Rice

For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation).Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian

A mixture of brown, white, and red indica rice, also containingwild rice, Zizania species

rice) or Oryza glaberrima (African rice). As a cerealgrain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for alarge part of the worlds human population, especiallyin Asia. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize,according to data of FAOSTAT 2012.[1]

Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for pur-poses other than human consumption, rice is the most im-portant grain with regard to human nutrition and caloricintake, providing more than one fth of the calories con-sumed worldwide by humans.[2]

Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice toShennong, the legendary Emperor of China and inven-tor of Chinese agriculture.[3] Genetic evidence has shownthat rice originates from a single domestication 8,20013,500 years ago[4] in the Pearl River valley region ofChina.[5] Previously, archaeological evidence had sug-gested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze Rivervalley region in China.[4] From East Asia, rice was spreadto Southeast and South Asia.[5] Rice was introducedto Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americasthrough European colonization.There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferencestend to vary regionally. In some areas such as the FarEast or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickiervarieties.Rice, a monocot, is normally grown as an annual plant,although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial andcan produce a ratoon crop for up to 30 years.[6] The rice

Oryza sativa with small wind pollinated owers

Rice can come in many shapes, colours and sizes. Photo by theIRRI.

plant can grow to 11.8 m (3.35.9 ft) tall, occasionallymore depending on the variety and soil fertility. It haslong, slender leaves 50100 cm (2039 in) long and 22.5 cm (0.790.98 in) broad. The small wind-pollinatedowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulousinorescence 3050 cm (1220 in) long. The edible seedis a grain (caryopsis) 512 mm (0.200.47 in) long and23 mm (0.0790.118 in) thick.

1

2 2 COOKING

Oryza sativa, commonly known as Asian rice

Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regionswith low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate and requires ample water. However,rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steephill or mountain area with the use of water-controllingterrace systems. Although its parent species are native toAsia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade andexportation have made it commonplace in many culturesworldwide.The traditional method for cultivating rice is oodingthe elds while, or after, setting the young seedlings.This simple method requires sound planning and servic-ing of the water damming and channeling, but reducesthe growth of less robust weed and pest plants that haveno submerged growth state, and deters vermin. Whileooding is not mandatory for the cultivation of rice, allother methods of irrigation require higher eort in weedand pest control during growth periods and a dierentapproach for fertilizing the soil.The name wild rice is usually used for species of the gen-era Zizania and Porteresia, both wild and domesticated,although the term may also be used for primitive or un-cultivated varieties of Oryza.

1 EtymologyFirst used in English in themiddle of the 13th century, theword rice derives from the Old French ris, which comesfrom Italian riso, in turn from the Latin oriza, which de-

rives from the Greek (oruza). The Greek word isthe source of all European words (cf. Welsh reis, Ger-man Reis, Lithuanian ryiai, Serbo-Croatian ria, Polishry, Dutch rijst, Hungarian rizs, Romanian orez).[7][8][9]

The origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is some-times held to be from the Tamil word (arisi), orrather Old Tamil arici.[10][11] However, Krishnamurti[12]disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the sourceof the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowedfrom descendants of Proto-Dravidian *warici instead.Mayrhofer[13] suggests that the immediate source of theGreek word is to be sought in Old Iranian words of thetypes *vrz- or *vrinj-, but these are ultimately tracedback to Indo-Aryan (as in Sanskrit vrh-) and subse-quently to Dravidian by Witzel and others.

2 CookingThe varieties of rice are typically classied as long-,medium-, and short-grained.[14] The grains of long-grainrice (high in amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking;medium-grain rice (high in amylopectin) becomes moresticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, forrisotto in Italy, and many rice dishes, such as arrs ne-gre, in Spain. Some varieties of long-grain rice that arehigh in amylopectin, known as Thai Sticky rice, are usu-ally steamed.[15] A stickier medium-grain rice is used forsushi; the stickiness allows rice to hold its shape whenmolded. Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding.Instant rice diers from parboiled rice in that it is fullycooked and then dried, though there is a signicant degra-dation in taste and texture. Rice our and starch often areused in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.

2.1 Preparation

Milled to unmilled rice, from left to right, white rice (Japaneserice), rice with germ, brown rice

Rice is typically rinsed before cooking to remove excessstarch. Rice produced in the US is usually fortied withvitamins and minerals, and rinsing will result in a loss ofnutrients. Rice may be rinsed repeatedly until the rinsewater is clear to improve the texture and taste rice.

2.3 Dishes 3

A: Rice with chaB: Brown riceC: Rice with germD: White rice with bran residueE: Musenmai (Japanese: ), Polished and ready to boil rice,literally, non-wash rice(1): Cha(2): Bran(3): Bran residue(4): Cereal germ(5): Endosperm

Rice may be soaked to decrease cooking time, conservefuel, minimize exposure to high temperature, and reducestickiness. For some varieties, soaking improves the tex-ture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of thegrains. Rice may be soaked for 30 minutes up to severalhours.Brown rice may be soaked in warm water for 20 hours tostimulate germination. This process, called germinatedbrown rice (GBR),[16] activates enzymes and enhancesamino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to im-prove the nutritional value of brown rice. This methodis a result of research carried out for the United NationsInternational Year of Rice.

2.2 Processing

Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs waterduring cooking. With the absorption method, rice maybe cooked in a volume of water similar to the volume ofrice. With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked ina large quantity of water which is drained before serving.Rapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice,as much of the enrichment additives are lost when thewater is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asiaand Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice.Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oilor fat before boiling (for example saron rice or risotto);this makes the cooked rice less sticky, and is a cookingstyle commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan orbiryani (Dam-pukhtak) in India and Pakistan.

2.3 Dishes

Main article: List of rice dishes

In Arab cuisine, rice is an ingredient of many soups anddishes with sh, poultry, and other types of meat. It isalso used to stu vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves(dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey,it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such asTabaristan, bread is made using rice our. Medieval Is-lamic texts spoke of medical uses for the plant.[17] Ricemay also be made into congee (also called rice porridge,fawrclaab, okayu, Xifan, jook, or rice gruel) by addingmore water than usual, so that the cooked rice is satu-rated with water, usually to the point that it disintegrates.Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, andis also a traditional food for the sick.

