies that many kinds of unhealthy behavior, such as drinking and drug use, would be deemed rational.
Data show developmental changes in goals; important for policy to promote positive long-term outcomes rather than adolescents’ short-term goals.
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
The Future Self
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Descriptive Reality
In principle, capable of rational decision making.
In practice…developmental differences. Heat of passion Presence of peers Behavioral inhibition required (impulsivity) Brain maturation incomplete
However, more pruning occurs and less logical thinking as the brain matures
Thinking process: Trading off vs. categorical gist
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Decision Processes Develop
Literature shows perceptions of risks and benefits predict risk taking in adolescence. Rational calculation
Do not believe that they are invulnerable! Overestimate key risks (lung cancer from
smoking; HIV risk) But nevertheless take risks because benefits
outweigh risks
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Learning from negative outcomes increases with age...the school of hard knocks packs a bigger punch
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Major Theories: Two Types
Reasoned: Deliberate trading off of risks and benefits Theory of reasoned action; theory of planned
behavior; health belief model; behavioral decision making framework; etc.
Reactive: Non-deliberative reaction to gists or prototypes Fuzzy-trace theory Prototype-willingness model
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Laboratory and Public Health Research: Converging Evidence Adolescents are more logical than adults.
Quantitatively trade off risks and benefits. Russian roulette is justified if payoff large enough.
Adults avoid risks because of increase in gist processing. Process risk information qualitatively (often
categorically). Example: Framing and other biases increase from
childhood to adulthood.
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Risk Taking DeclinesRisk Taking: Framing
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0.5
1
1.5
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3
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Preschool 2nd 5th
Grade
Risk Sensitivity Increases
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
If Risk Preference Decreases and Risk Sensitivity Increases… Why do teenagers take more
risks than younger kids? Greater access to risks:
Opportunity
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Thinning of Gray Matter: Less is More
Images, Insula vs. Effortful Reasoning
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Brain Results Support Gist Adult brain: Pruning, not more
connections Adolescents: More
deliberation, effortful reasoning about risky decisions (swim with sharks)
Baird & Fugelsang, 2004; Baird, Fugelsang, & Bennett, 2005)
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Summary Many studies show perceptions of risks
and benefits predict risk taking behavior and intentions.
Meta-analyses confirmed: Theory of Reasoned Action: 38% of
variance Behavioral Decision Making Framework
Take risks, despite overestimation, because benefits outweigh risks
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
But Not All Risk Taking is Reasoned and Intentional
Risky deliberator, but also… Risky reactor (emotion, impulse) Gist-based risk avoider (less
analysis, less risk taking)
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Counterintuitive Conclusions Despite conventional wisdom, adolescents do not
perceive themselves to be invulnerable, and perceived vulnerability declines with increasing age;
Although the object of many interventions is to enhance the accuracy of risk perceptions, adolescents typically overestimate important risks, such as HIV and lung cancer;
Despite increasing competence in reasoning, some biases in judgment and decision making grow with age, producing more ‘‘irrational’’ violations of coherence. Occurs because of a known developmental increase in
gist processing with age.
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Implications Traditional interventions stressing accurate risk
perceptions are apt to be ineffective or backfire because young people already feel vulnerable and overestimate their risk.
Experience is not a good teacher for younger adolescents, because they learn little from negative outcomes (favoring effective deterrents, such as monitoring and supervision).
Novel interventions that discourage deliberate weighing of risks and benefits by adolescents may ultimately prove more effective and enduring. Mature adults intuitively grasp the gists of risky situations, retrieve
appropriate risk-avoidant values, and never proceed down the slippery slope of actually contemplating tradeoffs between risks and benefits.
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Is the teen brain too RATIONAL?
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
Thank you!
Steve CeciMorton Ann GernsbacherFrank FarleyKeith StanovichChuck Brainerd
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
1. Reduce risk through higher drinking ages, eliminating or lowering the number of peers in automobiles, and avoiding exposure to potentially addictive substances (not exposing minors to alcohol to teach them to drink responsibly).
2. Develop psychometric instruments...3. Develop reasoned arguments and facts-based
interventions for risky deliberators.Reducing perceived benefits of risky behaviors (and increasing
benefits of alternative behaviors). For younger adolescents, highlighting short-term costs and
benefits.
4. Identify factors that move adolescents away from considering the degree of risk and the amount of benefit in risky behaviors toward categorical avoidance of major risks.
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
5. Monitor and supervise younger adolescents. Rather than rely on reasoned choices, remove opportunity (e.g., occupy time with positive activities).
6. Seek practical self-binding strategies (avoiding situations that elicit temptation or require behavioral inhibition).7. Encourage development of positive prototypes (gists) or images using visual depictions, films, novels, serial dramas and other emotionally evocative media.
8. Emphasize understanding of risk, deriving the gist or bottom line of messages that will endure in memory longer than verbatim facts.
Harmful consequences may not be understood because young people lack relevant experience; develop intuitive understanding.
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi7_1.pdf
9. Do not assume that adolescents think that they are immortal.
On the contrary, provide concrete actions that they feel capable of taking that will reduce their risk. Teach self-efficacy, help them practice skills, and show them how they can control specific risk factors.
10. Provide frequent reminders of relevant knowledge and risk-avoidant values.
Even medical experts fail to retrieve what they know about STDs without cues.
11. Provide practice at recognizing cues in the environment that signal possible danger before it is too late to act.12. Treat comorbid conditions, such as depression.