3 Nutrition and health

3.1 Nutrients and the nutritional impor-tance of rice

Rice is the staple food of over half the worlds popula-tion. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17countries in Asia and the Pacic, 9 countries in North andSouth America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides20% of the worlds dietary energy supply, while wheatsupplies 19% and maize (corn) 5%.[18]

A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggeststhat the nutrition value of rice varies based on a num-ber of factors. It depends on the strain of rice, that isbetween white, brown, black, red and purple varieties ofrice each prevalent in dierent parts of the world. Italso depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grownin, whether and how the rice is polished or processed,the manner it is enriched, and how it is prepared beforeconsumption.[19]

An illustrative comparison between white and brown riceof protein quality, mineral and vitamin quality, carbohy-drate and fat quality suggests that neither is a completenutrition source. Between the two, there is a signicantdierence in ber content and minor dierences in othernutrients.[20]

Brilliantly colored rice strains, such as purple rice, de-rive their color from anthocyanins and tocols. Scienticstudies suggest that these color pigments have antioxi-dant properties that may be useful to human health. Inpurple rice bran, hydrophilic antioxidants are in greaterquantity and have higher free radical scavenging activitythan lipophilic antioxidants. Anthocyanins and -tocolsin purple rice are largely located in the inner portion ofpurple rice bran.[21]

Comparative nutrition studies on red, black and white va-

4 5 HISTORY OF DOMESTICATION AND CULTIVATION

rieties of rice suggest that pigments in red and black ricevarieties may oer nutritional benets. Red or black riceconsumption was found to reduce or retard the progres-sion of atherosclerotic plaque development, induced bydietary cholesterol, in mammals. White rice consump-tion oered no similar benets, and the study claims thisto be due to absent antioxidants in red and black varietiesof rice.[22]

3.2 Comparison of rice to other major sta-ple foods

The table below shows the nutrient content of major sta-ple foods in a raw form. Raw grains, however, are notedible and can not be digested. These must be sprouted,or prepared and cooked for human consumption. Insprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional andanti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remark-ably dierent from that of raw form of these grains re-ported in this table.

3.3 Arsenic concernsMain article: Arsenic toxicity

Rice and rice products contain arsenic, a known poisonand Group 1 carcinogen.[24] There is no safe level of ar-senic, but, as of 2012, a limit of 10 parts per billion hasbeen established in the United States for drinking water,twice the level of 5 parts per billion originally proposed bythe EPA. Consumption of one serving of some varietiesof rice gives more exposure to arsenic than consumptionof 1 liter of water that contains 5 parts per billion arsenic;however, the amount of arsenic in rice varies widely withthe greatest concentration in brown rice and rice grown onland formerly used to grow cotton; in the United States,Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas.[25] The U.S.Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is studying this is-sue, but has not established a limit.[26] China has set alimit of 150 ppb for arsenic in rice.[27]

White rice grown in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri,and Texas, which account for 76 percent of American-produced rice had higher levels of arsenic than other re-gions of the world studied, possibly because of past use ofarsenic-based pesticides to control cotton weevils.[28] Jas-mine rice from Thailand and Basmati rice from Pakistanand India contain the least arsenic among rice varieties inone study.[29]

3.4 Bacillus cereusCooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, whichproduce an emetic toxin when left at 460 C (39140 F). When storing cooked rice for use the nextday, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxin

production.[30] One of the enterotoxins produced byBacillus cereus is heat-resistant; reheating contaminatedrice kills the bacteria, but does not destroy the toxin al-ready present.

4 Rice-growing environmentsRice can be grown in dierent environments, depend-ing upon water availability.[31] Generally, rice does notthrive in a waterlogged area, yet it can survive and growherein[32] and it can also survive ooding.[33]

1. Lowland, rainfed, which is drought prone, fa-vors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, andood prone

2. Lowland, irrigated, grown in both the wet seasonand the dry season

3. Deep water or oating rice

4. Coastal Wetland

5. Upland rice is also known as Ghaiya rice, wellknown for its drought tolerance[34]

5 History of domestication and cul-tivation

Rice broker in 1820s Japan of the Edo period ("36 Views ofMount Fuji" Hokusai)

See also: Oryza sativa History of domestication andcultivation

There have been plenty of debates on the origins of thedomesticated rice. Genetic evidence published in theProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America (PNAS) shows that all forms ofAsian rice, both indica and japonica, spring from a singledomestication that occurred 8,20013,500 years ago inChina of the wild rice Oryza rupogon.[4] A 2012 study

5published in Nature, through a map of rice genome vari-ation, indicated that the domestication of rice occurredin the Pearl River valley region of China based on thegenetic evidence. From East Asia, rice was spread toSouth and Southeast Asia.[5] Before this research, thecommonly accepted view, based on archaeological evi-dence, is that rice was rst domesticated in the region ofthe Yangtze River valley in China.[35][36]

Morphological studies of rice phytoliths from the Diao-tonghuan archaeological site clearly show the transitionfrom the collection of wild rice to the cultivation of do-mesticated rice. The large number of wild rice phytolithsat the Diaotonghuan level dating from 12,00011,000 BPindicates that wild rice collection was part of the localmeans of subsistence. Changes in the morphology ofDiaotonghuan phytoliths dating from 10,0008,000 BPshow that rice had by this time been domesticated.[37]Soon afterwards the two major varieties of indica andjaponica rice were being grown in Central China.[36] Inthe late 3rd millennium BC, there was a rapid expansionof rice cultivation into mainland Southeast Asia and west-wards across India and Nepal.[36]

In 2003, Korean archaeologists claimed to have dis-covered the worlds oldest domesticated rice.[38] Their15,000-year old age challenges the accepted view thatrice cultivation originated in China about 12,000 yearsago.[38] These ndings were received by academia withstrong skepticism,[39] and the results and their publiciz-ing has been cited as being driven by a combination ofnationalist and regional interests.[40] In 2011, a combinedeort by the Stanford University, New York University,Washington University in St. Louis, and Purdue Univer-sity has provided the strongest evidence yet that there isonly one single origin of domesticated rice, in the YangtzeValley of China.[41][42]

The earliest remains of the grain in the Indian subconti-nent have been found in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and datefrom 70006000 BC though the earliest widely accepteddate for cultivated rice is placed at around 30002500BC with ndings in regions belonging to the Indus Val-ley Civilization. Perennial wild rices still grow in Assamand Nepal. It seems to have appeared around 1400 BCin southern India after its domestication in the northernplains. It then spread to all the fertile alluvial plains wa-tered by rivers. Cultivation and cooking methods arethought to have spread to the west rapidly and bymedievaltimes, southern Europe saw the introduction of rice as ahearty grain.Rice spread to the Middle East where, according to Zo-hary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), O. sativa was recoveredfrom a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the 1st century AD).

6 Regional historyIn a recent study,[43] scientist have found a link for dif-ferences in human culture based on either wheat or ricecultivating races since ancient times.

6.1 Africa

Main article: Oryza glaberrimaAfrican rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between

Rice crop in Madagascar

1500 and 800 BC, Oryza glaberrima propagated from itsoriginal centre, the Niger River delta, and extended toSenegal. However, it never developed far from its origi-nal region. Its cultivation even declined in favour of theAsian species, which was introduced to East Africa earlyin the common era and spread westward.[44] African ricehelped Africa conquer its famine of 1203.[45]

6.2 Asia

Aerial view of terrace rice elds in Yuanyang, Yunnan Province,southern China

Today, the majority of all rice produced comes fromChina, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand,Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Korea and Japan. Asian

6 6 REGIONAL HISTORY

Rice elds in Dili/East Timor

Indian women separating rice from straw

farmers still account for 87% of the worlds total rice pro-duction.

6.2.1 Sri Lanka

Rice is the staple food amongst all the ethnic groups inSri Lanka. Agriculture in Sri Lanka mainly dependson the rice cultivation. Rice production is acutely de-pendent on rainfall and government supply necessity ofwater through irrigation channels throughout the cultiva-tion seasons. The principal cultivation season, known asMaha, is from October to March and the subsidiarycultivation season, known as Yala, is from April toSeptember. During Maha season, there is usually enoughwater to sustain the cultivation of all rice elds, neverthe-less in Yala season there is only enough water for cultiva-tion of half of the land extent.Traditional rice varieties are now making a comebackwith the recent interest in green foods.

6.2.2 Thailand

Rice is the main export of Thailand, especially the whitejasmine rice 105 (Dok Mali 105).[46] Thailand has alarge number of rice varieties, 3,500 kinds with dier-

ent characters, and 5 kinds of wild rice cultivates.[47] Ineach region of the country there are dierent rice seedtypes. Their use depends on weather, atmosphere, andtopography.[48]

The northern region has both low lands and high lands.The farmers usual crop is non-glutinous rice [48] suchas Niew Sun Pah Tong rice seeds. This rice is naturallyprotected from leaf disease, and the paddy has a browncolor.[49] The northeastern region has a large area, wherefarmers can cultivate about 36 million square meters ofrice. Although most of them are plains and dry areas,[50]they can grow the white jasmine rice 105 which is themost famous Thai rice. The white jasmine rice was de-veloped in Chonburi province rst and after that it wasgrown in many areas in the country but the rice from thisregion has a high quality, because its softer, whiter andmore fragrant.[51] This rice can resist drought, acidic soil,and alkaline soil.[52]

The central region is mostly composed of plains. Mostfarmers grow Jao rice.[50] For example the Pathum Thani1 rice which has qualities similar to the white jasmine 105rice. Their paddy has the color of thatch and their cookedrice has fragrant grains also.[53]

In the southern region, most farmers transplant aroundboundaries to the ood of plain or plain between moun-tains. Farming is the region is slower than other regionsbecause the rainy season comes late.[54] The popular ricevarieties in this area are the Leb Nok Pattani seeds, a typeof Jao rice. Their paddy has the color of thatch and it canbe processed to make noodles.[55]

6.2.3 Companion plant

One of the earliest known examples of companion plant-ing is the growing of rice with Azolla, the mosquito fern,which covers the top of a fresh rice paddys water, block-ing out any competing plants, as well as xing nitrogenfrom the atmosphere for the rice to use. The rice isplanted when it is tall enough to poke out above the azolla.This method has been used for at least a thousand years.

6.3 Middle EastRice was grown in some areas of southern Iraq. Withthe rise of Islam it moved north to Nisibin, the southernshores of the Caspian Sea(Iran)[56] and then beyond theMuslim world into the valley of the Volga. In Egypt, riceis mainly grown in the Nile Delta. In Israel, rice cameto be grown in the Jordan Valley. Rice is also grown inSaudi Arabia at Al-hasa Oasis and in Yemen.[57]

6.4 EuropeRice was known to the Classical world, being importedfrom Egypt, and perhaps west Asia. It was known to

6.6 United States 7

Greece by returning soldiers from Alexander the Greatsmilitary expedition to Asia. Large deposits of rice fromthe rst century A.D. have been found in Roman campsin Germany.[58]

The Moors brought Asiatic rice to the Iberian Peninsulain the 10th century. Records indicate it was grown inValencia and Majorca. In Majorca, rice cultivation seemsto have stopped after the Christian conquest, althoughhistorians are not certain.[57]

Muslims also brought rice to Sicily, where it was an im-portant crop[57] long before it is noted in the plain of Pisa(1468) or in the Lombard plain (1475), where its cultiva-tion was promoted by Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan,and demonstrated in his model farms.[59]

After the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy andthen France, later propagating to all the continents duringthe age of European exploration.In European Russia, a short-grain, starchy rice sim-ilar to the Italian varieties, has been grown in theKrasnodar Krai, and known in Russia as Kuban Rice orKrasnodar Rice. In the Russian Far East several japon-ica cultivars are grown in Primorye around the Khankalake. Increasing scale of rice production in the region hasrecently brought criticism towards growers alleged badpractices in regards to the environment.

6.5 Caribbean and Latin America

Rice is not native to the Americas but was introducedto Latin America and the Caribbean by European colo-nizers at an early date with Spanish colonizers introduc-ing Asian rice to Mexico in the 1520s at Veracruz andthe Portuguese and their African slaves introducing it atabout the same time to colonial Brazil.[60] Recent schol-arship suggests that enslaved Africans played an activerole in the establishment of rice in the New World andthat African rice was an important crop from an earlyperiod.[61] Varieties of rice and bean dishes that were astaple dish along the peoples of West Africa remained astaple among their descendants subjected to slavery in theSpanish NewWorld colonies, Brazil and elsewhere in theAmericas.[45]

The Native Americans of what is now the Eastern UnitedStates may have practiced extensive agriculture withforms of wild rice (Zizania palustris), which looks sim-ilar to but it not directly related to rice.

6.6 United States

In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably origi-nating from Madagascar.[60]

In the United States, colonial South Carolina and Georgiagrew and amassed great wealth from the slave labor ob-tained from the Senegambia area ofWest Africa and from

South Carolina rice plantation, showing a Winnowing barn(Manseld Plantation, Georgetown)

coastal Sierra Leone. At the port of Charleston, throughwhich 40% of all American slave imports passed, slavesfrom this region of Africa brought the highest prices dueto their prior knowledge of rice culture, which was putto use on the many rice plantations around Georgetown,Charleston, and Savannah.From the enslaved Africans, plantation owners learnedhow to dyke the marshes and periodically ood the elds.At rst the rice was laboriously milled by hand usinglarge mortars and pestles made of wood, then winnowedin sweetgrass baskets (the making of which was anotherskill brought by slaves from Africa). The invention of therice mill increased protability of the crop, and the ad-dition of water power for the mills in 1787 by millwrightJonathan Lucas was another step forward.Rice culture in the southeastern U.S. became less prof-itable with the loss of slave labor after the AmericanCivil War, and it nally died out just after the turn of the20th century. Today, people can visit the only remainingrice plantation in South Carolina that still has the originalwinnowing barn and rice mill from the mid-19th centuryat the historic Manseld Plantation in Georgetown, SouthCarolina. The predominant strain of rice in the Carolinaswas from Africa and was known as Carolina Gold. Thecultivar has been preserved and there are current attemptsto reintroduce it as a commercially grown crop.[62]

In the southern United States, rice has been grown insouthern Arkansas, Louisiana, and east Texas since themid-19th century. Many Cajun farmers grew rice in wetmarshes and low lying prairies where they could also farmcraysh when the elds were ooded.[63] In recent yearsrice production has risen in North America, especiallyin the Mississippi embayment in the states of Arkansasand Mississippi (see also Arkansas Delta and MississippiDelta).Rice cultivation began in California during the CaliforniaGold Rush, when an estimated 40,000 Chinese labor-ers immigrated to the state and grew small amounts ofthe grain for their own consumption. However, com-

8 7 PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE

Rice paddy elds just north of the city of Sacramento, California

mercial production began only in 1912 in the town ofRichvale in Butte County.[64] By 2006, California pro-duced the second largest rice crop in the United States,[65]after Arkansas, with production concentrated in sixcounties north of Sacramento.[66] Unlike the ArkansasMississippi Delta region, Californias production is dom-inated by short- and medium-grain japonica varieties, in-cluding cultivars developed for the local climate such asCalrose, which makes up as much as 85% of the statescrop.[67]

References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unre-lated Zizania palustrisMore than 100 varieties of rice are commercially pro-duced primarily in six states (Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana,Mississippi, Missouri, and California) in the U.S.[68] Ac-cording to estimates for the 2006 crop year, rice produc-tion in the U.S. is valued at $1.88 billion, approximatelyhalf of which is expected to be exported. The U.S. pro-vides about 12% of world rice trade.[68] The majority ofdomestic utilization of U.S. rice is direct food use (58%),while 16% is used in each of processed foods and beer.10% is found in pet food.[68]

6.7 AustraliaRice was one of the earliest crops planted in Australia byBritish settlers, who had experience with rice plantationsin the Americas and India.Although attempts to grow rice in the well-waterednorth of Australia have been made for many years, theyhave consistently failed because of inherent iron andmanganese toxicities in the soils and destruction by pests.In the 1920s it was seen as a possible irrigation crop onsoils within theMurray-Darling Basin that were too heavyfor the cultivation of fruit and too infertile for wheat.[69]

Because irrigation water, despite the extremely low runoof temperate Australia,[70] was (and remains) very cheap,the growing of rice was taken up by agricultural groupsover the following decades. Californian varieties of rice

were found suitable for the climate in the Riverina,[69] andthe rst mill opened at Leeton in 1951.

0

5

10

15

20

25

1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Monthly value (A$ millions) of rice imports to Australia since1988

Even before this Australias rice production greatly ex-ceeded local needs,[69] and rice exports to Japan have be-come a major source of foreign currency. Above-averagerainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s[71] encour-aged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but itsprodigious water use in a practically waterless region be-gan to attract the attention of environmental scientists.These became severely concerned with declining ow inthe Snowy River and the lower Murray River.Although rice growing in Australia is highly protabledue to the cheapness of land, several recent years of se-vere drought have led many to call for its elimination be-cause of its eects on extremely fragile aquatic ecosys-tems. The Australian rice industry is somewhat oppor-tunistic, with the area planted varying signicantly fromseason to season depending on water allocations in theMurray and Murrumbidgee irrigation regions.

7 Production and commerce

7.1 Production

Worldwide rice production

The world dedicated 162.3 million hectares in 2012 forrice cultivation and the total production was about 738.1

7.1 Production 9

Burning of rice residues after harvest, to quickly prepare the landfor wheat planting, around Sangrur, Punjab, India.

million tonnes.[73] The average world farm yield for ricewas 4.5 tonnes per hectare, in 2012.[73]

Rice farms in Egypt were the most productive in 2012,with a nationwide average of 9.5 tonnes per hectare.[74]Second place: Australia - 8.9 tonnes per hectare.[74] Thirdplace: USA - 8.3 tonnes per hectare.[74]

Rice is a major food staple and a mainstay for the ruralpopulation and their food security. It is mainly cultivatedby small farmers in holdings of less than 1 hectare. Riceis also a wage commodity for workers in the cash crop ornon-agricultural sectors. Rice is vital for the nutrition ofmuch of the population in Asia, as well as in Latin Amer-ica and the Caribbean and in Africa; it is central to thefood security of over half the world population. Devel-oping countries account for 95% of the total production,with China and India alone responsible for nearly half ofthe world output.[75]

World production of rice has risen steadily from about200 million tonnes of paddy rice in 1960 to over 678 mil-lion tonnes in 2009. The three largest producers of ricein 2009 were China (197 million tonnes), India (131 Mt),and Indonesia (64 Mt). Among the six largest rice pro-ducers, the most productive farms for rice, in 2009, werein China producing 6.59 tonnes per hectare.[76]

Many rice grain producing countries have signicantlosses post-harvest at the farm and because of poor roads,inadequate storage technologies, inecient supply chainsand farmers inability to bring the produce into retail mar-kets dominated by small shopkeepers. A World Bank FAO study claims 8% to 26% of rice is lost in devel-oping nations, on average, every year, because of post-harvest problems and poor infrastructure. Some sourcesclaim the post-harvest losses to exceed 40%.,[75][77] Notonly do these losses reduce food security in the world, thestudy claims that farmers in developing countries such asChina, India and others lose approximately US$89 billionof income in preventable post-harvest farm losses, poortransport, the lack of proper storage and retail. One studyclaims that if these post-harvest grain losses could beeliminated with better infrastructure and retail network,

in India alone enough food would be saved every year tofeed 70 to 100 million people over a year.[78] However,other writers have warned against dramatic assessmentsof post-harvest food losses, arguing that worst-case sce-narios tend to be used rather than realistic averages andthat in many cases the cost of avoiding losses exceeds thevalue of the food saved.[79]

The seeds of the rice plant are rst milled using a ricehuller to remove the cha (the outer husks of the grain).At this point in the process, the product is called brownrice. The milling may be continued, removing the bran,i.e., the rest of the husk and the germ, thereby creatingwhite rice. White rice, which keeps longer, lacks someimportant nutrients; moreover, in a limited diet whichdoes not supplement the rice, brown rice helps to preventthe disease beriberi.Either by hand or in a rice polisher, white rice may bebued with glucose or talc powder (often called polishedrice, though this term may also refer to white rice in gen-eral), parboiled, or processed into our. White rice mayalso be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lostduring the milling process. While the cheapest method ofenriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrientsthat will easily wash o (in the United States, rice whichhas been so treated requires a label warning against rins-ing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directlyto the grain, coating the grain with a water-insoluble sub-stance which is resistant to washing.In some countries, a popular form, parboiled rice, is sub-jected to a steaming or parboiling process while still abrown rice grain. This causes nutrients from the outerhusk, especially thiamine, to move into the grain itself.The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starchin the grains. The grains become less brittle, and the colorof themilled grain changes fromwhite to yellow. The riceis then dried, and can then be milled as usual or used asbrown rice. Milled parboiled rice is nutritionally superiorto standard milled rice. Parboiled rice has an additionalbenet in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking,as happens when cooking regular white rice. This type ofrice is eaten in parts of India and countries ofWest Africaare also accustomed to consuming parboiled rice.Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stom-ach cancer),[80][81] talc-coated rice remains the norm insome countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, butit has been banned in some, and is no longer widely usedin others (such as the United States). Even where talc isnot used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may be usedto improve the appearance of the grains.Rice bran, called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodityin Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oilyinner layer which is heated to produce oil. It is also usedas a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and takuan.Raw rice may be ground into our for many uses, includ-ing making many kinds of beverages, such as amazake,horchata, rice milk, and rice wine. Rice our does not

10 7 PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE

contain gluten, so is suitable for people on a gluten-freediet. Ricemay also bemade into various types of noodles.Raw, wild, or brown rice may also be consumed by raw-foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually aweek to 30 days gaba rice).Processed rice seeds must be boiled or steamed beforeeating. Boiled rice may be further fried in cooking oil orbutter (known as fried rice), or beaten in a tub to makemochi.Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in manyparts of the world, but it is not a complete protein: it doesnot contain all of the essential amino acids in sucientamounts for good health, and should be combined withother sources of protein, such as nuts, seeds, beans, sh,or meat.[82]

Rice, like other cereal grains, can be pued (or popped).This process takes advantage of the grains water contentand typically involves heating grains in a special chamber.Further pung is sometimes accomplished by processingpued pellets in a low-pressure chamber. The ideal gaslawmeans either lowering the local pressure or raising thewater temperature results in an increase in volume priorto water evaporation, resulting in a puy texture. Bulkraw rice density is about 0.9 g/cm. It decreases to lessthan one-tenth that when pued.

7.2 Harvesting, drying and milling

Rice combine harvester Katori-city, Japan

Further information: Paddy eld

Unmilled rice, known as paddy (Indonesia and Malaysia:padi; Philippines, palay), is usually harvested when thegrains have a moisture content of around 25%. In mostAsian countries, where rice is almost entirely the productof smallholder agriculture, harvesting is carried out man-ually, although there is a growing interest in mechanicalharvesting. Harvesting can be carried out by the farmersthemselves, but is also frequently done by seasonal labourgroups. Harvesting is followed by threshing, either imme-

After the harvest, rice straw is gathered in the traditional wayfrom small paddy elds in Mae Wang District, Chiang MaiProvince, Thailand

diately or within a day or two. Again, much threshing isstill carried out by hand but there is an increasing use ofmechanical threshers. Subsequently, paddy needs to bedried to bring down the moisture content to no more than20% for milling.A familiar sight in several Asian countries is paddy laidout to dry along roads. However, in most countries thebulk of drying of marketed paddy takes place in mills,with village-level drying being used for paddy to be con-sumed by farm families. Mills either sun dry or use me-chanical driers or both. Drying has to be carried outquickly to avoid the formation of moulds. Mills rangefrom simple hullers, with a throughput of a couple oftonnes a day, that simply remove the outer husk, to enor-mous operations that can process 4,000 tonnes a day andproduce highly polished rice. A good mill can achieve apaddy-to-rice conversion rate of up to 72% but smaller,inecient mills often struggle to achieve 60%. Thesesmaller mills often do not buy paddy and sell rice but onlyservice farmers whowant to mill their paddy for their ownconsumption.

7.3 DistributionBecause of the importance of rice to human nutritionand food security in Asia, the domestic rice markets tendto be subject to considerable state involvement. Whilethe private sector plays a leading role in most countries,agencies such as BULOG in Indonesia, the NFA in thePhilippines, VINAFOOD in Vietnam and the Food Cor-poration of India are all heavily involved in purchasing ofpaddy from farmers or rice from mills and in distributingrice to poorer people. BULOG and NFAmonopolise riceimports into their countries while VINAFOOD controlsall exports from Vietnam.[83]

7.4 TradeWorld trade gures are very dierent from those forproduction, as less than 8% of rice produced is tradedinternationally.[84] In economic terms, the global ricetrade was a small fraction of 1% of world mercantile

11

trade. Many countries consider rice as a strategic foodstaple, and various governments subject its trade to a widerange of controls and interventions.Developing countries are the main players in the worldrice trade, accounting for 83% of exports and 85% ofimports. While there are numerous importers of rice,the exporters of rice are limited. Just ve countries Thailand, Vietnam, China, the United States and India in decreasing order of exported quantities, accountedfor about three-quarters of world rice exports in 2002.[75]However, this ranking has been rapidly changing in re-cent years. In 2010, the three largest exporters of rice,in decreasing order of quantity exported were Thailand,Vietnam and India. By 2012, India became the largest ex-porter of rice with a 100% increase in its exports on yearto year basis, and Thailand slipped to third position.[85][86]Together, Thailand, Vietnam and India accounted fornearly 70% of the world rice exports.The primary variety exported by Thailand and Vietnamwere Jasmine rice, while exports from India included aro-matic Basmati variety. China, an exporter of rice inearly 2000s, was a net importer of rice in 2010 and willbecome the largest net importer, surpassing Nigeria, in2013.[84][87] According to a USDA report, the worldslargest exporters of rice in 2012 were India (9.75 mil-lion tonnes), Vietnam (7 million tonnes), Thailand (6.5million tonnes), Pakistan (3.75 million tonnes) and theUnited States (3.5 million tonnes).[88]

Major importers usually include Nigeria, Indonesia,Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, thePhilippines, Brazil and some African and Persian Gulfcountries. In common with other West African coun-tries, Nigeria is actively promoting domestic production.However, its very heavy import duties (110%) open it tosmuggling from neighboring countries.[89] Parboiled riceis particularly popular in Nigeria. Although China andIndia are the two largest producers of rice in the world,both countries consume the majority of the rice produceddomestically, leaving little to be traded internationally.

7.5 Worlds most productive rice farmsand farmers

The average world yield for rice was 4.3 tonnes perhectare, in 2010.Australian rice farms were the most productive in 2010,with a nationwide average of 10.8 tonnes per hectare.[90]

Yuan Longping of China National Hybrid Rice Researchand Development Center, China, set a world record forrice yield in 2010 at 19 tonnes per hectare on a demon-stration plot. In 2011, this record was surpassed by an In-dian farmer, Sumant Kumar, with 22.4 tonnes per hectarein Bihar. Both these farmers claim to have employednewly developed rice breeds and System of Rice Inten-sication (SRI), a recent innovation in rice farming. SRI

is claimed to have set new national records in rice yields,within the last 10 years, in many countries. The claimedChinese and Indian yields have yet to be demonstrated onseven-hectare lots and to be reproducible over two con-secutive years on the same farm.[91][92][93][94]

8 Price

In late 2007 to May 2008, the price of grains rose greatlydue to droughts in major producing countries (particu-larly Australia), increased use of grains for animal feedand US subsidies for bio-fuel production. Although therewas no shortage of rice on world markets this general up-ward trend in grain prices led to panic buying by con-sumers, government rice export bans (in particular, byVietnam and India) and inated import orders by thePhilippines marketing board, the National Food Author-ity. This caused signicant rises in rice prices. In lateApril 2008, prices hit 24 US cents a pound, twice theprice of seven months earlier.[95] Over the period of 2007to 2013, the Chinese government has substantially in-creased the price it pays domestic farmers for their rice,rising to US$500 per metric ton by 2013.[84] The 2013price of rice originating from other southeast Asian coun-tries was a comparably low US$350 per metric ton.[84]

OnApril 30, 2008, Thailand announced plans for the cre-ation of the Organisation of Rice Exporting Countries(OREC) with the intention that this should develop into aprice-xing cartel for rice.[96][97] However, little progresshad been made by mid-2011 to achieve this.

8.1 Worldwide consumption

As of 2009 world food consumption of rice was 531.6million metric tons of paddy equivalent (354,603 ofmilled equivalent), while the far largest consumers wereChina consuming 156.3 million metric tons of paddyequivalent (29.4% of the world consumption) and Indiaconsuming 123.5 million metric tons of paddy equivalent(23.3% of the world consumption).[98] Between 1961 and2002, per capita consumption of rice increased by 40%.Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia,for example, 90% of the total agricultural area is used forrice production.[99]

U.S. rice consumption has risen sharply over the past 25years, fueled in part by commercial applications such asbeer production.[100] Almost one in ve adult Americansnow report eating at least half a serving of white or brownrice per day.[101]

12 10 PESTS AND DISEASES

Work by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture tomeasure the greenhouse gas emissions of rice production.

9 Environmental impactsRice cultivation on wetland rice elds is thought tobe responsible for 1.5% of the anthropogenic methaneemissions.[102] Rice requires slightly more water to pro-duce than other grains.[103] Rice production uses almosta third of Earths fresh water.[104]

Long-term ooding of rice elds cuts the soil o fromatmospheric oxygen and causes anaerobic fermentationof organic matter in the soil.[105] Methane productionfrom rice cultivation contributes ~1.5% of anthropogenicgreenhouse gases.[106] Methane is twenty times more po-tent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.[107]

A2010 study found that, as a result of rising temperaturesand decreasing solar radiation during the later years ofthe 20th century, the rice yield growth rate has decreasedin many parts of Asia, compared to what would havebeen observed had the temperature and solar radiationtrends not occurred.[108][109] The yield growth rate hadfallen 1020% at some locations. The study was basedon records from 227 farms in Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal,India, China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The mechanismof this falling yield was not clear, but might involve in-creased respiration during warm nights, which expendsenergy without being able to photosynthesize.

10 Pests and diseasesRice pests are any organisms or microbes with the poten-tial to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or ofrice seeds).[110] Rice pests include weeds, pathogens, in-sects, nematode, rodents, and birds. A variety of factorscan contribute to pest outbreaks, including climatic fac-tors, improper irrigation, the overuse of insecticides andhigh rates of nitrogen fertilizer application.[111] Weatherconditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For exam-ple, rice gall midge and army worm outbreaks tend to fol-low periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, whilethrips outbreaks are associated with drought.[112]

10.1 Insects

Major rice insect pests include: the brown planthopper(BPH),[113] several spp. of stemborers including thosein the genera Scirpophaga and Chilo,[114] the rice gallmidge,[115] several spp. of rice bugs[116] notably in thegenus Leptocorisa,[117] the rice leafroller and rice weevils.

10.2 Diseases

Main article: List of rice diseases

Rice blast, caused by the fungusMagnaporthe grisea,[118]is the most signicant disease aecting rice cultiva-tion. Other major rice diseases include: sheath blight,rice ragged stunt (vector: BPH), and tungro (vector:Nephotettix spp).[119] There is also an ascomycete fungus,Cochliobolus miyabeanus, that causes brown spot diseasein rice.[120][121]

10.3 Nematodes

Several nematode species infect rice crops, causing dis-eases such as Ufra (Ditylenchus dipsaci), White tipdisease (Aphelenchoide bessei), and root knot disease(Meloidogyne graminicola). Some nematode speciessuch as Pratylenchus spp. are most dangerous in up-land rice of all parts of the world. Rice root nema-tode (Hirschmanniella oryzae) is a migratory endopara-site which on higher inoculum levels will lead to completedestruction of a rice crop. Beyond being obligate para-sites, they also decrease the vigor of plants and increasethe plants susceptibility to other pests and diseases.

10.4 Other Pests

These include: the apple snail Pomacea canaliculata,panicle rice mite, rats,[122] and the weed Echinochloacrusgali.[123]

10.5 Integrated Pest Management

Main article: Integrated Pest Management

Crop protection scientists are trying to develop rice pestmanagement techniques which are sustainable. In otherwords, to manage crop pests in such a manner that fu-ture crop production is not threatened.[124] Sustainablepest management is based on four principles: biodiver-sity, host plant resistance (HPR), landscape ecology, andhierarchies in a landscape from biological to social.[125]At present, rice pest management includes cultural tech-niques, pest-resistant rice varieties, and pesticides (whichinclude insecticide). Increasingly, there is evidence

10.6 Parasitic weeds 13

that farmers pesticide applications are often unneces-sary, and even facilitate pest outbreaks.[126][127][128][129]By reducing the populations of natural enemies of ricepests,[130] misuse of insecticides can actually lead topest outbreaks.[131] The International Rice Research In-stitute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% re-duction in pesticide use can lead to an overall dropin pest numbers.[132] IRRI also conducted two cam-paigns in 1994 and 2003, respectively, which discour-aged insecticide misuse and smarter pest management inVietnam.[133][134]

Rice plants produce their own chemical defenses to pro-tect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chem-icals, such as the herbicide 2,4-D, cause the plant to in-crease the production of certain defensive chemicals andthereby increase the plants resistance to some types ofpests.[135] Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insec-ticide imidacloprid, can induce changes in the gene ex-pression of the rice that cause the plant to become moresusceptible to attacks by certain types of pests.[136] 5-Alkylresorcinols are chemicals that can also be found inrice.[137]

Botanicals, so-called natural pesticides, are used bysome farmers in an attempt to control rice pests. Botani-cals include extracts of leaves, or a mulch of the leavesthemselves. Some upland rice farmers in Cambodiaspread chopped leaves of the bitter bush (Chromolaenaodorata) over the surface of elds after planting. Thispractice probably helps the soil retain moisture andthereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claimthe leaves are a natural fertilizer and helps suppress weedand insect infestations.[138]

Chloroxylon is used for Pest Management in Organic Rice Culti-vation in Chhattisgarh, India

Among rice cultivars, there are dierences in the re-sponses to, and recovery from, pest damage.[116][139]Many rice varieties have been selected for resistance toinsect pests.[140][141] Therefore, particular cultivars arerecommended for areas prone to certain pest problems.The genetically based ability of a rice variety to withstandpest attacks is called resistance. Threemain types of plantresistance to pests are recognized as nonpreference, an-

tibiosis, and tolerance.[142] Nonpreference (or antixeno-sis) describes host plants which insects prefer to avoid;antibiosis is where insect survival is reduced after the in-gestion of host tissue; and tolerance is the capacity of aplant to produce high yield or retain high quality despiteinsect infestation.[143]

Over time, the use of pest resistant rice varieties selectsfor pests that are able to overcome these mechanisms ofresistance. When a rice variety is no longer able to re-sist pest infestations, resistance is said to have brokendown. Rice varieties that can be widely grown for manyyears in the presence of pests and retain their ability towithstand the pests are said to have durable resistance.Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screenedby plant breeders to discover new sources of durableresistance.[142][144]

10.6 Parasitic weeds

Rice is parasitized by the weed eudicot Striga hermonth-ica.[145] which is of local importance for this crop.

11 Ecotypes and cultivarsMain article: List of rice varietiesWhile most rice is bred for crop quality and productiv-

Rice seed collection from IRRI

14 12 BIOTECHNOLOGY

ity, there are varieties selected for characteristics such astexture, smell, and rmness. There are four major cate-gories of rice worldwide: indica, japonica, aromatic andglutinous. The dierent varieties of rice are not consid-ered interchangeable, either in food preparation or agri-culture, so as a result, each major variety is a completelyseparate market from other varieties. It is common forone variety of rice to rise in price while another one dropsin price.[146]

Rice cultivars also fall into groups according to environ-mental conditions, season of planting, and season of har-vest, called ecotypes. Some major groups are the Japan-type (grown in Japan), buly and tjereh types (Indone-sia); aman (main winter crop), aus (aush, summer),and boro (spring) (Bengal and Assam).[147][148] Culti-vars exist that are adapted to deep ooding, and these aregenerally called oating rice.[149]

The largest collection of rice cultivars is at theInternational Rice Research Institute[150] in the Philip-pines, with over 100,000 rice accessions[151] held in theInternational Rice Genebank.[152] Rice cultivars are oftenclassied by their grain shapes and texture. For example,Thai Jasmine rice is long-grain and relatively less sticky,as some long-grain rice contains less amylopectin thanshort-grain cultivars. Chinese restaurants often servelong-grain as plain unseasoned steamed rice though short-grain rice is common as well. Japanese mochi rice andChinese sticky rice are short-grain. Chinese people usesticky rice which is properly known as glutinous rice(note: glutinous refer to the glue-like characteristic ofrice; does not refer to gluten) to make zongzi. TheJapanese table rice is a sticky, short-grain rice. Japanesesake rice is another kind as well.Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromaticBasmati () (grown in the North), long andmedium-grained Patna rice, and in South India (AndhraPradesh and Karnataka) short-grained Sona Masuri (alsocalled as Bangaru theegalu). In the state of Tamil Nadu,the most prized cultivar is ponni which is primarily grownin the delta regions of the Kaveri River. Kaveri is alsoreferred to as ponni in the South and the name reectsthe geographic region where it is grown. In the WesternIndian state of Maharashtra, a short grain variety calledAmbemohar is very popular. This rice has a characteris-tic fragrance of Mango blossom.Aromatic rices have denite aromas and avors; the mostnoted cultivars are Thai fragrant rice, Basmati, Patnarice, Vietnamese fragrant rice, and a hybrid cultivar fromAmerica, sold under the trade name Texmati. Both Bas-mati and Texmati have a mild popcorn-like aroma andavor. In Indonesia, there are also red and black culti-vars.High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation inAfrica and other dry ecosystems, called the new rice forAfrica (NERICA) cultivars, have been developed. It ishoped that their cultivation will improve food security in

West Africa.Draft genomes for the two most common rice cultivars,indica and japonica, were published in April 2002. Ricewas chosen as a model organism for the biology of grassesbecause of its relatively small genome (~430 megabasepairs). Rice was the rst crop with a complete genomesequence.[153]

On December 16, 2002, the UN General Assembly de-clared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. Thedeclaration was sponsored by more than 40 countries.

12 Biotechnology

12.1 High-yielding varieties

The high-yielding varieties are a group of crops cre-ated intentionally during the Green Revolution to increaseglobal food production. This project enabled labor mar-kets in Asia to shift away from agriculture, and into in-dustrial sectors. The rst Rice Car, IR8 was producedin 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute whichis based in the Philippines at the University of the Philip-pines' Los Baos site. IR8 was created through a crossbetween an Indonesian variety named Peta and a Chi-nese variety named Dee Geo Woo Gen.[154]

Scientists have identied and cloned many genes involvedin the gibberellin signaling pathway, including GAI1(Gibberellin Insensitive) and SLR1 (Slender Rice).[155]Disruption of gibberellin signaling can lead to signi-cantly reduced stem growth leading to a dwarf phenotype.Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramat-ically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable me-chanically. Assimilates become redirected to grain pro-duction, amplifying in particular the eect of chemicalfertilizers on commercial yield. In the presence of ni-trogen fertilizers, and intensive crop management, thesevarieties increase their yield two to three times.

12.2 Future potential

As the UN Millennium Development project seeks tospread global economic development to Africa, theGreen Revolution is cited as the model for economicdevelopment. With the intent of replicating the success-ful Asian boom in agronomic productivity, groups likethe Earth Institute are doing research on African agricul-tural systems, hoping to increase productivity. An impor-tant way this can happen is the production of "New Ricesfor Africa" (NERICA). These rices, selected to toleratethe low input and harsh growing conditions of Africanagriculture, are produced by the African Rice Center,and billed as technology from Africa, for Africa. TheNERICA have appeared in The New York Times (Octo-ber 10, 2007) and International Herald Tribune (Octo-

12.6 Drought tolerant rice 15

ber 9, 2007), trumpeted as miracle crops that will dra-matically increase rice yield in Africa and enable an eco-nomic resurgence. Ongoing research in China to developperennial rice could result in enhanced sustainability andfood security.

12.3 Golden rice

Main article: Golden rice

Rice kernels do not contain vitamin A, so people who ob-tain most of their calories from rice are at risk of vitaminA deciency. German and Swiss researchers havegenetically engineered rice to produce beta-carotene, theprecursor to vitamin A, in the rice kernel. The beta-carotene turns the processed (white) rice a gold color,hence the name golden rice. The beta-carotene is con-verted to vitamin A in humans who consume the rice.[156]Although some rice strains produce beta-carotene in thehull, no non-genetically engineered strains have beenfound that produce beta-carotene in the kernel, despitethe testing of thousands of strains. Additional eorts arebeing made to improve the quantity and quality of othernutrients in golden rice.[157]

The International Rice Research Institute is currently fur-ther developing and evaluating Golden Rice as a potentialnew way to help address vitamin A deciency.[158]

12.4 Expression of human proteins

Ventria Bioscience has genetically modied rice toexpress lactoferrin, lysozyme which are proteins usu-ally found in breast milk, and human serum albu-min, These proteins have antiviral, antibacterial, andantifungal eects.[159]

Rice containing these added proteins can be used as acomponent in oral rehydration solutions which are usedto treat diarrheal diseases, thereby shortening their dura-tion and reducing recurrence. Such supplements may alsohelp reverse anemia.[160]

12.5 Flood tolerant rice

Flooding is an issue that many rice growers face, espe-cially in South and South East Asia where ooding an-nually aects 20 million hectares.[161] Standard rice va-rieties cannot withstand stagnant ooding of more thanabout a week,[162] mainly as it disallows the plant accessto necessary requirements such as sunlight and essentialgas exchanges, inevitably leading to plants being unableto recover.[161] In the past, this has led to a massive lossesin yields, such as in the Philippines, where in 2006, ricecrops worth $65 million were lost to ooding.[163]

In response to this hazard, a variety of rice named Swarna

Sub1 was developed via marker-assisted selection, withthe ability to withstand prolonged periods of around 14days beneath a ooded plain.[161][163] The submergencetolerance ability of this variety is conferred by the pres-ence of the Sub1A gene, introgressed from the Indian cul-tivar FR13A into the ood-vulnerable (but high yielding)cultivar Swarna.[161][163] Swarna Sub1 eectively enters adormant, energy conserving state upon being submergedin a ooded rice paddy, a process that involves the nelycontrolled metabolism of enzymes such amylases, starchphosphorylase and alcohol dehydrogenase, allowing theplant to survive with limited oxygen and sunlight unlikeits standard variety relatives.[161][163] Given that the pres-ence of the Sub1A gene does not impact upon the qual-ity or quantity of the rice obtained,[161] this variety hasbeen very popular, with 1.7 million hectares of land inIndia having Swarna Sub1 and other ood resistant vari-eties used instead of conventional rice crops.[164]

12.6 Drought tolerant rice

Drought represents a signicant environmental stress forrice production, with 1923 million hectares of rainfedrice production in South and South East Asia often atrisk.[165][166] Under drought conditions, without sucientwater to aord them the ability to obtain the requiredlevels of nutrients from the soil, conventional commer-cial rice varieties can be severely impacted for exam-ple yield losses as high as 40% have aected some partsof India, with resulting losses of around US$800 millionannually.[167]

The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) con-ducts research into developing drought tolerant rice vari-eties, including the varieties 5411 and Sookha dhan, cur-rently being employed by farmers in the Philippines andNepal respectively.[166] In addition, in 2013 the JapaneseNational Institute for Agrobiological Sciences led a teamwhich successfully inserted the DEEPER ROOTING 1(DRO1), from the Philippine upland rice variety Kinan-dang Patong, into the popular commercial rice varietyIR64, giving rise to a far deeper root system in the re-sulting plants.[167] This facilitates an improved ability forthe rice plant to derive its required nutrients in timesof drought via accessing deeper layers of soil, a featuredemonstrated by trials which saw the IR64 + DRO1 riceyields drop by 10% under moderate drought conditions,compared to 60% for the unmodied IR64 variety.[167][168]

12.7 Salt tolerant rice

Soil salinity poses a major threat to rice crop productiv-ity, particularly along low-lying coastal areas during thedry season[165] for example, roughly 1 million hectaresof the coastal areas of Bangladesh are aected by salinesoils.[169] These high concentrations of salt can severely

16 14 SEE ALSO

impact upon rice plants normal physiology, especiallyduring early stages of growth, and as such farmers are of-ten forced to abandon these otherwise potentially usableareas.[170][171]

Progress has been made, however, in developing rice va-rieties capable of tolerating such conditions; the hybridcreated from the cross between the commercial rice vari-ety IR56 and the wild rice species Oryza coarctata is oneexample.[172] O. coarctata is capable of successful growthin soils with double the limit of salinity of normal va-rieties, but lacks the ability to produce edible rice.[172]Developed by the International Rice Research Institute,the hybrid variety can utilise specialised leaf glands thatallow for the removal of salt into the atmosphere. Itwas initially produced from one successful embryo outof 34,000 crosses between the two species; this was thenbackcrossed to IR56 with the aim of preserving the genesresponsible for salt tolerance that were inherited from O.coarctata.[170] Furthermore, extensive trials are plannedprior to the new variety being available to farmers by ap-proximately 201718.[170]

13 Cultural roles of rice

Phosop, the popular rice deity in Thailand.

Rice plays an important role in certain religions and pop-ular beliefs. In many cultures relatives will scatter riceduring or towards the end of a wedding ceremony in frontof the bride and groom.[173]

The pounded rice ritual is conducted during weddings inNepal. The bride gives a leafplate full of pounded rice tothe groom after he requests it politely from her.[174]

In the Philippines rice wine, popularly known as tapuy,

is used for important occasions such as weddings, riceharvesting ceremonies and other celebrations.[175]

Dewi Sri is the traditional rice goddess of the Javanese,Sundanese, and Balinese people in Indonesia. Most rit-uals involving Dewi Sri are associated with the mythi-cal origin attributed to the rice plant, the staple food ofthe region.[176] [177] In Thailand a similar rice deity isknown as Phosop; she is a deity more related to ancientlocal folklore than a goddess of a structured, mainstreamreligion.[178] The same female rice deity is known as PoIno Nogar in Cambodia and asNang Khosop in Laos. Rit-ual oerings are made during the dierent stages of riceproduction to propitiate the Rice Goddess in the corre-sponding cultures.

14 See also

Articial rice

Rice production

Indonesian rice table

List of dried foods

List of rice dishes

List of rice varieties

Maratelli rice

Post-harvest losses

Protein per unit area

Pued rice

Rice Belt

Rice bran oil

Rice bread

Rice wine

Risotto

Straw

System of Rice Intensication

Wild rice

Upland rice

17

15 References[1] http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx

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